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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


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■.'JiS»»3lr*i*,(V^-w^'^«W*»*H"HPP    ' 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


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10X  14X  18X  22X 


26X 


XX 


Y 


12X 


16X 


20X 


24X 


28X 


32X 


( 


laire 
B  details 
iiues  du 
It  modifier 
;iger  une 
e  filmage 


' 


i/ 
|u6es 


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aire 


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filmage. 

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la  derniftre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

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dernidre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbols  — ►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE  ",  le 
symbols  V  signifie  "FIN". 

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film6s  d  des  taux  de  reduction  diff6rents. 
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reproduit  en  un  seul  clich6,  11  est  film6  A  partir 
de  I'angle  sup6rieur  gauche,  de  gauche  d  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  n^cessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  m6thode. 


by  errata 
ned  to 

lent 

une  pelure, 

fapon  d 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

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5 

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llEYOLUTIOXS  IX  CL'r^Cl'^- 


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THE  9UUVEKHION  Ol 


.  t«-  III  •  V  r' -ir  TO  'VilB 


(.ONIIUDSS  or  Vir.NNA, 


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,,,,,„,  ,,,„„..  rn.ss  >N  ..«■«,  roL^m  ..an,«M.  ^N.>       ,, 

-  ,  UY    .1      UAHHKTT,    M.    J>. 

WITH  A  coyriir.wr.sbivK  a>'..u>  M 

iCE.  rtAU,  AM.  TIIKOKMAS  STATES  IN 

prnLisHi^n  nv  ei^vin  iu:nt. 


,"  ;;^,-|."'~'""~'r  "if  ilt'rT""'^'*^ 


I'.N  IKl.i;!'. 


i„  „,e  CU.,Vs  Oin....  of  rU^UM  Lr^(:n  <'w-  I'is'r.c.  .>f  Conn..Mic-u.. 


.  ~i^w^»w^JtMiityafe&>Ragft^£'^'g^"'y 


[UlL'l'licllt. 


.jS 


CONTENTS. 


ftp. 

Publisher's  Notice, 5 

Author's  Preface, 7 

Life  of  Koch, 13 

CHAPTER  I. 
Introduction, 17 

CHAPER  II— PERIOD  I. 

From  the  invasion  of  tlie  lloinan  Empire  in  the  Weal,  by  the  Bar- 
barians, to  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  A.  1).  400 — 800,  ■     •     .     41 

CHAPTER  III.— PERIOD  II. 
FromCharlemagne  toOito  the  Great,  A.  D.  800— 962,  .     ...     63 

CHAPTER  IV.— PERIOD  HI. 
From  Otto  the  Great  to  Gregory  the  Great,  A.  D.  9G2— 1074,  .    .     79 

CHAPTER  v.— PERIOD  IV. 
From  Pope  Gregory  VIII.  to  Uoniface  VIII.,  A.  D.  1074—1300,     101 

CHAPTER  VI.— PERIOD  V. 

From  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  to  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks,  A.  U.  1300—1453,         165 

CHAPTER  Vll— PERIOD  VI. 

From  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  to  the  peace  of 
Westphalia,  A.  D.,  1453—1648 207 


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IT 


CONTENTS. 
CllAPTKIl  VIII.-I'KUIOU  Vll. 


From    tlio    rc;ice    ..f   Wes<li)lmliii    to  tliiil 
1018—1713 


lirccht,  A     1)., 


281 


niAPTKll  IX-l'KIUOl)  Vlll. 


From  tl.c  Peace  of  Tirccht  i..  tin;  Frennh  Revolution,  A.  D.,  1713 
-178',t ■     •     ■     • ^'^'^ 


CIIAI'TKU  X -PERIOD  IX. 
From  tl.o  comm.-ncom.Mil  of  the  Frcncl.  Hcvoli.tion  to  the  downfall 
of  UuoiwparU',  A.  1).,  1789-1815, 

CIIAPTKR  XI; 
The  Military  Predominance  of  France,  under  the  sway  of  Napo- 
leon Huonaparle,  A.  D.  180d— 1810, 

CIIAPTKR  XII; 
The  decline  and  downfall  of  tlic  i:m\nrc  of  Huonaparle,  A.  D., 
1810—1815, ■  • 

APPKNDIX; 
France  from  the  second  Restoration  of  the  Hourbons,  A.  I).,  1815, 
including'  the  Revolution  of  July,  1830,  to  the  Revolution  of 
February,  1818,   . 

Revolution  in  Uelgium,  A.  I).  1830, . 

Rev(dulion  in  Poland,  A.  D.  1830, 

Revolutiou  in  OreiTC,  A.  1)    18ei— 18a7, 

War  between  Ru.ssia  and  Turkey,  A.  D-  18-28—1829,      .     . 

England,  from  A.  D.  1810  to  A,  1).  1848 

FrcnchRevolutiouof  February,  1818, 

Revolutions  in  (Jermany,  A-  I)   1848,  ....•••• 

Revolutions  in  Italy,  A-  D.  1848, 


418 


476 


530 


r,81 
,  607 
.  008 
.  619 
.  638 
.  642 
.  661 
.  698 
.  710 


.«««i»et<N*S**SS9»'* 


'Sr 


1), 

,  .  281 


1713 

335 


niall 


418 


iJapo- 


476 


..  D., 
.  .  530 

I 

,  1815, 

.ion  of 

.  581 
.  607 
.  608 
.  619 
.  638 
.  642 
.  661 
.  698 
.  710 


PUBLISHER'S   NOTICE 


I'm;  FuUlislKM-oI'llie  prcst'iit  oditioii  of  Koch's  Revolutions, 
lias  hoeii  iiiduct'd  to  pri'pare  this  work  for  j)ul)liciilion  on  account 
ol'  the  very  lii<rli  reputnuon  which  it  hiis  in  lluropo,  and  its 
giMicr.'d  adoptMii  tluic  in  [.itrniry  Institiilions,  as  the  ontHnc  of 
instruction  in  ihc  portion  of  History  wliich  it  embraces.  Its 
high  merit  would  no  doul't  have  obtained  for  it  an  earlier  re])rint 
from  the  American  press,  but  for  the  errors  with  which  tlic 
KiiKliah  translation  abounds.  These  defects,  it  is  hoped,  will 
not  be  found  in  the  present  edition,  which  has  been  revised  by 
a  gentleman  who  has  endeavored  not  only  to  correct  the  faults 
of  language,  but  also  to  strike  i'roin  its  pages  all  expressions  of 
principles  inconsistent  with  iho  liberal  spirit  of  philosophical 
I. 'story. 

A  practical  acquaintance  with  the  work  as  a  Manual  of  His- 
tori/,  has  convinced  this  gentleman  of  its  admirable  adaptation  to 
this  purpose,  and  enabled  him  to  recommend  it  for  its  fidelity, 
impartiality,  conciseness,  clear  argument,  enlightened  spirit,  and 
learned  research.  Omitting  no  important  event,  and  dwelling 
very  fully  upon  those  which  have  had  great  influence  in  pro- 
ducing ilie  permanent  changes  which  liie  civilized  world  has 


h  • 


!. 


TzriJ 


1. 


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„„aov,on.-  in  .1...  1:...  ntt-"  '-""i-. "  ->■  "'""■'^'  '•'"""• ''" 

U.inks.  .1...  uni-.a  aav:.n.:.u.s  ol  .  .onMUMuliou^  u.ul  an  .labor.,.. 

IHstorv. 

1„  ;,nU.r  iu>rr....lv  ...   .l.-i.,  .1,.  wo.k  to  th.  present  nmc,  a 

.ketch  of  the  Revolutions  w.  France.  IJel.i.nn.  I'ohn-l.  .u,l 
Greece,  winch  ..ccnrrcl  in  IBIU) ;  also  u  narm.ive  ol  the  recent 
events  ir.  (ireut  Britain,  of  .he  French  Uevolmion  of  February, 
18.18.  and  the  Revolutions  which  have  recently  occurred  tn  (ler- 
.nany  and  Italv,  have  been  pr-.pred  with  nnu-h  labor  and  care, 
and  added  to  ."he  iH...sent  edition,  n.akiuK  it  .he  u,os.  complete 
historical  work  on  Modern  Europe  ye,  olFered  .o  the  pnid.c. 
In  fnll  conf.dence  that  i,  will  be  ionnd   deservin,  o,  the  h.,h 

Character   it  has    ..stained  a.,r 1.   as  a  valuable   and    nd.hihl 

t     ,uide  .o  a  knowledge  of  the  History  of  Modern    Ih-rope   .t   .s 
I     Lv  ollered  to  the  patronage  of  the  friends  of  Uselul  Knowledge, 

j    ^y  THE  AMERICAN   ['UlU-ISHER. 


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mil,  hi' 
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III,  iiild 
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in  (icr- 
iiil  euro, 
■omplole 
hlic. 

till'  hijj[h    ( 
raitllt'lll     I 
)l)t'  it  is 
owledge, 


AUTIIUK'S   I'RKFAOE. 


Tin;  workliiTi'  pri'sfiiti'.i  to  tin;  public,  is  ii  siiinniary  of  itii!  Uevo- 
luiioiis.  biiili  iriMicrul  iiiid  pm-tiriiiiir,  wliii'li  hiivi;liiip|K!m'il  in  Hurope 
siiitf  111.'  I'xiiiirti.iii  ol'  till!  Uoriiiui  Kiiipire.  in  thi;  (iitli  ci'iitiiry.  Ai 
an  I'li'iucniary  book,  it  will  he  tbiinil  iisfrnl  to  tlioHe  who  wi.sli  to  have 
a  coiii'iM.'  iuul  yi-ncnil  view  of  tin;  Biicrestiivi;  rcvolutioiw  that  liiivo 
clmnirud  the  iiHpci't  of  Htalcrt  uiiil  kiiiifiloniH,  ami  givtiii  birtli  to  tho 
existing  policy  anil  establiHlied  onlL'i-  of  society  in  modern  times. 

Without  sonic  pi-eliniinary  acfiuaintance  with  the  annals  of  these 
rcvoliitiiiii,s.  wi',  can  nriiliiT  study  tlie  history  of  our  own  country  to 
[uivaiitayi;,  nor  appreciute  the  influence  which  the  iliU'cri'iit  states, 
formed  from  tho  wreck  of  the  ancient  Homan  Empire,  reciprocally 
exercised  on  each  other.  Allied,  ai  it  were,  by  the  geographical  po- 
sition of  their  territories),  by  a  conformity  in  their  religion,  language, 
and  manners,  these  states  contracted  new  attachments  in  the  ties  of 
mutual  interests,  wliich  the  progress  of  civilization,  commerce,  and 
industry,  tended  more  and  more  to  cement  and  confirm.  Many  of 
them,  whom  fortune  had  elevated  to  the  summit  of  jiower  and  pros- 
perity, carried  their  laws,  their  arts  and  institutions,  both  civil  and 
military,  far  bi'yond  the  limits  of  their  own  dominions.  The  exten- 
sive sway  wiiich  the  Homisli  liii'rarchy  held  fiir  nearly  a  tiiousand 
years  over  the  greater  part  of  the  European  kingdoms,  is  well  known 
to  every  reader  of  history. 

This  continuity  of  intercourse  and  relationship  among  the  powers 
of  Europe,  became  the  means  of  forming  them  into  a  kind  of  repub- 


1 


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I 

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im?^sm0^- 


St»»i«*s* 


VIU 


rRKFACK 


limn  Ry«trm ;  it  frnvr  l.irth  to  a  .mli-mal  l:.w  mul  ronvrnt.otnl  r.u'htn, 
,;„„„,.,,  ,.„  tlu,  MK.vnm...l  of  tn.ituv,  .U..1  ^\n•  nH,.,r.-H  ..f  nmm..m 
|mu:tuu,  A  ImMiil'lf  I'liuilutioi.  Hpr.intf  up  ainniiu  cc.iit.'inii.ir.ii-y 
sUituH.  Tlu'irjruloUKU-,..  m..l  .•v.n  tlinr  c.m.p.'titionM  sin.l  .livi.ioi.M, 
coMtril.utnl  to  ih..  progroHHof  r.ivili/.ution.  a.ul  tlu-  atlMiunuMU  of  tlwil 
l.ijjh  HUilo  of  pr,i;...-tmi.  K.  wl.id.  111!  luimiu.  h.m.mu'cn  a.ul  iuHtilutioim 
have  bci'ii  riirrif-l  l.y  tlio  iiatioiiH  of  modi-in  Kiiropi'. 

It  \h  tli.-HC  poliliral  coniuTti-mH.  this  ivrii.n.ral  ii.liw.'iu f  ItintV 

.lon.s  a.Ml  tiM.ir  nvolutionn,  a.ul  e.pccMally  tl.c  vuri.-ti..«  of  system 
wliici.  Europe  i.a.  experieiu-ea  in  the  lap.c  of  ko  ...any  a-c.,  tluit 
rcpiire  to  i.e  .ievlop.-.l  i..  .i  ^."^^''1  vi>w-  ^"'^l'  '"^  ^'"'^  ^^'^"•''  l"""' 
fcKses  lo  be  the  objuct  of  llif  present  woi'U. 

The  author  ha«  here  ren.odeie.i  hi.  '•  Views  of  the  llevoh.tior.H  of 
the  Middle  Ajres,"  (pubiishtHl  i..  1T'.«).)  a..d  exten.U.d  or  abridired 
the  dilVerent  periods  aerordinir  t..  ci.ru,n.lanc..s.  In  .•ontinnin-  th.s 
work  .lown  to  the  i-resent  tinie,  he  ha.  dee.ned  neressary  to  .■oneludo 
nt  the  Kre.>eh  Uevolution,  as  the  numerouB  results  ..f  that  -real 
event  .ire  too  mui'l.  i..volved  in  unreitai-My  t,.  be  dearly  or  nnpar- 
!    tiully  exhibited  by  eonlcmiwrary  writers.* 

The  work  Ib  divided  into  el-hl  periods  of  tia.e.t  ..erordn.-  w.th 
the  pri..ripal  revoh.tio...  which  have  changed,  in  suceessio..,  the  !«- 
litical  state  of  Kurope.     At  the  head  of  e.ich  pe.-iod.  is  placed  e.ther 
the  desi.r,>alion  of  it«  p.uticuhK  revolutio..,  or  that  ol"  .!..•  power  or 
empire  which  held  the  .isce.ubvney  .it  the  ti..u..     In   linnt..,fr  h.s 
treatise  solely  to  hia  IlevoUuio..s  of  Europe,  the  writer  h.is  not 
touched  upon  thoBe  of  Asi.i  .md  the  E.ist,  exe.ept  i..  bo  Tar  us  they 
have  had  immediate  i..flae,u^e  o.,  the  destinies  of  Europe.     Coti- 
sciouB  also  that  the  distingui.hing  ch.iracteristic  of  an  luBtor...n  is 
veracity,  and  that  the  tcBti.nony  of  a  writer  who  ha.  not  In.nself 
been  an  eye-witnesB  of  the  events  he  record.,  cannot  be  .el.ed  on 


*  ,n  ,. cmion  nf  1=^.  iron,  which  .he  P--"';--;"'';'^  V^ib^r'^ir'''''"' '" 

bee,.  c,.n.,„n„l  by  Ih.  r..h.ur.  M  Srha-ll.  d„wn  ...  ,he  a«h  .,f  N..v.  n.b.r,  181... 


t  Nine  ni  the  last  e.lilic.i.R.  i».h..h>iL'  th.'  oomiH.iation. 


r:J 


»5!«!W«-*R>3»S3ES35!WSS®'^1 


iJWSS? 


iiiiiion 

if  t lull 
lutioin 


:a,  thiit     ' 
■h  i)ro- 

I 

lliKIri  Ot 

iiiL'  lliin 
olicliulu 
ii  !jrri';it 
r  impiir- 

iiig  with 

,  tllC  IK)- 

)d  either 
)ower  or 
itiiij^  liin 
luiH  not 
r  as  they 
e.  Coii- 
Rtoriun  is 
il  liiinself 
rehed  on 


Tnlili-au  ha» 


^  1 


Willi  implicit  roii(i,|,.|ir(-.  ihe  iiiilhurhaH  iiii|i<)N,.,l  on  liiruHflfihe  invu- 
rial.l<.  iwl.Mpfriiin^r,  with  mtuimiIuuh  rarr,  il.,.  prinripal  luilhnrities 
Hii.l  vi.ii.-hir.  „|-  ,arh  |m  iiud  aii.l  country  that  Imvi'  jruidr.l  him 
during  hi«  ri-HiMircheH,  in  Htdertin^  and  .■x;ll^illirl^f  hin  nrntcriiilM  by 
tlin  lorrh  (.r  pati.'iit  (TiticiMi,,.  VVilh.)iit  thi«  lahor  iind  preoaution, 
the  iv.)rl<  W(Miid  h.ive  hiii  ti  of  no  avail  as  an  rlrairntary  hrip  I.,  thnso 
who  were  dcwiroiiH  of  iic.cpiirinjr  a  more  minute  and  Hohd  knowledge 
of  hiritory. 

A«  a  uxrt'iil  and  Huhniiliary  accoinpiininient,  an  Intrnilnction  hni 
been  prrfixc.l  ia  wlii.di  are  i;iven  some  i,'.'neral  remarkH  on  history 
and  «oo),'rapliy,  sin  also  on  jreiualorry  and  chronolutry.  whi.di  may  be 
Peifaril.d  an  auxiliary  «ci..nceK.  Tlic^r  preliminary  notices  are  fol- 
lowed l.y  a  short  outline  of icnt  history,  down  to  the  time  of  (he 

lliirhurian  invaKioii  in  the  fifth  ci'ntury.  With  this  grand  ern  the 
prrHcnt  worli  j.roperly  eorinm-nces,  when  a  new  scries  of  king- 
domsand  governmenU)  njiiung  up  in  Eurojie. 


^1' 


"\\ 


S«>f5|^W»*S«? 


!  m 


i 


-™p«Tr?r^™>R#»^ 


■i*^.m  n^fi^-^^s&Q^^. 


-^^mm^^^^^^'^^^''^^''"' 


LIFE  OF  KOCH. 


Christophkr    William    Koch,   oqiiallv    distinguished   as   a 
lawyer  and  a  Iparncd  liisi(,ritin,  was  l.oni  on  the  9tli  of  Ma"  17;{7 
at  liduxwill.T,  a  .-iiii.ll  town  in  the  -tinniory  of  Lichtenberff  in 
Als;(«-,  wiiicii  then  belonocd  to  the  Prii.co  of  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
His   father,  who  was  a   ninnher  of  the  Chamber  of  Finance 
under  that  prince,  sent  him  to  an  excellent  school  in  his  native 
place,  where  he  received  liie  rudiments  of  iiis  education.     At 
the   ajre  of  thirteen,   he  went  to   the  Protectant  University  of 
Strashourt,',  where  lie  prosecuted  his  studies  under  the  celebrated 
Schtrpdm.      Law  was  the  profession  to  which  lie  was  def lined; 
but  lie  allowed  un  early  predilection   for  the  study  of  history' 
and  tlie  sciences  connec'ted  with  it,  such  as  Diplomatics,  or  the 
art  ol  deciphering-  and  verifyinir  ancient  writs  and  chartulnries, 
GrtiraJo'^y,  Chrniwlninj,  &cc.     Scha'pflin  was  not  slow  to  appre- 
ciate the  risini;  merit  of  his  pupil,  and  wished  to  make  him  the 
com|)anion  of  his  labours.     Hv.  admitted  him  to  his  friendship, 
and  became  the  m.'ans  of  e>tablishin<.  hiiu  as  his  successor  in 
thatfauious  political  academv,  which  his  reputation  had  formed 
at  Strashour^r,  |,y  attractini,^  to  that  city  the  youth  of  the  first 
families,  and  Iroiii  all  jiarts  of  Europe.     Koch  devoted  much  of 
his  time  to  the  Canon  Law,  and  soon  gave  a  proof  of  the  pro- 
press  he  had  made  in  that  branch  of  study,  bv  the  Academical 
Dissertation   which   he  published    in   1761,  under  the  title  of 
Commcnta/io  do.  Cnllatione  dig/iitn/iim  rt  brneficiorv/ii  ecclesi- 
asticornm  in  impcrio  Romaiio-Qcnnanico.     This  treatise  was 
a    prelude    to    his  Commentary  on  the   Prngmatic  Sanction, 
which  he  published  in  1789— a  work  which  excited  an  extra- 
ordinary  sensation    in    Catholic    Germanv,   and    procured    the 
author   the    favourable   notice   of  sucli  prelates   as   were  most 
eminent  for  learning  and  piety. 

After  takiniT  his  academic  den^ree,  Koch  repaired  to  Paris  in 
17(5-2,  where  he  staid  a  year;  honoured  with  the  society  of  the 
most  distin<ruisheil  literati  in  the  capital,  and  frequenting  the 
Royal  Library,  wholly  occupied  in  tlioce  researches  which  pre- 
pared him  for  the  learned  labours  in  wiiich  he  afterwards  en- 
gajjefl.  On  his  return  to  Strasbourir,  lie  wrote  the  ccmtinua- 
tion  of  the  llisioria  Z irinv:n-l',adciisis,  of  which  the  fir.-t  volume 
only  was  drawn  up  by  Sclui-plliu.  All  the  otiiers  are  eniiiely 
•he  work  of  Koch,  ihonjih  ihey  Ivar  the  name  of  the  master 
who  had  charged  hiiii  widi  llie  execution  of  this  task.  SchoKpflin 
bequeathed  to   the  city  of  Strasbourg,  in   17GH,  his  valuable 


H 


•:.'^- 


^gj^^^5S;^*f5»« 


14 


UFE    OF    KOCH. 


should  be   appo.uUMl  ke,-rr     ^^"^     ;,;,,,,   .^  ^i,.  ,,„>e  ti.ue, 

the  tule  "^t^"f^^^     ;;;.,,,   p,..,.l,  arcording  to  tho  stalulcs  of 
for  ihe  chair  of  S^-l'''^     '     f    .  ,^  ,„,,'^  of  ,„eril  but  max- 

pableof  supply  ug  h.s  place  .i>  '^^     '  ,  ,.  gj,^  flj,,  .-ere 

Lay  of  the  PO  'l'";^^ --'X  J    n      Ve  head  of  /hat  diplo- 

thu.s  l'-^^"«'^^f^^-\  "  ^r:Kl7v  >a  s,  gave  to  the  public  so  great 
matic  school,  which,  lor  >im>  >'  »  -  ^ 

a  nun,ber  of  .nimsters  '-"'^  ^''^'l'^/^^  „flv,,a  him  the  chair  of    ; 
,„  1779  the  ^'''^'''X^'i^;^^^^Gomu<:.u,  which  he     i 
.bUc  G-X;^-;';,  !^^^  r^;-.;..h  n.,  who  knew  well     ^ 
declined.     ^'^''^7,^'"      ..    ,oi m.lime.ited  him  with  the  dignity 
how  to  distinguish  meut,     ""'",;       ,ii,,.  between  that  ot 
of  Knight  of  the  E-nP;;;;^  -  ,S"e      About  the  same  period     , 
baron  and  the  simple  ^^'^         ?^{;.:^V  „^  Strasbourg,  which  he     1 
he  obtained  the  cha.r  o    P«^'":,/;,'^^^l,    ,,  ,^,  jhe  FreT.ch  Revolu- 
held  until  that  University  ^^^  ^^'P    ^^   ^fj^  ,^,  „f  Alsace  sent     : 
tion.     Towards  the  end  of  17S.),  t  c     r  u.i  ^^^^^ 

hi.u  as  their  envoy  ^"^-;';;,i^^'f    heir  civil  and  re- 
Constitutional  Assembly,  the  m.'iUM^  ^^^.^^^     ^^. 

ligious  rights,  according  to  tl  e  f-  "  "'  '^;''^^.  „(■  j,,,,.  17th  of 
succeeded-  in  obtaining  for  ''jX.jl'^  ^i^^^*^,  ,,J  j  '.lar-ed  thai 
August^  1790,  which  --  '-i'i;^^^t';^re  not  included 
the  ecclesiastical  benefice^  ot  the  rot  i .  >j„,,,.,„b,,r  prece- 
„nong  those  wh  ch  the  decree  o  ^'^^;\^^^'  .y^^,,  /,..,„er 
.ling.1tad  placed  at  the  'I'^jr^;^,      ;  J^' ,^  au  act,  bearing 

ratified  by  the  King.  .....Unlence  of  the  Revolution  had 

.-"^'"^I'S.^SS  ur"irSm";u  assemblage  of  youth, 
dispersed  tiom  Otiasuoui  ,•  ..^.^   .,nd  the  natura   beauties 

svhich  the  reputation  "^  ^ 'V  1  nu'i^^t  T hese  disastrous 
of  the  place,  had  attracted  ^^'''^'  ^^J;"^Va  lime  whe.i  he  was 
events  interrupted  the  career  of  Koh    at  .^;^^^^^ 

capable  of  rendering  the  "^f  Vh^r.  If  to  Pub  larth^^  Being 
From- that  moment  he  J*^;"^*-'  ':'""!  ,^;,!;''A..enblv.  he  op- 
^P^Tlh'  S  ^ht tn  ^  e^  Sle  "^So^  and   .aumatei; 

^^  ssxc^?:^  When  p;t^;-;;;t:;:;r:  ;;::c: 

that  Assembly,  he  "-"f  ^;::;f '  ^^^^'i^hr  rtoUl  thi  cala- 
and,  in  a  Report  which  he  me   n  m^^^^^^^  ^^ 


E^ei^--_. 


■-i-;vs:«5;iS^»,^ssft*3^i4ii^5i;S#^^^3^^3S-:K-S 


LIFE    OF     KOCH. 


15 


;  Koch 

on  the     j 
lO  lime, 
(■lures ;     i 
iiics  of    j 
111  incn- 
ill  the 
jn  were 
il  (liplo- 
so  grenl 

chair  of 
■hich  he 
low  well 
2  (lis'iiity 
n  llial  of 
lie  period 
vhich  he 
1  Re  vol  11- 
;;ai-c  sent 
;  and  ihe 
il  and  re- 
lios.     He 
,;   17lh  of 
lar-ed  thai 
t  iiicliuh-'d 
ber  prece- 
he  former 
;-l,bearinij 
roved  and 


lution  had 

of  youth, 
ill  beauties 

dif^astrous 
ell  he  was 
lis  country, 
rs.  Being 
ibly.  he  op- 

ultimately 
mnniltee  of 
:e  of  peace ; 
d  the  cala- 

•ihould  be 
,,,,  by  their 


J' 


clamours,  silenced  the  remonstrances  of  Koch,  when,  on  the 
yOlli  ol  April,  he  spoke  in  opposition  to  a  measure  which  proved 
so  fatal  to  France,     An  oHicial  Idler  wliicli  he  addressed,  10th 
of  Auirust.  to  the  constituted  authorities  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
Midiri.iitly  expressed  the  iiorror  with  which  that  day's  proceed- 
iiiL's  had  inspired  him.      He  procured,  moreover,  the  concurrence 
o(  his  felliiw-citizen.s  in  a  resistance,  which  he  had  then  .some 
reason  to  hope  would  be  made  a  common  cause  by  the  other 
provinces.     This  letter  drew  down  upon  him  the  persecution 
of  the  ruling-  party.     He  was  immured  in  a  prison,  where  he 
lanLruished  for  eleven  months,  and  from  which  he  had  no  pros- 
pect of  escape,  except  to  mount  the  scatfold.     The  revolution 
of  the  9th  Tliermidor  restored  him  to  liberty,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed, by  the  voice  of  his  fellow-ciiizen.s,  to  the  Directory  of 
their  provincial  department.     He  endeavoured  by  all  means  in 
his  power  to  defeat  the  measures  that  were  taken  to  injure  his 
constituents  ;  and  had  influence  enough,  it  is  said,  to  prevent 
the  sale  of  the  funds  belonifinir  to  manufactories  and  hospitals. 
He  then  resumed  with  pleasure  those  functions  which  he  had 
unwillingly  accepted  ;  in  1790,  he  recommenced  his  professorship 
of  public  law,  and  relumed  with  new  zeal  to  his  literary  labours, 
which  ha.l  been  too  long  interrupted.     Six  years  he  spent  in 
these  useful  occupations;  from  which,  howe'ver,  he  was  once 
more  detached  by  a  decree  of  the  Senate,  which  nominated  him 
a  ineiiiber  of  the  Tribunal.     This  nomination  Koch  accepted, 
in  the   hope  of  being  useful  to  his  Protestant  countrymen,  and 
to  the  city  of  Strasbourg,   in  obtaining  the  re-establishment  of 
the   reformed   religion,   and   its  restoration   in     the   University, 
He  did,  in  eliect,  exert  himself  much  in  behalf  of  religion,  ac- 
cording to  the  confession  of  Augsburg,  as  well  as  of  the  Pro- 
testant Academy  at  Strasbourg,  which  was  suppressed  at  this 
period. 

The  Tribunal  ha\  itig  been  suppressed,  Koch  declinei!  all  places 
of  trust  or  honour  which  were  oilered  him  ;  and  only  requested 
permission  to  retire,  that  he  might  have  a  short  interval  for  him- 
self between  business  and  the  grave.  A  pension  of  ^000  francs 
was  granted  him,  without  any  solicitation  on  his  part.  In  1808, 
he  returned  to  Strasbourg,  where  he  continued  to  devote  him- 
self to  letters,  and  in  administering  to  the  public  good.  About 
the  end  of  1810,  the  Grand-master  of  the  Univer.s'ity  of  Franci.' 
conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Honorary  Rector  of  the  Academy 
of  Strasbourg,  His  health,  which  had  been  prolonged  by  a  life 
of  great  temperance  and  regularity  and  the  peace  which  results 
from  a  good  conscience  became  disordered  in  1812,  when  he 
fell  inio  a  slate  of  languor,  which  terminated  his  life  on  the  25th 


\  N'^ 


"'i>. 


\ir^ 


LIFE    OF    KOCH. 

I]  October  1S13.     His  colleagues,  the  professors  ofStJ.sho,nj^ 

'  rt^^t  ^ol-uH  bv  ^  Ohn.nucht,  an  eminent  .cniptor  .n 
which  \va>  "'^.^"^''V  .;.  l,in<Trxnher-  has  pronounced  the  (ol- 
Slrashonr-.  One  of  h,.  '  "'^  '  P^'^^^, ,.  ^^„|.,,,,,  fo,  j„siice  and 
lowini;  enlognnn  "'l  J^^^V-.'Vnn  a  .li<.once  unrivalled  in 
r ''•  ■'  Cl^^'S^s':^;:";  r  ;:S;nt1;l'arra,.gin. and  illus. 

historical  't'^-^'i''^^"'-^'^.  ■',,,, ,;i,i„  intcfrritv  of  principle,  and 
traling  his  subject,  an  '"''7'  S;\;'^'„;;'l,ire  of  rendering 
unclouded  serenity  o  min.l,  ^^'^'Vn  T  iTv  u  eful  to  his  species 
his  researches, his  i-'f^^-^'t:;!:  1  i-  n  d  and  chiractei 
-these  were  the  rr"'"7'^"\'^^:f  "*'';;  .'J'  'C,  been  remarked, 
of  this  amiable  man."  l\-^''*\°";"jf",;.\,,ro  a  graceful  or 
that  althou^rh  Professor  Koch  l^^""^;^'  c  "J;  „  .,  ,,;,„,  ,,c. 
even  a  fluent  elocution,  no  man  eve  P^^^c^.^;" '  '"  ;  -  ^^-^^^ 
Tree  the  talents  and  qualifications  of  '^  P."''"'      "^l-^";  ;. ;  ^J^/'  „ 

foreigners.      1  he  one  '^  ^-y  '  .       ^.a^pj  to  ibc  new  edition 

sor  at  Strasbourg;  ')"^1  ^'' 7'"'  ^^  ^  hv  M  Schcril,  the  editor 
of  the  Histoircks  Trains  f^,,^«;^'^'J,4\;„,5  T''i«  l^^'^' 
and  con.inuator  of  several  f°'"';'^^,,"'Ji,°^' inscriptive  cata- 
r°""S';i'KrS::'iXnS!il  of  which  a.^  ^.e  fVd. 
bgue  of  all  ^j^;^l^i  i^,,,,  dcs  Maiso.s  SnnccrorneUv 
lowing:— 1.    iffW(.s  ut«t(«  „  i  ^„„rtm  Frasmatica   Gcr- 

manorum  tlluslmla.  3.  fj]rl,^!-  "\  ^^w  edition  of  this 
taix  criirt  itj,  pnlar'-cA  and  continued  by  M.  be  I  re  11 

work  appeared  m  1^^^'.  v  ,  L,i  tUo  Trpntv  of  Paris,  1S15. 
down  to  the  Congress  of  Vjen--^"^  '-  ^%Lnrs  hran- 
4.   TaUe  des   Trrulc^  '''%.  mI       5.    TaUcau  drs  Revo- 

11-  u„i    ..ftor  ilif»   authors  dentil.  In    M-   oi  uaii.       i* 
S  histm-y  and  literature  of  his  native  province..  ^  ^ 


\\ 


bouig.     I . 
Ill   the     ';  I 
H-rlin  ;     1 1 
ptor  in     I 
lie  lol-     j 
ce  and     i 
lU-a  in 
:1  illus-     I 
lie,  and     | 
uleiing 
species 
liiractei 
narked, 
•efiil  or 
ilier  (lo- 
'.     Like 
s  not  fo 
li^llii'in. 
1(1  know 
Tliongli 
;n,  Koch 

ritten  by 
a  profrs- 
V  odilion 
le  pdilor 
lis  latter 
live  cata- 
the  fol- 
rainex  dn 
ficn   Gvr- 
''raites  do 
m  of  this 
A.  Schrell 
iris,  1815. 
Y/.s-  Kiran- 

drs  Revo- 
■s  Maho7is 

work  was 

Besides 

loirs  of  liis 

.  ecclesias- 

A.  C. 


CHAPTER   I 


INTRODUCTION. 


h™  I  /  t^i'  "^7  P'T''}'  *'^^"  considered  as  that  particular 
'     i.l  .      P'^j'^^^P^y-  '^y^''^  '«a«^hes,  by  examples.  Lw  men 

ought  to  conduct  themselves  in  all  situations  of  life,  both  pub- 
;  he  and  private.  Such  .s  the  infirmity  and  incapacity  of^he 
I  human  mmd.  that  abstract  or  general  ideas  make  no  lasting 
I     impression  on  it ;  and  often  appear  to  us  doubtful  or  obscure^- 

:     JLd  oterVatV'^  ""'  ""'"'^'^  ""^  '=°"«™^'^  ^^  "P--- 
I         It  is  from  history  alone,  which  superadds  to  our  own  exoe- 
;      nence  that  of  other  men  and  of  other  times,  that  we  learn  to 
conquer  the  prejudices  which  we  have  imbibed  from  education, 
and  which  our  own  experience,  often  as  contracted  as  our  edu- 
cation, tends  m  general  rather  to  strengthen  than  to  subdue  or 
destroy.     "  Not  to  know,"savs  Cicero,  "  xvhat  happened  before 
we  were  borri,  is  to  remain  always  a  child  ;  for  what  were  the 
ite  ot  man,  did  we  not  combine  present  events  with  the  recol- 
lections of  past  ages  ?" 

There  are  certain  principles  or  rules  of  conduct  that  hold 
true  m  all  cases;  because  they  accord  and  consist  with  the  in- 

,'o  ?hl  ,  "r"!"'  fu^'""^'-  7°  ''^^'''  ""'^  ^''S^''  'hose,  belongs 
to  the  student  of  history,  who  may,  in  this  way,  easily  form  To 

himself  a  system,  both  of  morals  and  politics,  founded  on  the 
combined  judgment  of  all  ages,  and  confirmed  by  universal  ex- 
perience. Moreover,  the  advantages  that  we  reap  from  the 
study  of  history  are  preferable  to  those  we  acquire  bv  our  own 
expenence ;  for  not  only  does  the  knowledge  we  derive  from 
this  kind  of  study  embrace  a  greater  number  of  objects,  but  it 
IS  purchased  at  the  expense  of  others,  while  the  attainments  we 
make  from  personal  experience  often  cost  us  extremely  dear. 

We  may  learn  wisdom,"  says  Polybius,  "either  from  oui 
own  misfortunes,  or  the  misfortunes  of  others.  The  knowledge  ' 
adds  that  celebrated  historian,  "  which  we  acquire  at  our  own 
expense,  IS  undoubtedly  the  most  efficacious  ;  but  that  which  we 
learn  from  the  misfortunes  of  others  is  the  safest,  in  as  much 
as  we  receive  instruction  without  pain,  or  danger  to  ourselves." 
Ihis  knowledge  has  also  the  advantage  of  being  in  general 
more  accurate,  and  more  complete  than  that  which  we  derive 
from  individual  experience.  To  history  alone  it  belongs  to 
judge  with  impartiality  of  public  characters  and  political  mea- 


J;# 


"h 


'•I: 


Ml 


ft'Mu: 


'dt 


sures,  which  are  often  either  misunderslood  or  not  properly  ap- 
preciated bv  their  contemporaries  ;  and  while  men  mdividually, 
and  from  their  own  observation,  can  see  great  events  as  it  were 
but  in  part,  history  embraces  the  whole  in  all  its  various  details. 
Thus,  for  example,  we  can  see  but  imperfectly  all  the  bearing's 
of  that  mighty  revolution  which  is  now  179J,  passing  before 
our  eyes;  and  it  will  remain  for  posterity  to  perceive  all  its 
influence  and  effects,  and  to  judge  of  its  different  actors  with- 
out feelings  of  irritation  or  party  spirit.      „        ,  ,        , 

h  is  a  fact  universally  admitted,  that  all  ranks,  and  profes- 
mons  of  men,  find  in  history  appropriate  instruction,  and  rules 
of  conduct  suited  to  their  respective  conditions.     In  occupying 
the  mind  agreeably  with  such  a  vast  diversity  of  subjects,  it 
serves  to  form  the  judgment,  to  inspire  us  with  the  ambition  of 
glory,  and  the  love  of  virtue.      Those  especially  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  study  of  politics,  or  who  are  destined  to  the 
management  of  public  affairs,  will  discover  in  history  the  struc- 
ture and  constitution  of  governments,  their  faults,  «"« /neir 
advantages,  their  strength  and  their  weakness;  they  will  hnd 
there  the  origin  and  progress  of  empires,  the  principles  that 
have  raised  them  to  greatness,  and  the  causes  which  have  pre- 
pared their  fall.     The  philosopher,  and  the  man  of  letters,  wi  I 
there  trace  the  progress  of  the  human  mind,  the  errors  and  il- 
lusions that  have  led  it  astray ;  the  connexion  of  cause?  and 
effects  ;  the  origin  of  arts  and  sciences,  their  changes,  and  their 
influence  on  society  ;    as  well  as  the  innumerable  evils  that 
have  sprung  from  ignorance,  superstition  and  tyranny. 

History,  in  short,  avails  more  than  all  precepts  to  cure  us  of 
those  mistakes  originating  in  self-love,  and  national  partiality. 
He  who  knows  no  other  country  than  his  own,  easily  persuades 
nimself,  that  the  government,  manners,  and  opinions  of  the  lit- 
tle corner  of  the  earth  which  he  inhabits,  are  the  only  ones  con- 
sistent with  reason  and  propriety.     Self-love,  so  natural  to  man, 
cherishes  this  prejudice,  and  makes  him  disdain  all  other  na- 
tions.    It  is  only  by  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  history, 
and  by  familiarizing  ourselves  with  the  institutions,  customs, 
and  habits  of  different  ages,  and  of  different  countries,  that  we 
learn  to  esteem  wisdom  and  virtue,  and  to  ackno\;'ledge  ta- 
lents wherever  they  exist.      Besides,  when  we  observe,  tha* 
though  revolutions  are  continually  changing  the  face    of  king- 
doms, nothing  essentially  new  ever  happens  in  the  world,  we 
cease  to  be  longer  the  slaves  of  that  extravagant  admiration, 
and  that  credulous  astonishment  which  is  generally  the  charac- 
teristic of  ignorance,  or  the  mark  of  a  feeble  mind. 

The  most  important  attribute  of  history  is  truth,  and  m  order 


i! 

ii 


J 


-.' -  mumgnasu  .wi../ »,  f'e*.m 


yap-     I 
ually.     I 

were 
Etails. 
irinfjs 
before 
nil  its 

with-     I 

)rofes- 

rules 
ipying 
ids,  it 
lion  of 
devote 

to  tht! 

struc- 
t  their 
ill  find 
Bs  that 
ve  pre- 
rs,  will 
and  iU 
e^  and 
id  their 
ils  that 

•e  us  of 
rtiality. 
rsuades 
the  lit- 
les  con- 
to  man, 
her  na- 
history, 
ustoms, 
that  we 
;dge  ta- 
ve,  tha* 
of  king- 
jrld,  we 
niration, 
I  charac- 


INTRODUCTION. 


19 


in 


order 


i  to  find  this  out,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  materials  which 

I  serve  as  the  elements  and  evidences  of  history,  by  the  test  of 
j  J  sound  criticism.     These  materials  are  of  two  kinds  :  I.  Pubfic 

I I  Acts  and  Records,  such  as  medals,  inscriptions,  treaties,  char- 
'  'ers.  official  papers;  and  in  general,  all  writings  drawn  up  or 
. ;  published  by  the  established  authorities.     II.  Private  writers, 

I  i  VIZ.  authors  of  histories,  of  chronicles,  memoirs,  letters.  &c.' 

I I  These  writers  are  either  contemporary,  or  such  as  live  remote 
j  from  the  times  of  which  they  write. 

j  I  Public  acts  and  official  records,  are  the  strongest  evidences 

j ,  we  can  possibly  have  of  historical  truth ;  but  as,  in  different 

1 1  ages,  there  have  been  fabricators  of  pretended  acts  and  wri- 

j  I  tings,  it  becomes  necessary,  before  making  use  of  any  public 

I  j  document,  to  be  assured  that  it  is  neither  spurious  nor  falsified. 

I  j  The  art  of  judging  of  ancient  charters  or  diplomas,  and  discri- 
jj  minuting  the  true  from  the  false,  is  called  Diplomatics;'  in 
j  I  the  same  way  as  we  give  the  name  of  Numismatics  to  the  art  of 
;  I  distinguishing  real  medals  from  counterfeit.     Both  of  these 

I I  sciences  are  necessary  in  the  criticism  of  history. 

I  j  It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  subjoin  here  some  rules  that 
,  may  serve  as  guides  in  the  proper  selection  of  historical  docu- 

I I  ments. 

j  i  1.  The  authority  of  any  chartulary  or  public  act  is  preferable 
to  that  of  a  private  writer,  even  though  he  were  contemporary. 
These  public  registers  it  is  always  necessary  to  consult,  if  pos- 
sible, before  having  recourse  to  the  authority  of  private  writers ; 
and  a  history  that  is  not  supported  by  such  public  vouchers  must 
in  consequence  be  very  imperfect. 

2.  When  public  acts  are  found  to  accord  with  the  testimony 
of  contemporary  authors,  there  results  a  complete  and  decisive 
proof,  the  most  satisfactory  that  can  be  desired,  for  establishine 
the  truth  of  historical  facts. 

3.  The  testimony  of  a  contemporary  author  ought  generally 
to  be  preferred  to  that  of  an  historian,  who  has  written  long 
after  the  period  in  which  the  events  have  happened. 

4.  Whenever  contemporary  writers  are  defective,  great  cau- 
tion must  be  used  with  regard  to  the  statements  of  more  mo- 
dern historians,  whose  narratives  are  often  very  inaccurate  or 
altogether  fabulous.  ' 

5.  The  unanimous  silence  of  contemporary  authors  on  any 
memorable  event,  is  of  itself  a  strong  presumption  for  suspect- 
ing, or  even  for  entirely  rejecting,  the  testimony  of  verv  recent 
m  iters.  •' 

6.  Historians  who  narrate  events  that  have  happened  ante- 
rior to  the  times  in  which  they  lived,  do  not,  properly  speaking, 


ii 


ni 


'i 


m 


u 


in 


affasi 


20 


CHAPTER    I. 


deserve  credit,  except  in  so  fur  ns  they  make  us  acquainted  with 
the  sources  whence  they  have  drawn  iheir  inlormution. 

7  In  order  to  judjje  of  the  respective  merits  of  historians, 
and  the  preference  we  ou«ht  to  give  some  beyond  others,  ii  is 
necessary  to  examine  the  spirit  and  character  of  each,  as  wel 
as  the  circumstances  in  which  they  are  placed  at  the  time  ol 

""Htmce  it  follows  :-That  we  ought  to  distrust  an  hUtorian 
who  is  deficient  in  critical  discernment,  who  is  fond  of  fables, 
or  who  scruples  not,  in  order  to  please  and  amuse  his  readers, 
to  alter  or  disguise  the  truth  :  That  as  impartiality  is  an  essen- 
tial quality  in  a  historian,  we  must  always  be  on  our  guard 
ajrainst  writers  who  allow  their  minds  to  be  warped  aside  by 
the  prejudices  of  their  nation,  their  party,  or  their  profession  ; 
for,  in  order  to  be  impartial,  the  historian  must  form  his  judg- 
ment on  actions  themselves,  without  regard  to  the  actors :    1  hat 
historians  who  have  had  a  personal  concern  in  the  transactions, 
or  been  eyewitnesses  of  the  events  they  describe,  or  who,  wn- 
tincr  bv  the  permission  or  authority  of  government,  have  had 
free  access  to  national  archives  and  public  libraries,  ought  al- 
ways to  be  preferred  to  those  who  have  not  enjoyed  the  same 
advantages:  That  among  modern  historians,  he  who  has  writ- 
ten last  often  deserves  more  confidence  than  those  who  have 
handled  the  same  subject  before  him  ;  inasmuch  as  he  h^  had 
it  in  his  power  to  obtain  more  exact  information,  to  avoid  all 
party  spirit,  and  rectify  the  errors  of  his  predecessors. 

There  are  several  auxiliary  sciences  which  may  be  said  to 

constitute  the  very  foundation  of  history  ;  and  among  these,  geo- 

irraphy,  genealogy,  and  chronology,  hold  the  first  rank.     In 

I     mith,  no  fact  can  be  fully  established,  nor  can  any  narrative 

'     possess  interest,  unless  the  circumstances  relating  to  the  times 

and  places  in  which  the  events   have  happeneu,  as  well  as  to 

I     the  persons  who  have  been  concerned  in  them,  be  previously 

I     made  known,  and  distinctly  explained.    It  is  obvious,  therefore, 

I     that  geography,  genealogy,  and  chronology,  are  the  fa.thful  in- 

1     terpreters  and  inseparable  companions  of  history. 

Geocrraphy  may  be  divided  into  mathematical,  physical,  and 
political ;  according  to  the  diflTerent  objects  which  it  embraces. 
Mathematical  geography  regards  the  earth,  considered  as  a 
'  measurable  body.  Physical  geography  has  for  "^  ;>bjeci  o 
examine  the  natural  or  physical  structure  of  the  earth  ;  while 
Dolitical  geography  illustrates  the  different  divisions  of  the  earth 
which  men  have  invented,  such  as  kingdoms,  states,  and  pro- 
vinces This  science  is  also  divided,  relatively  to  the  tunes  of 
which  it  treats,  into  ancient  middle-age,  and  modern  geography 


-Ji 


''~-^^"^n-"'"Xif^, 


'^mw- 


with     I 
riaiis, 

,  it    lit 

j  well 
ine  oi       ' 

lorian       ! 
fubles, 
laders, 
essen- 
guard 
ide  by 
ssion ;     ', 
I  judg-     i 
:  That    j 
ictions,     ! 
0,  wri- 
ve  had 
ght  al- 
c  same 
3  writ- 
o  have 
las  had 
iroid  all 

said  to 

se,  geo- 

nk.     In 

arrative 

le  limes 

I  as  to 

viously 

Here  fore, 

ihful  in- 

cal,  and 
inbraces. 
red  as  a 
)bjeci  to 
while 
the  earth 
and  pro- 
times  of 
ography 


INTRODUCTION. 


21 


Anrient  geography  ia  that  which  explains  the  primitive  stale  of 
the  world,  ami  iis  poiilical  divisions  prior  to  ine  subversion  ot 
ihe  Roman  Empire  in  ihe  west.  By  ihe  geography  of  the  middle 
ages,  i.s  under.-itood  that  which  acquaints  us  with  the  political 
state  of  the  niitions  who  figured  in  history  from  the  fifth  century 
to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth,  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth. 
Modern  geography  represents  to  us  the  state  of  the  world  and 
its  political  divisions,  from  the  sixteenth  century  to  the  present 
time. 

Antiquity  has  handed  down  to  us  the  works  of  several  very 
eminent  geographers,  the  most  celebrated  of  whom  are  Strabo, 
Ptolemy,  Pomponius  Mela,  Pausanias,  and  Stephanus  of  Byzan- 
tium. Among  the  moderns  who  have  laboured  in  this  depart- 
ment of  geography,  those  more  particularly  deserving  of  notice, 
HreCUivorius,Cellarius,Briet,D'Anville,  Gosselin,  Mannert,  and 
Ukert. 

The  geography  of  the  middle  ages  is  but  little  known  ;  and 
remains  yet  a  sort  of  desert  which  demands  cultivation.  There 
does  not  exist  a  single  geographical  work  which  gives  a  correct 
representation  of  that  new  order  of  things,  which  the  German 
nations  introduced  into  Europe  after  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  fifth  century.  The  literati  of  France  and  Ger- 
many have  thrown  some  rays  of  light  on  certain  parts  of  these 
obscure  regions ;  but  no  nation  in  Europe  can  yet  boast  of  having 
thoroughly  explored  them. 

Of  modern  authors,  the  most  conspicuous  as  the  restorer  of 
geographical  science,  is  Sebastian  Monster,  a  German,  who 
published  a  voluminous  work  o.j  cosmography,  towards  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Flemings  and  the  Dutch 
have  been  among  the  earliest  cultivators  of  geography  since 
the  revival  of  letters.  Ortelius,  Gerard  Mercator,  Varenius, 
Janson,  Bleau,  and  Fischer,  are  well  known  by  the  maps  and 
learned  works  which  they  have  produced. 

Among  the  number  of  celebrated  French  geographers  are  to 
be  reckoned  Sanson,  Delisle,  Cassini,  D'Anville ;  and  more 
recently  Zannoni,  Bauche,  Mentelle,  Barbid  du  Bocage,  Malte- 
Brun,  &c.  Delisle  is  the  first  who  submitted  geography  to  the 
touchstone  of  astronomical  observation.  Biisching,  a  German, 
wrote  u  work  on  geography,  which  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages,  and  has  received  various  additions  and 
improvements,  especially  in  the  hands  of  the  French  transla- 
tors. M.  Ritter,  a  professor  at  Berlin,  published  a  work  in 
which  he  gives  a  new  and  scientific  form  to  geography. 

It  was  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  that 
the  attention  of  the  learned  was  turned  more  particularly  towards 


J 


li 


•li' 


iff 


I 


: 


I 


fUt  CHAFTIK  I. 

geographvi  when  a  series  of  the  most  elegant  maps  appeared  in 
all  the  principal  states  of  Europe.  The  wars"  that  sprun;?  from 
the  revolution  encouraged  several  engineers  and  geographers, 
both  foreigners  and  Frenchmen,  to  publish  those  masterpieces 
of  their  art,  the  charts  and  plans  of  the  countries  that  had  served 
as  the  theatre  of  hostilities. 

Connected  with  geography  is  the  science  of  Statistics,  or  the 
study  of  the  constitution  and  political  economy  of  stales.  Two 
Italians,  Sansovino  and  Botero,  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  were  the  first  that  attempted  to  treat  this  as  a  particular 
science,  separate  and  distinct  from  geography.  The  Germans 
followed  nearly  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Italian  writers ;  they 
introduced  statistics  into  their  Universities  as  a  branch  of  study, 
and  gave  it  also  the  name  by  which  it  is  still  known. »  It  was 
chiefly,  however,  during  the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century 
that  the  governments  of  Europe  encouraged  the  study  of  this 
new  science,  which  borrows  its  illustrations  from  history,  and 
constitutes  at  present  an  essential  branch  of  national  polity. 

Genealogy,  or  the  science  which  treats  of  the  origin  and 
descent  of  illustrious  families,  is  not  less  important  to  the 
knowledge  of  history,  than  geography.  It  teaches  us  to  know 
and  distinguish  the  principal  characters  that  have  acted  a  con- 
spicuous part  on  liie  theatre  of  the  world ;  and  by  giving  us 
clear  and  explicit  ideas  of  the  ties  of  relationship  that  subsist 
among  sovereigns,  it  enables  us  to  investigate  the  rights  of 
succession,  and  the  respective  claims  of  rival  princes. 

The  .study  of  Genealogy  is  full  of  difficulties,  on  account  of 
the  uncertainty  and  fabulous  obscurity  in  which  the  origin  of 
almost  every  great  family  is  enveloped.  Vanity,  aided  by  flattery, 
has  given  birth  to  a  thousand  legendary  wonders,  that  fall  to 
pieces  at  the  touch  of  sound  criticism.  It  is  by  the  light  of  this 
science  that  we  learn  to  distinguish  certainties  from  probabilities, 
and  pro^'abilities  from  fables  and  conjectures.  Few  families 
who  have  o':cupied  the  thrones  of  former  dynasties,  or  who  now 
hold  pre-eminent  rank  in  Europe,  can  trace  their  genealogy 
beyond  the  twelfth  century.  The  House  of  Capet  is  the  only 
one  that  can  boast  of  a  pedigree  that  reaches  back  to  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century.  The  origin  of  the  royal  families  ol 
Savoy,  Lorrain,  Brunswick,  England,  and  Baden,  belongs  to  the 
eleventh  century  ;  all  the  others  are  of  a  date  posterior  to  those. 

A  single  fact  in  diplomatics  has  proved  sufficient  to  discredit 
a  multitude  of  errors  and  fables,  that  tradition  had  engrafted 
on  the  legends  of  the  dark  ages.  From  the  examiniitions  that 
have  been  made  of  ancient  charters  and  records,  there  is  abun- 
dant evidence  that,  prior  to  the  twelfth  century,  among  families 


IL 


**■?"' 


IT 


•din 
from 
lers, 
eccs 
rved 

r  the 
Two 
tenth 
rular 
nans 
ihey 
ludy, 
,  was 
ntury 
r  this 
,  nnd 

n  and 
o  the 
know 
t  con- 
ng  us 
ubsist 
hts  of 


unt  of 
in  of 

itlery, 

all  to 

'this 

ities, 

ilies 

now 

aiogy 

only 

iddle 

les  ot 
to  the 
these, 
credit 
rafted 
s  thai 
abiin- 


mi 


nio 


iin 


ilius 


INTRODUCTION. 


«l 


even  the  most  illuHtrioiis.  the  distinction  of  surnames  was  un- 
known. The  greiitost  noblemen,  nnd  the  presumption  is  much 
stronger  that  common  gentlemen,  never  used  any  other  signa* 
ture  than  their  bupti.smni  name ;  to  which  they  sometimes  an- 
nexed that  of  the  dignity  or  order  with  which  they  weie  invested. 
There  was  therefore  little  chance  of  distinguishing  families 
from  each  other,  and  still  le^s  of  distinguishing  individuals  of 
one  and  the  same  family.  It  was  only  towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century,  nnd  during  the  era  of  the  crusades,  that  the  use 
of  family  names  was  gradually  introduced;  and  that  they  began, 
in  their  public  transactions,  to  superadd  to  'heir  baptismal  and 
honorary  names,  that  of  the  country  or  territory  they  possessed, 
or  the  castle  where  they  had  their  residence  ;  and  it  must  have 
required  nearly  two  hundred  years  before  this  practice  became 
generol  in  Europe. 

The  Germans  were  the  first,  after  the  Reformation,  who 
combined  the  study  of  genealogy  with  that  of  history.  Among 
their  most  distinguished  genealogists  mny  be  mentioned  Rein- 
erus  Reineccius,  Jerome  Hcnninges,  Elias  Reusner,  Nicolas 
Riltershusius,  James-William  Imhof,  and  the  two  Gebhards  of 
Luneburg,  father  and  son.  The  work  of  Henninges  is  much 
sought  after,  on  account  of  its  rarity  ;  but  the  genealogical 
labours  of  the  two  Gebhards  are  particularly  remarkable  for  the 
profound  and  accurate  criticism  they  display.  The  principal 
writers  on  this  subject  among  the  French  are,  D'Hozier,  Gode- 
froy,  Andrew  Duchesne,  St.  Marthe,  Father  Anselme,Chazot  de 
Nantigny,  and  M.  de  St.  Allais. 

Chronology,  or  the  science  of  computing  time,  represents 
facts  or  events  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  occurred.  The 
historian  ought  by  no  means  to  neglect  to  ascertain,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  the  exact  and  precise  date  of  events  ;  since,  without 
this  knowledge,  he  will  be  perpetually  liable  to  commit  anachro- 
nisms, lu  confound  things  with  persons,  and  often  to  mistake 
effects  for  causes,  or  causes  for  effects. 

This  st  idy  is  not  without  its  difficulties,  which  are  as  perplex- 
ing as  thi-y  are  singularly  various,  both  in  kind  and  degree. 
These  embtrrassments  relate  chiefly,  1.  To  the  age  of  the 
world  ;  2.  1  he  different  forms  of  the  year  ;  3.  The  number  of 
years  that  elapsed  from  the  creation  to  the  birth  of  Christ ;  4. 
The  variety  of  epochs  or  periods  of  reckoning  time. 

Many  of  the  ancient  philosophers  maintained  that  the  vi'orld 
was  eternal.  Ocellus  Lucnnus,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Py- 
thagorean sect,  attempted  to  prove  this  hypothesis,  in  a  treatise 
entitled  De  Unicerso,  which  the  Marquis  D'Argens  and  the 
Abb^  Batteux  have  translated  into  French.     Aristotle  followed 


I 


}M5l" 


a 


ki.i'ii'it'-i' 


94 


CHAfTKIl   I. 


I 


in  the  footsteps  of  OcpIIuh.  His  opinion  nn  to  lh«  c.icm*y  ol 
the  uiiivprsp,  is  (lotniled  nl  length  in  liis  i-oinin»'ntarips  on  Phy  's. 
Sumo  luntivru  phiiosojjhiTs,  w  BiiHon,  Hiunilton,  Dolomu-u, 
Suu«siire,  Faiijiis  dc  St.  Fond.  Sec.  Iiuvc  iissijrnt-d  to  our  gl'ibe 
on  exisicnci'  long  nntorior  to  the  ur(?m  wIumi  history  comini-nri's. 
Their  reasoning  they  support  by  the  nmformiilion  of  the  Riobe 
itself,  as  well  as  the  time  that  must  have  necessarily  elapsed 
before  the  earth,  in  the  progressive  operations  of  nature,  could 
be  rendered  a  suitable  habitation  for  man. 

The  most  ancient  account  that  we  have  of  the  origin  of  «be 
world,  and  of  the  human  race,  is  derived  from  Mohos  This 
leader  ond  lawgiver  of  the  Jewish  nation,  lived  about  1600  years 
before  Christ ;  and  nearly  1000  before  Herodotus,  the  most  an- 
cient profane  author  whose  works  have  been  handed  down  to 
our  times.  According  to  Moses  and  ihe  Jewish  annals,  the 
history  of  the  human  race  does  not  yet  comprehend  a  period  of 
six  thousand  ycarr.  This  account  seems  to  be  in  opposition  to 
that  of  several  ancient  nations,  such  as  the  Egyptians,  Indians, 
Chaldeans,  Thibetians,  and  Chinese,  who  carry  back  their  chro- 
nology to  a  very  remote  date,  and  far  beyond  what  Moses  has 
assigned  to  the  human  race.  But  it  is  sufficient  at  present  to 
remark,  that  this  high  antiquity,  which  vanity  has  led  these  na- 
tions to  adopt  as  a  reality,  is  either  altogether  imaginary,  or 
purely  mythological,  founded  on  a  symbolical  theology,  whose 
mysteries  and  allegories  have  been  but  little  understood.  This 
primeval  epoch  is  usually  filled  with  gods  and  demigods,  who 
are  alleged  to  have  reigned  over  these  nations  for  so  many  my- 
riads of  years.  , 

Traditions  so  fabulous  and  chimerical  will  never  destroy  the 
authenticity  of  Moses,  who  independently  of  his  nativity,  and 
the  remote  age  in  which  he  lived,  merits  implicit  credit  from 
the  simplicity  of  his  narrative,  and  from  the  circumstance,  that 
there  has  never  yet  been  discovered  on  the  surface,  or  in  the 
internal  structure  of  the  earth,  any  organic  evidence  or  work  of 
human  art,  that  can  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  history  of  the 
world,  or  more  properly  speaking,  of  the  human  race,  is  ante- 
cedent to  the  age  which  the  Jewish  legislator  has  assigned  it. 

With  regard  to  the  division  of  time,  a  considerable  period 
must,  no  doubt,  have  elapsed  before  men  began  to  reckon  by 
years,  calculated  according  to  astronomical  observations.  Two 
sorts  or  forms  of  compulation  have  been  successively  in  use 
among  different  nations.  Some  have  employed  solar  years,  cal- 
culated by  the  annual  course  of  the  sun  ;  others  have  made  use 
of  lunar  years,  calculated  by  the  periodical  revolutions  of  the 
moon.     All  Christian  nations  of  the  present  day  adopt  the  solar 


is 


'.!■;■<».  Il"  JJ!Wliil''l,'!ipiW 


by 
Two 
use 
s.cal- 
c  use 
if  the 
soUir 


rrriJ 


r 


INTKoniJCTlON. 


2fi 


fronr;  wh«l<)  the  lunur  onlruluiion  is  lluit  followivl  by  the  Mb- 
iiiinciiini.  'I'lit'  Holiir  yi-nr  coiiftistn  of  UM  (liiy.t,  ft  hoiir?*,  48', 
46",:iO"':  111.'  Iiiniir  ynr,  ..f.'Wl  diiy^  ;J  lioiiri,  JM',  US",  li>"'. 

The  iiivcriiioii,  or  iiior'-  jiropi-rly  ^|)»•ukin^.^  itii-  calciiliilioii  of 
ihc  sdliir  y»'ar,  is  dm*  lo  ihc  nnci'iii  K>'y|iiiiiriN,  wlio,  by  the 
posiiion  of  llii'ir  rountry,  iis  wrll  as  by  ibe  pi'riodical  overflow- 
ings iiiid  obhiii(j><  (if  ihi'  Nib',  bad  i-itiiy  ■'I'ld  obvious  induce- 
nicni*'  for  iimkiiii;  iistrnnoniical  nbscrviiiions.  'fb*^  .solar  year 
has  urnb'ri;orio,  id  procfsn  of  lime,  various  oorrcclioti  iirid  de- 
notninatioris.  The  most  rprnarkablf  of  these  are  iiidu-ateil  by 
the  distiuctions,  Ntill  in  u*e,  of  the  Julian,  the  Ctregorian,  and 
th»'  Reformed  year. 

Julius  Cicsar  introduced  into  ;he  Roman  empire,  the  solar  or 
Ejfyplian  year,  whicb  Itiolc  from  him  the  name  of  the  Julian 
year.  This  he  substituted  instead  of  the  luimr  year,  which  the 
Komans  had  used  before  his  time.  It  was  distinguished,  on  ac- 
coimt  of  a  slight  variation  in  the  reckoning,  into  the  common 
and  bissextile  or  leap  year.  'I'lie  commoii  Julian  year  consist- 
ed of  366  days  ;  and  the  bissextile,  whiili  returned  every  four 
years,  of  36fi  days.  This  computation  was  faulty,  inasmuch 
as  it  allowed  UHi)  days,  and  0  entire  hours,  for  the  annual  re- 
volution of  the  sun;  being  nn  excess  every  year,  of  11',  14", 
30'",  beyond  the  true  time.  This,  in  a  long  course  of  ages, 
had  amounted  lo  several  days  ;  and  began,  at  length,  to  deranpe 
the  order  of  the  seasons. 

Pope  Gregory  XIII.,'  wishing  to  correct  this  error,  employed 
an  able  mathematician,  named  Louis  Lilio,  to  reform  the  Julian 
year,  according  to  the  true  annual  course  of  the  sun.  A  new 
calendar  was  drawn  up,  which  was  called  after  the  name 
of  that  pontiff,  the  Gregorian  calendar ;  and  as,  in  consequence 
of  the  incorrectness  of  the  Julian  era,  the  civil  year  had  gained 
ten  days,  the  same  Pope  ordered,  by  a  bull  published  in  1681, 
that  these  should  be  expunged  from  the  calendar  ;  so  that,  in- 
stead of  the  6th  of  October  1582,  they  should  reckon  it  the  16th. 

The  Catholic  States  adopted  this  new  calendar  without  the 
least  difficulty;  but  the  Protestants  in  the  Empire,  and  the 
rest  of  Eur  jpe,  as  also  the  Russians  and  the  Greeks,  adhered 
to  the  Julian  year  ;  and  hence  the  distinction  between  the  old 
and  new  style,  to  which  it  is  necessary  to  pay  attention  in  ail 
public  acts  and  writings  since  the  year  1682  of  the  Christian 
era.  The  difference  between  the  old  and  new  style,  which, 
until  1699,  was  only  ten  days,  and  eleven  from  the  commence 
ment  of  1700,  tnust  be  reckoned  twelve  days  during  the  pre 
sent  century  of  1800;  so  that  the  1st  of  J'anuary  of  the  old 
vear,  answers  to  the  13th  of  the  new. 


m 


^M^' 


2H 


CHAPTER   I. 


The  Reformed  Year  or  Calendar,  as  it  is  called,  is  distinct 
from  the  Gregorian,  and  applies  to  the  calculation  of  the  year, 
which  was  made  by  a  professor  at  Jena,  named  Weigel.  It 
differs  from  the  Gregorian  year,  as  to  the  method  of  calculating 
the  time  of  Easter,  and  the  other  moveable  feasts  of  the  Chris- 
tian churches.  The  Protestants  of  Germany,  Holland,  Den- 
mark and  Switzerland,  adopted  this  new  calendar  in  1700. 
Their  example  was  followed  in  1752,  by  Great  Britain  ;  and  in 
1753,  by  Sweden ;  but  since  the  year  1776.  the  Protestants  of 
Germany,  Switzerland  and  Holland,  abandoned  the  reformed 
calendar,  and  adopted  the  Gregorian  ;  and  there  is,  properly 
speaking,  no  nation  in  Europe  at  this  day,  except  the  Russians 
and  the  Greeks,  which  makes  use  of  the  Julian  calendar,  or 
old  style/ 

But  it  is  not  merely  the  variations  that  have  prevailed  as  to 
the  form  and  computation  of  the  year,  that  have  perplexed  the 
science  of  chronology ;  the  different  methods  of  commencing 
it,  have  also  been  the  source  of  much  confusion.  The  Komans, 
from  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  began  the  year  on  the  first  of 
January.  The  ancient  Greeks  at  first  reckoned  from  the  win- 
ter solstice,  and  afterwards  from  midsummer;  the  Syro-Mace- 
donians  or  Seleucidoe,  commenced  from  the  autumnal  equinox. 
The  sacred  year  of  the  Jews,  began  with  the  first  new  moon 
after  the  vernal  equinox,  that  is,  in  the  month  of  March  ;  and 
their  civil  year  began  with  the  new  moon  immediately  follow- 
ing the  autumnal  equinox,  that  is,  in  the  month  of  September. 

The  same  diversity  of  practice  which  we  observe  among  the 
ancients,  existed  also  in  the  middle  ages.  The  Franks,  under 
the  Merovingian  kings,  began  the  year  with  the  month  of  March. 
The  Popes  began  it  sometimes  at  Christmas,  or  the  25th  of  De- 
cember ;  sometimes  on  the  1st  of  January  ;  and  sometimes  on 
the  25lh  of  March,  called  indiscriminately  the  day  of  the  Annun- 
ciation or  Incarnation.  Under  the  Carlovingian  princes,  two 
methods  of  beginning  the  year  were  generally  prevalent  in 
France, — the  one  fixed  its  commencement  at  Christmas,  or  the 
25lh  of  December,  and  the  other  at  Easter ;  that  is,  at  the  day 
on  which  that  moveable  feast  happened  to  fall.  This  latter 
custom  prevailed  also  under  the  Capetian  kings,  and  it  was  not 
suppressed  until  near  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Charles  IX.,  by  an  edict  published  in  1564,  ordered,  that  in 
France  the  year  should  henceforth  commence  on  the  1st  of  Ja- 
nuary. Previously  to  this  edict,  it  sometimes  happened,  from 
the  variable  date  of  Easter,  that  the  same  month  was  found  to 
occur  twice  in  one  and  the  same  year.  For  example,  the  year 
1358  having  begun  on  the  1st  of  April,  on  which  Easter  diiy 


•: 


I    I 
I    ) 

I    < 

'    J 

i    t 

!  t 

!       C 


II 

y 

6 

ti 
c 

ci 

0 

h 
1 

(J 
h 
tl 


IL 


'vr^m^s^m^^i 


W': 


istinct 
year, 

-1.     It 

laling 

Chris- 
Den-     I 
1700.    ; 

and  in     I 

nts  of 

ormed 

operly 

issians 

lar,  or 

I  as  to 
ed  the 
encing 
omans, 
first  of 
ic  wiii- 
-Mace- 
uinox. 
moon 
I ;  and 
follow- 
ember. 
ng  the 
, under 
March, 
of  De- 
nies on 
^nnun- 
!s,  two 
ent  in 
or  the 
He  day 

latter 

vas  not 

enlury. 

that  in 

of  Ja- 

from 
und  to 
le  year 
er  day 


IMTPODVCTION. 


87 


n 


11 


happened  to  fall,  did  no*,  terminate  until  the  20th  of  April  fol- 
lowing, that  is,  on  the  eve  preceding  Easter.  There  were  con- 
sequently in  this  year,  nearly  two  complete  months  of  April. 
Since  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  it  has  continued  the  invariable 
practice  in  France  to  begin  the  year  on  the  1st  of  January. 

In  England,  the  year  used  to  commence  on  the  25th  of  March, 
and  the  old  style  was  there  observed  until  1753  ;  when,  by  vir- 
tue of  an  act  of  Parliament,  passed  in  1752,  the  beginning  oi 
the  year  was  transferred  to  the  1st  of  January.  It  was  decreed 
also,  at  the  same  time,  that,  in  order  to  accommodate  the  En- 
glish chronology  to  the  new  style,  the  3d  of  September  1752, 
should  be  reckoned  the  14th  of  the  same  month.         ' 

It  is  easy  to  conceive  the  perplexity  and  confusion  that  must 
have  been  introduced  into  chronology,  as  much  by  the  differ- 
ence of  styles  as  by  the  different  methods  of  commencing  the 
year.  Nothing  is  more  probable,  than  that  we  should  here 
find  mistakes  and  contradictions  which,  in  reality,  have  no  ex- 
istence ;  and  the  more  so,  as  the  writers  or  recorders  of  public 
acts,  who  employ  these  different  styles,  or  date  the  beginning  of 
'he  year  variously,  never  give  us  any  intimation  on  the  sub- 
ject ;  and  all  reckon  promiscuously  from  the  year  of  Christ's 
nativity,  without  informing  us  whether  they  follow  the  old  or 
the  new  style — whether  they  commence  the  year  in  the  month 
of  January  or  March,  at  Easter  or  at  Christmas. 

Modern  chronologists  have  found  much  embarrassment  in 
calculating  the  number  of  years  that  elapsed  between  the  crea- 
tion and  the  birth  of  Christ.  Father  Petau,  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  in  this  science,  admits,  that  this  point  of  chrono- 
logy is  to  be  established  rather  by  probable  conjectures  than  so- 
lid arguments.  There  have  even  been  reckoned,  according  to 
Fabricius,  about  a  hundred  and  forty  different  opinions  respect- 
ing the  epoch  of  Christ's  nativity.  Some  fix  this  era  m  the 
year  of  the  world  3616,  while  others  carry  it  back  to  the  year 
6484.  This  great  discordance  of  opinions  arises  from  the  con- 
tradictions found  to  exist  between  the  three  principal  texts  of  the 
Old  Testament.  The  Hebrew  text,  for  instance,  to  which  most 
chronologists  gives  the  preference,  fixes  the  deluge  in  the  year 
of  the  world  1656 ;  while,  according  to  the  Samaritan  text,  it 
happened  in  1307 ;  and,  according  to  the  Septuagint,  in  2942. 
The  system  at  present  most  accredited,  is  that  of  Archbishop 
Usher,  an  Irish  prelate,  who,  founding  his  calculation  on  the 
Hebrew  text,  fixes  the  date  of  Christ's  nativity  i.>  the  year  of 
the  world  4000. 

A  variety  of  epochs  prevailed  at  difllerent  times ;  as  most  na- 
tions, both  ancient  and  modern,  who  had  governments  and  laws 


f 


t 


'4^ 


■i 


•i 


■i'i 


r' 


28 


CHAPTER   I. 


of  their  own,  adopted  chronological  eras  that  were  peculiar  to 
themselves.  The  ancient  Greeks  had  their  Olympiads,  and 
the  Syro-Macedonians  the  era  of  the  Seleucidae.  The  Romans 
calculated  by  consulships,  which  became  the  era  of  their  public 
acts ;  and  besides  these,  their  historians  used  to  reckon  from 
the  foundation  of  the  city,  which  goes  back  752  years  beJore 
Christ,  or  3249  after  the  creation.  The  era  of  Dioclesian,  in- 
troduced in  honour  of  that  emperor,  and  sometimes  also  called 
the  era  of  the  martyrs,  began  in  the  year  284  after  Christ,  and 
was  for  a  long  time  used  in  the  West.  But,  without  stopping 
here  to  enumerate  the  different  eras  of  antiquity,  we  shall  rather 
restrict  ourselves  at  present  to  the  pointing  out  of  those  that 
belong  lore  properly  to  modern  history,  viz.  1.  The  era  of 
the  modern  Greeks.  2.  Of  the  modern  Jews.  3.  Of  the  Spa- 
niards. 4.  The  Hegira,  or  Mahometan  era.  6.  The  Diony- 
sian,  or  Christian  era. 

The  era  of  the  modern  Greeks  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Mundane  era  of  Constantinople.  It  begins  6508  years  before 
the  birth  of  Christ.  The  first  year  of  the  Incarnation  thus  falls 
in  the  year  of  the  world  5509 ;  and,  consequently,  the  year 
1823  of  the  Christian  era  answers  to  the  year  7331  of  the  Mun- 
dane era  of  Constantinople.  Under  this  system,  two  kinds  of 
years  are  in  use,  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical.  The  former 
commences  with  the  month  of  September,  the  other  has  begun 
sometimes  on  the  21st  of  March,  and  sometimes  on  the  1st  of 
April.  This  era  is  followed,  even  at  this  day,  by  the  Greek 
church.  The  Russians,  who  adopted  it  from  the  Greeks,  along 
with  the  Christian  religion,  made  use  of  it  even  in  their  civil 
acts,  until  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great.  That  emperor,  in 
1700,  abolished  the  Mundane  era  of  Constantinople,  and  sub- 
stituted in  its  place,  the  Christian  era,  and  the  Julian  calendar 
or  old  style. 

The  modem  Jews  have  likewise  u  mundane  era ;  as  they 
reckon  from  the  creation  of  the  world.  It  commences  on  the 
7th  of  October  of  the  Julian  year,  and  reckons  3761  years  be- 
fore Christ.  The  year  3762  of  the  world,  is  the  first  of  the 
Christian  era,  according  to  the  Jews  ;  and  the  current  year 
(1823)  answers  to  the  year  5583  of  their  mundane  era. 

In  Spain,  the  era  began  with  the  year  of  Rome  714,  thirty- 
eight  years  before  the  birth  of  Chrisi ;  being  the  time  when  the 
triumvirate  was  renewed  between  Ctesar  Octavianus,  Mark  An- 
tony, and  Lepidus.  The  Spaniards,  wishing  to  give  Octavia- 
nus some  testimony  of  their  satisfaction  on  being  comprehended 
within  his  province,  began  a  new  era  with  this  event,*  w!  ifh 
prevailed  not  only  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  but  also  in  Africa, 


I  Ji.t|J!f!L,j,a-j,iijuiyi'-,Mi4Jfi  y'Miin 


T 


;ror,  in 
nd  sub- 
alendar     i 

i 


INTROOUCTIOIf.  99 

and  those  parts  of  France  which  were  subject  to  the  dominion 
or  the  Visigoths.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  know,  that  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese  constantly  employed  this  era  in  their 
annals  and  public  acts,  so  late  as  the  14ih  and  15th  centuries, 
when  they  substituted  the  Christian  era  in  its  place. 

The  era  which  the  Mussulman  nations  follow  is  that  of  Ma- 
homet, called  ihe  Hegira,  or  the  Flight  of  the  Prophet.  It  be- 
gan  on  the  16th  of  July  622  A.  C,  and  is  composed  of  lunar 
years.  In  order  to  find  out  in  what  year  of  the  vulgar  era  any 
given  year  of  the  Hegira  falls,  it  is  necessary  first  to  reduce 
the  lunar  into  solar  years,  and  then  add  the  number  622.  Far 
example,  the  year  1238  of  the  Hegira,  answers  to  the  year  1823 
of  the  vulgar,  or  Christian  era.  It  began  on  the  18th  of  Sep- 
tember  1822,  and  ended  on  the  7th  of  the  following  September 

Dionysius  or  Denys  the  Little,  a  Roman  Abb<5,  who  lived  in 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  about  the  year  of  Chri^l  530, 
was  the  author  of  the  vulgar  era,  which  afterwards  received  a 
more  perfect  form  from  the  hands  of  the  venerable  Bede,  an 
English  monk,  about  the  year  720.  Before  that  time,  ihe  Latins, 
or  Christians  of  the  West,  employed  the  era  of  the  Consuls,  or 
that  of  Dioclesian.  Denys  the  Little,  imagining  it  would  be 
more  convenient  for  the  Christians  to  reckon  their  time  from  the 
birth  of  Christ,  applied  himself  with  great  industry  to  calculate 
the  number  of  years  that  had  elapsed  from  the  Incarnation  to 
his  own  times.  Modern  chronologists  have  remarked,  that 
both  Denys  and  Bede  were  mistaken  in  their  calculations  ;  but 
a  difference  of  opinion  prevails  on  this  subject,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  learned  work  of  Fabricius.  There  are  some  of 
these  chronologists  who  date  the  birth  of  Christ  thirty-four  years 
earlier,  whik  oiLers  find  adiflference  of  but  one  year,  or  at  most 
four,  between  the  true  epoch  of  the  nativity,  and  that  adopted 
by  Denys.  This  disagreement  of  the  modern  chronologists  has 
given  rise  to  the  distinction  between  the  true  era  of  the  birth 
of  Christ,  and  the  Vulgar  or  Dionysian  era,  which  the  general 
usage  has  now  consecrated  and  established. 

In  France,  this  era  was  not  introduced  until  the  eighth  century. 
AVe  find  it  employed,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  acts  of  the  Coun- 
cils of  Germany,  Liptines,  and  Soissons,  held  in  the  years 
742-3-4,  under  Pepin,  surnamed  the  Short.  The  Kings  of 
France  never  used  it  in  their  public  acts,  until  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century ;  and  the  Popes  only  since  the  eleventh. 

In  order  to  compare  the  difTerent  eras,  and  to  facilitate  the 
process  of  reducing  the  years  of  one  into  those  of  another,  » 
scheme  has  beeen  proposed  called  the  Julian  period.  Thr  in- 
vention of  this  is  due  to  Joseph  Scaliger,  a  professor  at  Leyden, 


) 

■ 

1^1^ 

*  I  ill 

»! 

H  F 

1 

g 


ip^ 

•     ! 

li 

i  1: 

pi 

lii 

\\ 


\    m 


CHAPTER   I. 


and  well  known  by  his  chronological  works.  He  g«ve  it  the 
name  of  Julian,  because  the  Julian  year  served  as  the  basis  of 
it.  It  is  composed  of  the  several  products  of  the  cycles  of  the 
sun,  the  moon,  and  the  indictions  multiplied  by  each  other. 

The  cycle  of  the  sun  is  a  period,  or  revolution  of  twenty- 
eight  solar  years  ;  at  the  end  of  which  the  same  order  of  years 
returns,  by  a  kind  of  circle  or  cycle.  Its  use  is  to  indicate  the 
days  on  which  each  year  commences,  and  the  Dominical  Let- 
ters. These  are  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c, 
D,  E,  F,  G,  which  are  employed  to  indicate  the  seVen  days  of  the 
week,  more  particularly  the  Sabbath  (dies  Dominica.)  At  the 
end  of  twenty-eight  years,  of  which  this  cycle  is  composed, 
there  returns  a  new  order  or  series  of  years,  so  similar  to  the 
preceding,  that  the  dominical  letters  again  answer  exactly  to  the 
same  days. 

The  cycle  of  the  wwon  comprises  nineteen  lunar  years,  twelve 
of  which  are  called  common,  and  the  remaining  seven  interca- 
lary ;  these  yield  a  product  of  6939  days  18  hours,  according 
to  the  calculation  of  the  ancients  ;*  and  are  equal  to  nineteen 
Julian  or  solar  years.  By  means  of  this  cycle  always  re- 
curring, the  new  moons  fall  again  on  the  same  days  and  the 
same  hours  on  which  they  had  happened  nineteen  years  before; 
so  that,  for  all  the  new  moons,  the  cycle  which  is  to  come  is 
entirely  similar  to  the  preceding.  The  cipher  which  indicates 
the  year  of  the  cycle,  is  called  the  golden  number,  because  they 
used  to  write  it  in  characters  of  gold  in  the  ancient  calendars, 
where  it  was  employed  to  mark  the  times  of  the  new  moons. 

The  cycle  of  indiations  is  a  cycle  which  recurs  every  fifteen 
years ;  and  which,  like  those  already  mentioned,  was  frequent- 
ly employed  in  charters  and  public  records.  The  origin  of 
these  indictions  is  generally  referred  to  a  contribution  or  cess 
appointed,  for  fifteen  years,  by  the  Romans,  and  afterwards  re- 
newed for  the  same  period.  They  began  in  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  that  is,  about  the  year  of  Christ  313,  and  are 
distinguished  into  three  kinds;  1.  That  of  Constantinople, 
which  was  employed  by  the  Greek  Emperors,  and  began  on 
the  1st  of  September;  2.  That  which  was  termed  the  Imperial, 
or  Caesaroan  indiction,  the  use  of  which  was  limited  to  the 
West,  and  which  began  on  the  25th  of  September ;  and,  3. 
The  Roman  or  Pontifical  indiction,  which  the  Popes  employed 
in  their  bulls.  This  last  began  on  the  25th  of  December,  or 
the  1st  of  January,  according  as  the  one  or  the  other  of  these 
days  was  reckoned  by  the  Romans  the  first  of  the  new  year. 

The  cycle  of  the  sun,  comprising  twenty-eight  years,  and 
that  of  the  moon  nineteen,  when  multiplied  together,  give  a 


i 
1 
i 
Y 
t 
) 
e 

o 
« 
1 

<i 


WHW>IWtfJ^iWii!aWfc<i&J:J'Jia^^lifeit^ 


'^mm^' 


1 1 


INTROmrcTION. 


8) 


proiluct  of  532,  which  is  called  the  Paschal  cycle,  because  it 
serves  to  ascertain  the  feast  of  Easter.  The  product  of  532, 
multiplied  by  15,  the  cycle  of  indictions,  amoutils  to  the  num- 
ber 7980,  which  constitutes  the  Julian  period.  Within  the  com- 
pass of  this  period  may  be  placed,  as  it  were,  under  one  view, 
these  different  eras  and  epochs,  in  order  to  compare  and  recon- 
cile them  with  each  other ;  adopting,  as  their  common  term,  the 
nativity  of  Christ,  fixed  to  the  year  4714  of  the  Julian  period. 

History  has  been  divided,  according  to  the  different  subjects 
of  which  it  treats,  into  Civil,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Literary. 
Civil  and  political  history  is  occupied  entirely  with  events 
that  relate  to  mankind,  as  distributed  into  societies,  and  united 
together  by  governments,  laws,  and  manners.  Ecclesiastical 
history  is  confined  to  those  events  that  properly  belong  to  reli- 
gion. Literary  history  treats  more  particularly  of  the  origin, 
progress,  and  vicissitudes  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  His- 
tory of  Philosophy,  which  is  a  subdivision  of  Literary  History, 
illustrates  the  different  systems  of  philosophy  that  have  flou- 
rished in  the  world,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 

Another  division  of  history,  according  to  its  extent,  is  that  of 
Universal,  General,  and  Particular  History.  Universal  history 
gives  a  kind  of  outline  or  summary  of  the  events  of  all  the  na- 
tions that  have  figured  on  the  earth,  from  the  remotest  ages  to 
the  present  time. 

By  general  history,  is  understood  that  which  treats  of  the 
revolutions  that  have  happened  in  the  world,  whether  of  great 
states  or  confederate  powers,  or  of  several  nations  combined  to- 
gether, by  various  and  complicated  interests.  Thus,  there  may 
be  a  general  history  of  France,  or  of  Great  Britain,  a  general 
history  of  the  United  Provinces,  a  general  history  of  Europe, 
Sec.  Particular  history  embraces,  in  detail,  the  events  of  a  par- 
ticular people,  or  province,  or  city,  or  illustrious  individual. 

Finally,  in  regard  to  the  time  of  which  it  treats,  history  is 
tlistinguished  into  Ancient  and  Modern,  and  that  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Ancient  history  is  that  of  the  nations  who  flourished 
from  the  time  of  the  creation  to  the  fifth  century;  while  the 
history  of  the  middle  ages  has,  for  its  object,  the  revolutions 
that  took  place  from  the  fifth  to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
What  is  now  termed  modern  history,  is  that  which  retraces  the 
events  of  the  last  three  centuries. 

This  division,  which  applies  more  particularly  to  the  history 
of  Europe,  is  founded  on  the  great  revolutions  which  this  part 
of  the  world  experienced  in  the  fifth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 
The  revolution  of  the  fifth  century  etided  in  the  subversion  of 
the  Roman  «mpire  in  the  West,  and  gave  birth  to  the  principal 


if 


V 


n 


i 


i 


*':  . 


Ui 


F^ 


32 


CHAPTER  I. 


States  in  modern  Europe ;  while  that  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
which  clale.s  its  commencement  from  the  destruction  of  the 
Ea>torn  empire,  brought  along  with  it  the  revival  of  literature 
and  the  fine  arts,  and  the  renovation  of  civil  society  in  Europe. 

Although  ancient  history  docs  not  enter  into  the  plan  of  the 
following  work,  nevertheless  it  appeared  necessary  to  give  here 
a  brief  sketch  of  it  to  the  reader,  with  the  view  of  connecting 
the  order  of  time,  and  the  chain  of  the  great  events  that  have 
occurred  from  the  remotest  ages  to  the  present  day.  We  have 
divided  it  into  three  periods,  the  first  of  which  embraces  3000, 
the  second  1000,  and  the  third  500  years. 

The  first  period,  which  comprises  thirty  cemurics,  is  almost 
wholly  fabulous.  The  notices  of  it  that  have  been  transmitted 
to  us  are  very  imperfect.  The  order  of  time  cannot  be  estab* 
lished  on  any  solid  foundation.  Even  the  authenticity  of  the 
famous  Parian  marbles,  has  been  called  in  question  as  spurious  ; 
and  there  is  no  other  chronology  that  can  guide  our  steps 
through  this  dark  labyrinth  of  profane  history.  The  only  lite- 
rary monuments  that  are  left  us  of  these  remote  and  obscure 
ages,  are  the  book?  of  Moses  and  the  Jews.  Herodotus,  the 
earliest  profane  historian,  wrote  more  than  a  thousand  years 
after  Moses,  and  about  450  before  Christ.  He  had  been  prece- 
ded several  centuries  by  Sanchoniathon  the  Phoenician  ;  but 
the  work  of  this  latter  historian  is  lost,  and  there  exists  only  a 
few  scattered  fragments  of  it  in  Porphyry  and  Eusebius. 

li  appears,  therefore,  that  of  the  4500  years  that  fall  within 
the  compass  of  ancient  history,  the  first  thirty  centuries  may, 
without  inconvenience,  be  retrenched.  Amidst  the  darkness  of 
those  ages,  we  discover  nothing  but  the  germs  of  societies,  gov- 
ernments, sciences  and  arts.  The  Egyptians,  the  Israelites,  the 
Phoenicians,  the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians,  or  Chaldeans, 
made  then  the  most  conspicuous  figure  among  the  nations  of 
Asia  and  Africa. 

The  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans  were  the  first  who  cultivated 
astronomy.  Egypt  was  long  the  nursery  of  arts  and  sciences. 
The  Phcenicians,  without  any  other  guide  than  the  stars,  boldly 
traversed  unknown  seas,  and  gave  a  vast  extent  of  intercourse 
to  their  commerce  and  navigation.  They  founded  many 
celebrated  colonies,  such  as  Carthage  in  Africa,  and  Malaga  and 
Cadiz  on  the  shores  of  Spain. 

The  history  of  Europe,  which  is  utterly  unknown  during  the 
first  two  thousand  years,  begins  to  exhibit  in  the  third  millenary, 
a  few  slight  notices  of  ancient  Greece.  A  multitude  of  petty 
stales  had  then  taken  root ;  most  of  which,  us  Argos,  Athens 
and  Thebes,  had  l)een  founded  by  colonies  from  Egypt.     The 


^ieMdhmmmMmm*^, 


1 


ilury, 

.f  the  ' 
rature 
tjrope. 
of  the 
e  here  j 
ecting 
I  have 
p  have 
i3000, 

almost 

imitted 
eslab- 
of  the 

irioiis ; 

r  steps 

ily  lite- 

Dbscure 

us,  the 

years 

prece- 

n  ;  but 

only  a 

within 
[s  may, 
:ness  of 
;s,  gov- 
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ildeans. 
[ions  of 

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:ience&. 
j,  boldly 
Ircourse 
many 
laga  and 

Iring  the 

jllenary. 

)f  petty 

I  Athens 

The 


INTBOOUCTION. 


33 


Greeks,  in  imitation  of  the  Phccnicians,  applied  themselvei«  to 
arts,  navigation,  and  commerce.  They  established  numerous 
colonies,  not  only  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  but  on  those  of 
Italy  and  Sicily.  That  in  lower  Italy  or  Calabria,  was  known 
by  the  name  of  Magna  Griecia. 

It  was  during  the  second  period  of  ancient  history,  or  in  thi; 
fourth  millenary,  that  great  and  powerful  monarchies  arose; 
which  contributed  to  the  progress  of  arts  and  civilization,  and 
the  perfection  of  society.  These  are  commonly  reckoned  five, 
viz.  the  Egyptian,  the  Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the  Macedonian, 
and  the  Roman  ;  all  of  which  successively  established  them- 
selves  on  the  ruins  of  each  other. 

The  history  of  the  two  first  monarchies  is  enveloped  in 
mystery  and  doubt.  Of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  nothing  now 
remains  but  their  pyramids,  their  temples,  and  obelisks, — monu- 
ments  which  can  only  attest  the  power  and  grandeur  of  the 
ancient  sovereigns  of  Egypt. 

As  to  the  Assyrian  antiauities,  the  contradictions  that  we  find 
between  the  narratives  of  Herodotus  and  Ctesias,  cannot  fail  to 
make  us  reject,  as  fabulous,  the  details  of  the  latter,  respecting 
the  magnificence  of  Ninus,  Semiramus,  and  Sardanapalus,  the 
supposed  monurchs  of  Assyria  and  Babylon.  Nothing  certain 
is  known  of  this  empire,  or  the  conquests  of  these  kings, 
beyond  what  we  find  recorded  in  the  annals  of  the  Jews. 
Shalmaneser,  King  of  Assyria,  subdued  the  kingdom  of  Sama- 
ria or  Israel,  about  the  year  of  the  world  3270 ;  and  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, one  of  his  successors,  conquered  that  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem,  about  the  year  3403. 

The  Persian  monarchy  was  founded  by  Cyrus,  who  put  an 
end  to  the  dominion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  by  taking 
the  city  of  Babylon,  about  the  year  of  the  world  346^  The 
empire,  when  at  its  greatest  height,  under  Darius  Hystaspos, 
comprehended  all  that  part  of  Asia  which  stretches  from  the 
Indus  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  from  the  Euxine  to  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Egypt  in  Africa,  and  Thrace  in  Europe,  were 
subject  to  i's  laws.  After  a  duration  of  nearly  two  centuriesj 
it  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Macedonians  in  the  year  3672. 

Greece,  which  was  at  first  divided  into  several  petty  king- 
doms, changed  its  condition  towards  the  commencement  of  the 
fourth  millenary ;  when  its  principal  cities,  till  then  governed 
by  kings,  formed  themselves  into  detached  republics.  An  en- 
thusiasm for  liberty  spread  over  all  Greece,  and  inspired  every 
bosom  with  the  love  of  glory.  Military  bravery,  as  well  as  arts, 
and  talents  of  all  kinds,  were  fostered  and  encouraged  by  public 
frames,  the  principal  of  which  were  the  Olympic.    Two  cities, 


f 


O 


i 


u< 


%\ 


t 


!■   1 


... 


.'t 


hi^ 


IB 


34 


CHAPTBR  I. 


Athens  and  Lacedemon,  fixed  upon  themselves  for  a  time  the 
eyes'of  all  Greece.  Solon  was  the  legislator  of  the  former,  and 
Lycurgiis  of  the  latter.  To  these  two  republics  all  the  rest  suc- 
cumbed, either  as  allies,  or  by  right  of  conquest.  Athens  has 
rendered  herself  immortal  by  the  victories  which  she  gained 
over  ihe  Persians,  at  the  famous  battles  of  Marathon,  Salamis. 
and  Platan ;  fought  a.  m.  3512,  3522,  and  3523. 

The  ascendency  which  these  victories  procired  the  Atheni- 
ans over  the  rest  of  the  Greek  states,  excited  the  jealousy  of 
the  Lacedemonians,  and  became  the  principal  cause  of  the 
famous  civil  war  which  arose  in  3572,  between  these  two  repub- 
lics, and  which  is  known  '/y  the  name  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
This  was  followed  by  Vf  rious  other  civil  wars ;  and  these  dis- 
asters contributed  to  greatly  exhaust  the  Greeks,  and  to  break 
that  union  which  had  been  the  true  source  of  their  prosperity 
and  their  glory.  Philip,  King  of  Macedon,  had  the  address  to 
turn  these  unhappy  divisions  to  his  own  advantage,  and  soon 
made  himself  master  of  all  Greece.  The  battle  of  Chteronea, 
which  he  gained  over  the  Athenians  about  the  year  of  the 
world  3664,  completed  the  conquest  of  that  country. 

Alexander  the  Great,  son  of  Philip,  afterwards  attacked  the 
Persian  empire,  which  he  utterly  overthrew,  in  consequence  ol 
the  three  victories  which  he  gained  over  Darius  Codomannus, 
the  last  of  the  Persian  kings,  at  the  passage  of  the  Granjcus  in 
3668,  at  Issus  in  3669,  and  near  Arbela  in  3672. 

The  monarchy  founded  by  Alexander  fell  to  pieces  afler  his 
death.  From  its  wreck  were  formed,  among  others,  by  three 
of  his  generals,  the  three  kingdoms  of  Macedon,  Syria  and 
Egypt ;  all  of  which  were  conquered  in  succession  by  the  Ro- 
mans, A.  H.  3836,  3936,  and  3972.  Greece  itself  had  been 
reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  after  the  famous  sack  of  Corinth, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Achsean  league,  a.  m.  3856,  or  144 
years  before  Christ. 

The  empire  of  the  Greeks  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the 

Romans,  which  is  distinguished  from  all  its  predecessors,  not 

by  its  extent  and  duration,  than  by  the  wisdom  with 

which  it  was  administered,  and  the  fine  monuments  of  all  kinds 

which  it  has  transmitted  to  posterity.     The  greatness  of  this  em- 

Eire  was  not,  however,  the  achievement  of  a  single  conqueror, 
ut  the  work  of  ages.  Its  prosperity  must  be  chiefly  ascribed 
to  the  primitive  constitution  of  the  Republic,  which  inspired  the 
Romans  with  the  love  of  liberty,  and  the  spirit  of  patriotism — 
which  animated  them  to  glory  and  perseverance,  and  taught 
them  to  despise  dangers  and  death.  Their  religion,  likewise, 
served  as  a  powetful  engine  to  restrain  and  direct  the  multitude, 
according  to  the  views  and  designs  of  the  government. 


tl 

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P 

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luUitude, 


INTHODUCTtrfW. 


ss 


The  earlier  part  of  the  Roman  history  may  be  divided  into 
three  periods.  The  first  of  these  represents  Rome  under  the 
government  of  kings  ;  from  the  time  of  its  foundation,  about 
the  year  of  the  world  3349,  to  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin  the 
Proud,  nnd  the  establishment  of  the  Republic,  in  3193.  The 
second  extends  from  the  establishment  of  the  Republic,  in  the 
year  of  Rome  245,  to  the  first  Punic  war,  in  the  year  of  the 
City  490,  and  of  the  world  3738.  The  third  commences  with 
the  first  Punic  war,  and  terminates  at  the  battle  of  Actium. 
which  put  an  end  to  the  Republican  government,  and  re-estab- 
lished monarchy  under  Augustus,  in  the  year  of  Rome  723. 

During  the  first  of  these  periods,  the  Romans  had  to  sustain 
incessant  wars  with  their  neighbours,  the  petty  states  of  Italy. 
They  subdued  the  whole  of  that  peninsuhi  in  course  of  the 
second  period ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  third,  that  they  carried 
their  arms  beyond  their  own  country,  to  conquer  the  greater 

girtion  of  the  then  known  world.  The  first  two  periods  of  the 
Oman  history,  are  full  of  obscure  and  uncertain  traditions.  In 
those  remote  ages,  the  Romans  paid  no  attention  to  the  study  of 
letters.  Immersed  entirely  in  the  business  of  war,  they  haa  no 
other  historical  records  than  the  annals  of  their  pontiffs,  which 

g^rished  in  the  sack  of  Rome,  at  the  time  of  its  invasion  by  the 
auls,  in  the  year  of  the  City  365. 

The  most  ancient  of  their  historians  was  Fabius  Pictor,  who 
wrote  his  Annals  in  the  sixth  century  after  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  or  about  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war.  These 
Annals,  in  which  Fabius  had  consulted  both  tradition  and 
foreign  authors,  are  lost ;  and  we  possess  no  information  on 
these  two  periods  of  Roman  history,  except  what  has  been  left 
as  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  and  Titus  Livius,  who  both 
wrote  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  whose  narratives  o(\en  re> 
semble  a  romance  rather  than  a  true  history. 

The  cultivation  of  letters  and  arts  among  the  Romans,  did 
not,  properly  speaking,  commence  until  the  third  period ;  and 
after  they  had  had  intercourse  with  civilized  nations,  as  the 
Carthaginians  nnd  Greeks.  It  was  not  until  484  years  after  the 
building  of  the  city,  that  they  struck  their  first  silver  coinage  ; 
and  ten  years  afterwards,  they  equipped  their  first  fleet  against 
the  Carthaginians.  It  is  at  this  period,  also,  that  truth  begins 
to  dawn  upon  their  history,  and  to  occupy  the  place  of  fable 
and  tradition.  Besides  their  native  historians,  Titus  Livius, 
Florus,  and  Velleius  Paterculus,  several  Greek  authors,  as  Po- 
lybius,  Plutarch,  Appian  of  Alexandria,  Dion  Cassius,  &c.  have 
furnished  useful  memorials  on  this  period.  The  history  of 
Polybius,  especially,  is  a  work  of  the  highest  merit.     The 


7 


Ik 


f.' 


1 

( 


I. 


I 


Ih^ 


4ic 


;  .1  r- 


>  ■ 

u 


a.; J' 


m 


m 
Hi 


3R  nilAPTER   I. 

Blalexman  will  there  find  lessons  on  polilich  and  government 
and  the  soldier  instructions  in  ilie  art  of  war. 

A  long  scries  of  foreign  wars  put  the  Romans  in  possession 
of  the  fsles  of  the  Meditcrranoan,  Spain,  Northern  Africa, 
Egypt,  Gaul,  lllyria,  Macedonia,  Greece,  Thrace,  and  all  Asia, 
as  far  as  the  Euphrates.  The  destruction  of  the  powerful  re- 
public of  Carthage  was  the  grand  ciist  of  the  die  that  decided 
the  empire  of  the  world  in  favour  of  the  Romans. 

Carthage  was  a  colony  which  the  ancient  Phcnicians  had 
founded  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  near  the  modern  city  of  Tunis, 
in  the  year  of  the  world  3119,  and  130  before  the  founding  of 
Rome,  in  imitation  of  their  mother  country,  the  Carthaginians 
rendered  themselves  famous  by  their  merchandise  and  their 
marme.  The  extent  to  which  they  carried  their  commerce,  and 
the  force  necessary  for  its  protection,  rendered  their  arms  every 
where  victorious.  They  gradually  extended  their  conquests 
along  the  shores  of  Africa,  in  Spain,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  attempts  which  they  had  made  to  get  possession  of 
Sicily,  was  the  occasion  of  embroiling  them  in  a  war  with  the 
Romans.     For  nearly  two  hundred  years,  Rome  and  Carthagr 
disputed  between  them  the  empire  of  the  world ;  and  it  wat 
not  until  these  two  mighty  rivals  had,  more  than  once,  made 
each  other  tremble  for  their  independence,  that  the  Carthaginians 
yielded  to  the  yoke  of  the  conqueror.     Their  capital,  after  a 
siege  which  lasted  nearly  three  years,  was  completely  laid  in 
ruins  by  the  famous  ScipioiEmilianus,  the  scholar  of  rolybius 
No  monument  of  the  Carthaginians  now  remains  to  point  oui 
the  ancient  splendour  of  that  republic.     Their  national  archives 
md  all  the  literary  treasures  they  contained,  perished  with  the 
city,  or  were  destroyed  by  the  Romans.     The  destruction  of 
Carthage  happened  in  the  year  of  Rome  608,  and  of  the  world 
36)56,  the  same  year  that  witnessed  the  sack  of  Corinth. 

The  fall  of  Carthage,  and  more  especially  the  conquest  of 
Greece,  Egypt,  and  the  Asiatic  kingdoms,  occasioned  a  wonder- 
ful revolution  in  the  manners  and  government  of  the  Romans 
The  riches  of  the  East,  the  arts  and  institutions  of  the  van 
quished  nations,  brought  them  acquainted  with  luxuries  they 
had  never  known,  which  soon  proved  the  fatal  harbingers  of 
\    vice.     Their  patriotism  and  love  of  liberty  insensibly  declined. 
I    and  became  extinct :  powerful  and  ambitious  citizens  fomented 
I     insurrections  and  civil  wars,  which  ended  in  the  subversion  of 
I     the  republican  government,  and  the  establislunent  of  monarchy 
Two  triumvirates  appeared  in  succession.     The  first  consisteil 
of  Pompey,  Caesar,  and  Crassus,  and  was  dissolved  in  conse- 


rnrnent 

ssesnion 
Africa, 

[ill  Asia, 

LTful  re- 
live iiled 

inns  had 
if  Tunis, 
nding  of 
iHginians 
ind  their 
lorce,  and 
ins  every 
conquests 
ds  of  the 

lession  of 

with  the 

CarthagP    j  \ 

td  it  wot    ' ; 

ice,  made 

ihagiiiianii 

il,  after  a 

ly  laid  in 

Polybiua 
point  out     I 
archives     I 

^  with  the 

.ruction  of 
the  world 
th. 

jnquest  of 
a  wonder- 
Romana 
f  the  van 

juries  they 
•bingers  of 
declined, 
fomented 
jver.sion  ol 
monarchy 
it  consisteil 
in  conse- 


tNTKOI  ,  UIIOM. 


91 


quence  of  the  civil  wiir  that  aro!«e  among  the  triumvirs.  Casar, 
havings  con(|ui>red  Foiii|)i>y  ut  the  bnttle  of  Pharsalia,  in  the 
y»Mir  «»f  Komf  706,  became  master  of  the  empire,  under  the  title 
of  perpetuul  dictiitor.  This  new  elevation  of  fortune  he  did 
not  long  enjoy  ;  he  was  assiisNinutcd  in  the  senate  by  a  band  of 
cn^^<pi^at•)r^l,  at  the  houd  of  whom  was  Brutus,  in  the  year  of 
Koine  710,  iind  42  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

A  second  triumvirate  was  formed  between  Mark  Antony, 
Cssiir  Octaviaiius,  and  Lepidus.  Many  thousands  of  illustri- 
ous Romans,  and  among  others  Cicero,  were  at  this  time  pro- 
scribed, and  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  triumvirs.  Jealousy 
having  at  length  disunited  these  new  tyrants,  Octavianus  stripped 
Lepidus  of  his  power,  and  defeated  Mark  Antony  in  the  famous 
naval  battle  which  took  place  near  the  promontory  of  Actium, 
in  the  year  of  Runic  733.  Antony  having  been  assassinated  in 
Egypt,  immediately  after  his  defeat,  Cossar  Octavianus  became 
sole  master  of  the  empire,  which  he  afterwards  ruled  with 
sovereign  authority  under  the  name  of  Augustus. 

At  this  time  the  Roman  empire  comprehended  the  finest 
countries  of  Europe  and  Asia  ;  with  Egypt  and  all  the  northern 
part  of  Africa.  It  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Rhine  and 
the  Danube,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Euphrates.  The  successors 
of  Augustus  added  the  greater  part  of  Britian  to  the  empire. 
Trajan  carried  his  victorious  arms  beyond  the  Danube ;  he  con- 
quered the  Dncians,  who  inhabited  those  countries  known  at 
present  under  the  name  of  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Moldavia, 
Walachia,  and  Bessarabia.  In  the  East  this  prince  extended  the 
limits  of  the  empire  beyond  the  Euphrates,  having  subdued 
Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  Armenia,  Colchis  and  Iberia,  (or  Geor- 
gia;) but  the  conquests  of  Trajan  were  abandoned  by  his  suc- 
cessors, and  the  empire  again  shrunk  within  the  bounds  pr<v 
scribed  by  Augustus. 

This  empire,  which  extended  from  north  to  south  nearly  sii 
hundred  leagues,  and  more  than  a  thousand  from  east  to  west, 
viz.  from  the  24°  to  the  €6*^  of  latitude,  comprised  a  total  of 
180,000  square  leagues.  The  population,  during  its  most 
flourishing  state,  may  be  estimated  at  about  120,000,000, — a 
population  which  equals  that  of  modern  Europe,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Russia  and  Turkey. 

The  government  which  had  been  introduced,  was  an  absolute 
monarchy,  only  clothed  with  the  forms  of  the  ancient  republic. 
Under  the  populai  titles  of  consul,  tribune  of  the  people,  ffeue* 
ral,  grand  pontiff.  cen.sor,  dK.  the  prince  united  in  himself  all 
the  various  attributes  of  supreme  power.  The  senate  indeed 
enjoyed  extensive  prerogatives ;  'he  legislative  power,  which 


11 


'( 


} 


<M**>'»W«*« 


30  cHArrBR  I. 

had  been  reserved  at  first  for  the  pf«fM«,  was  nfterw»rds  Iran** 
ferred  to  this  body  ;  but  as  the  iiiiliiiiry  re  wholly  subordinate 
to  the  prince,  and  as  ho  had  also  i»i  his  coininand  a  numeroui 
guard,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  the  luilliority  of  the  senate  wn» 
but  precarious,  and  by  no  means  u  counterpoise  to  that  of  the 
prince. 

A  government  so  constructed  could  not  insure  the  welfare 
and  happiness  of  the  people,  except  under  princes  as  humane  as 
Titus,  as  just  and  enlightened  as  Trajon  ond  the  Antonines  ;  or 
so  long  as  the  forms  introduced  by  Augustus  should  »«  respect* 
ed.  It  could  not  fail  to  degenerate  into  arbitrary  power,  under 
tyrants  such  as  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Nero,  and  Domitian ;  and 
tne  senate  must  then  have  been  but  a  servile  instrument  in  the 
hands  of  the  prince,  employed  by  him  to  facilitate  the  means  of 
satiating  his  passions  and  his  tyranny. 

The  maxims  of  absolute  power  soon  became  the  fashionable 
and  favourite  doctrine.  Civilians  began  to  teach  publicly,  that 
all  the  authority  of  the  senate  and  the  people  was  transferred  to 
the  prince ;  that  he  was  superior  to  the  laws ;  that  his  power 
extended  to  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  the  citizens ;  and  that  he 
might  dispose  of  the  state  as  his  own  patrimony.  These  en- 
croachments of  despotism,  joined  to  the  instability  of  the  imperial 
throne,  the  decay  of  military  discipline,  the  unbridled  license  of 
the  troops,  the  employing  whole  corps  of  barbarians  in  their 
wars,  must  all  be  reckoned  among  the  riumber  of  causes  that 
hastened  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire. 

Constantine  the  Great,  was  the  first  of  the  emperors  that  em- 
braced Christianity,  and  made  it  the  established  religion  of  the 
state  in  324.  He  quitted  the  city  of  Rome,  the  ancient  residence 
of  the  CtBsars,  and  fixed  his  capital  at  Byzantium,  in  330,  which 
took  from  him  the  name  of  Constantinople.  Anxious  to  provide 
for  the  security  of  his  new  capital,  he  stationed  the  flower  of  his 
legions  in  the  East,  dismantled  the  frontiers  on  the  Rhine  and 
the  Danube,  and  dispersed  into  the  provinces  and  towns,  the 
troops  who  had  heretofore  encampeu  on  the  borders  of  these 
great  rivers.  In  this  way  he  secured  the  peace  and  tranquillity 
of  the  interior,  and  infused,  for  a  time,  a  new  vigour  into  the 
government ;  but  he  committed  a  great  mistake  in  giving  the 
first  example  of  making  a  formal  division  of  the  stale  between 
his  sons,  without  regard  to  the  principle  of  unity  and  indivisi- 
bility  which  his  predecessors  had  held  sacred.  It  is  true,  this 
separation  was  not  of  long  continuance ;  but  it  was  renewed 
afterwards  by  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  finally  divided  the 
empire  between  his  two  sons  in  the  year  395 ;  Arcadius  had  the 
eastern,  and  Honorius  the  western  part  of  the  empire.     This 


C 

c 
C 

ei 
t( 
n 

ei 

R 

«l 
»( 
n< 
bl 

g« 
w 

fa 

m 


•««*M'»'*  f  *""ii'iii 


_iiiit»iii»wttfii!jii(t.ij.;,,ji%^ijw 


1 


n  tranv* 
irdinnte 
meroua 
ate  wns 
of  the 

welfare 
nnne  as 
nes ;  or 
respecl- 
r,  under 
in ;  and 
il  in  the 
leans  of 

[lionable 
cly,  that 
ferrcd  to 
is  power 
that  ho 
bene  en* 
imperial 
cense  of 
their 
ises  that 


er( 


lat  em* 

of  the 
esidence 

which 
provide 

of  his 
line  and 
wns,  the 
of  these 
nquillity 
into  the 

ing  the 
between 
indivisi- 
rue,  this 
renewed 
ded  the 

had  the 
This 


INTIODirCTION. 


39 


latter  comprehended  Italy,  Uaul,  Britain,  Spain,  Northern  Afri- 
ca, Khutia,  Viiidclicia,  Noricum,  Pannonia,  and  Illyria.  It  wai 
duritif^  the  mifn  of  HnnuriuM,  and  under  the  admmistration  of 
hiii  minister  Slilicho,  that  the  memorable  invasion  of  the  barba- 
rians huppenud,  which  wns  followed  shortly  aAer,  by  the  de- 
ntruction  of  the  Western  Empire. 

It  is  with  this  great  event,  which  gave  birth  to  a  variety  of 
new  states  and  kingdoms,  that  the  following  History  of  the  Revo- 
lutions of  Europe  commences.  It  is  divit^d  into  nine  sections 
or  periods  of  time,  according  to  the  successive  changes  which  the 
political  system  of  Europe  experienced  from  the  iiAh  to  the 
nineteenth  century. 

In  the  Ant,  which  extends  to  the  year  800,  the  barbariana, 
who  invaded  the  Western  Empire,  formed  new  states  in  Spain, 
Gaul,  and  Italy ;  and  produced  a  complete  revolution  in  the 
governments,  laws,  manners,  letters,  and  arts  of  Europe.  It  was 
during  this  period  that  the  Franks  gained  the  ascendency  over 
the  other  European  nations ;  that  the  Popes  laid  the  ground- 
work of  their  secular  power ;  that  Mahomet  founded  a  new  re- 
ligion in  Asia,  and  an  empire  which  extended  through  Africa 
into  Spain. 

In  the  second  period,  which  extends  from  800  to  962,  a  vast 
empire  was  erected,  and  again  dismembered,  after  enjoying  a 
short-lived  splendour.  From  its  wreck  were  formed  new  king- 
doms, which  have  served  as  the  basis  for  several  states  of  mo- 
dern times.  Others  were  established  by  the  Normans,  Russians, 
and  Hungarians. 

In  the  third  period,  which  terminates  with  the  year  1072, 
Germany  became  the  preponderating  power,  and  began  to  de- 
cline, through  the  abuse  of  the  feudal  system.  The  House  of 
Cap«t  mounted  the  throne  of  France ;  and  the  Normans  achiev- 
ed the  conquest  of  England.  The  Northern  nations,  converted 
to  Christianity,  began  to  make  some  figure  in  history:  the  mo- 
narchy of  Russia  became  great  and  powerful ;  while  the  Greek 
empire,  and  that  of  the  Romans,  fell  into  decay. 

During  ihe  fourth  period,  which  ends  with  the  vear  1300,  the 
Roman  Pontifls  acquired  an  immense  sway.  This  is  also  the 
epoch  of  the  Crusades,  which  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
social  and  political  state  of  the  European  nations  :  The  dark- 
ness of  the  middle  ages  began  gradually  to  disappear ;  the  esta- 
blishment of  communities,  and  the  enfranchisement  of  the  serfs, 
gave  birth  to  new  ideas  of  liberty.  The  Roman  jurisprudence 
was  restored  from  the  neglect  and  oblivion  into  which  it  had 
fallen,  and  taught  in  the  universities :  Italy  was  covered  with  a 
multitude  of  republics,  and  the  kingdom  oi  the  two  Sicilies,  and 


T 


fi 


'• 


«r 


11 


^  til 


b  i 


40 


CHAPTER  I. 


of  Portugal  were  founded :  The  inquisition  was  established  in 
Franco,  and  Magna  Charta  in  England :  The  Moguls  in  the  east 
raised,  by  their  conquests,  a  powerful  and  extensive  empire. 

The^A  period,  ivhich  ends  at  the  taking  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks  in  1453,  witnessed  the  decline  of  the  Pontifical 
jurisdiction :  Learning  and  science  made  some  progress,  and 
various  important  discoveries  prepared  the  way  for  still  greater 
improvements :  Commerce  began  to  flourish,  and  extend  its  in- 
tercourse more  widely:  The  European  states  assumed  their 
present  form ;  while  the  Turks,  an  Asiatic  race,  established  their 
dominion  in  Europe. 

The  sixth  period,  from  1463  to  1648,  is  the  epoch  of  the  re- 
vival of  the  belles  lettres,  and  the  fine  arts ;  and  of  the  discovery 
America:  It  is  also  that  of  the  Reformation  of  religion  accom- 
plished in  Germany ;  the  influence  of  which  has  extended  over 
all  the  countries  in  the  world.  It  was  likewise  during  this 
period  that  Europe  was  desolated  by  religious  wars,  whtch 
eventually  must  have  plunged  it  again  into  a  state  of  barbarism. 
The  peace  of  Westphalia  became  the  basis  of  the  political  sys- 
tem of  Europe. 

In  the  seventh  period,  from  1648  to  1713,  this  federal  system 
was  turned  against  France,  whose  power  threatened  to  overturn 
the  political  balance  of  Europe.  The  peace  of  Utrecht  set 
bounds  to  the  ambition  of  its  aspiring  monarchs,  while  that  of 
Oliva  adjusted  the  contending  claims  of  the  North. 

The  European  states,  delivered  from  the  terror  of  universal 
dominion,  began  to  think  the  establishment  of  it  an  impossibility ; 
and  losing  conceit  of  the  system  of  political  equipoise,  they  sub- 
stituted in  its  place  maxims  of  injustice  and  violence. 

The  eighth  period,  which  comes  down  to  1789,  is  an  epoch 
of  weakness  and  corruption,  during  which  the  doctrines  of  a 
libertine  and  impious  philosophy  led  the  way  to  the  downfall  of 
thrones  and  the  subversion  of  social  order. 

[The  consequences  of  this  new  philosophy  bring  tis  to  the 
ninth  period,  during  which,  Europe  was  almost  entirely  revolu- 
tionized. The  present  history  terminates  with  the  year  1815, 
which  forms  a  natural  division  in  this  revolutionary  epoch;  the 
final  results  of  which  can  be  known  only  to  posterity  ] 


I 
\ 

r 

tl 

li 

I 

o 

a 

ri 

hi 
to 
til 

fi 

A 

m 

Vfl 

at 

si( 
i  Tl 
go 
th< 
Lc 
wc 


•>V*PM|i>(^ 


-<?tei". 


Ui 


VIEW 


OF   THE 


REVOLUTIONS  OF  EUROPR 


' 


I 


CHAPTER   H 


FERIOD   I. 


Fr^  the  InvaHon  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West  bu  the 
Barbanam,  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne,     a.  d.  406—800. 

t^„'Jr„1  ?"'"''!1  ^'"PT  '"V';/"'  """"y  y«"«>  l»^«n  gradually 
tending  towards  Us  downfall.  Its  energies  were  exhausted^ 
and  It  required  no  great  efforts  to  lay  prostrate  that  gigantic 
power  which  had  almost  lost  its  strength  and  activit/^fJe 
vices  of  the  government,  the  relaxation  of  discipline,  the  ani- 
mosities  of  faction,  and  the  miseries  of  .he  people,  all  announced 
he  approaching  ruin  of  the  empire.  Divided  by  mutual"'^ 
busies,  enervated  by  luxury,  and  oppressed  by  despotism,  the 

of^rrr""*  V"  "•*  Tt'^^V^  *'"'^'^"''  ">«  numerous  swarms 
of  barbarians  from  the  North,  who,  unacquainted  with  luxury, 
and  despising  danger  and  death,  had  learned  to  conquer  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Imperial  armies.  ^ 

Several  of  the  Emperors,  guided  by  a  short-sighted  policy, 
had  received  into  the.r  pay  entire  battalions  of  foreigners ;  an^d 
to  recompense  their  services,  had  assigned  them  settlements  in 

ht  i„.  f  '  P'*""""'  "'^  "**  ^.""P''*-  T''"^  'he  Franks  obtained, 
by  way  of  compensation,  territories  in  Belgic  Gaul:  while  simi. 
lar  grants  were  made  in  Pannonia  and  in  Thrace,  to  the  Vandals 
Alans.  Goths,  and  other  barbarians.  This  liberklity  of  the  Ro: 
mans,  which  was  a  true  mark  of  weakness,  together  with  the 
vast  numbers  of  these  troops  which  they  employed  in  their  wars 

prey.     Towards  the  close  of  the  year  406,  the  Vandals   the 

Thp  ri  l^T'r'"''  '^^  downfall  of  the  Western  empire. 
Ihe  example  of  these  nations  was  soon  followed  by  the  Visi- 
goths,  the  Burgundians,  the  Alemanns.'  the  Franks,  the  Huns. 
Lo^trf '•  AM  !"""'•  '^'  """'«•  "»«  Ostrogoths,  and  the 

i!!!  «f  r  ^"  "'"*"  "■"'""'•  ""'•  *•»«  ««^«P'i»n  of  the  Huns; 
were  of  German  origin.  ' 


1 1 


■i  I 


17 


i^K 


48  CIIAPTKR    11. 

The  Vanpals,  it  appears,  were  originally  settled  in  that  imrt 
of  norihern  Germany  which  lies  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Vis- 
tula. They  forined'a  branch  of  the  ancient  Suevi,  as  did  also 
the  Burgundians  and  the  Lombards.  After  the  third  century, 
and  under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Probus,  we  find  them,  with 
the  Burgundians,  engaged  in  warring  against  the  Romans  on 
the  Rhine.  In  the  time  of  Aurelian,  (272)  they  established  them- 
selves in  the  western  part  of  Dacia,  that  is,  in  Transylvania,  and 
a  part  of  modern  Hungary.  Oppressed  in  these  districts  by  the 
Goths,  they  obtained  from  Constuntine  the  Great,  settlements  in 
Pannonia,  on  condition  of  rendering  military  service  to  the 
Romans.  They  remained  in  Pannonia,  until  the  commencement 
of  the  fifth  century,  when  they  set  out  on  their  emigration  to- 
wards Gaul.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  they  associated  them- 
selves with  the  Alans,  a  people  originally  from  Mount  Caucasus, 
and  ancient  Scythia;  a  branch  of  which,  settled  in  Sarmatia 
near  the  source  of  the  Borysthenes  or  Dnieper,  had  advanced 
a«  far  as  the  Danube,  and  there  made  a  formidable  stand  against 
the  Romans.  In  their  passage  through  Germany,  the  Vandals 
and  the  Alans  joined  a  body  of  the  Suevi,  who  also  inhabited 
the  banks  of  the  Danube,  eastward  of  the  powerful  nation  of  the 
Alemanns.  United  in  this  rude  confederacy,  they  entered  Gaul, 
plundering  and  destroying  wherever  they  went.  Mayence, 
Worms,  Spire,  Strasbourg,  and  many  flourishing  cities  of  Gaul, 
were  pillaged  by  these  barbarians. 

The  Goths,'  the  most  powerful  of  these  destructive  nations, 
be^ran  to  rise  into  notice  in  the  third  century,  after  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Caracalla.  They  then  inhabited  the  cr>untry  be- 
tween the  Vistula,  the  Dniester,  the  Borysthenes,  and  Jie  Tanais 
or  Don.  It  is  not  certain  whether  they  were  originally  from 
these  regions,  or  whether,  in  more  remote  times,  they  inhabited 
Scandinavia,  from  which,  according  to  Jornandes,  a  Gothic  au- 
thor, they  emigrated  at  an  early  period.  It  is  however  certain, 
thai  they  were  of  German  extraction ;  and  that,  in  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries,  they  made  the  Ceesars  tremble  on  their  thrones. 
The  Emperor  Aurelian  was  compelled  (274)  to  abandon  the  pro- 
vince of  Dacia  to  their  dominion. 

This  nation,  the  first  of  the  German  tribes  that  embraced  the 
Christian  religion,'  was  divided,  in  their  ancient  settlements 
lieyond  the  Danube,  into  two  principal  branches.  They  who 
inhabited  the  districts  towards  the  east  and  the  buxine  Sea. 
between  the  Dniester,  the  Borysthenes,  and  the  Tanais,  were 
colled  Ostrogoths ;  the  Visigoths  were  the  branch  which  extend- 
ed westward,  and  occupied  ancient  Dacia,  and  the  regions  situ- 
ated between  the  Dniester,  the  Danube  and  the  Vistula.     At* 


' '-  |gftjJv.«,^^wtta.,JteA  ^J^#v 


It  Mft 

e  Vis. 
d  also 
sntury, 
™,  wilh 
ins  on 
I  them* 
lia,  and 
by  the    ' ' 
lenls  in 
to  the     ; 
cement 
ion  to- 
1  them-    I 
ucasus.    < 
armatia    ' 
Ivanced    | 
against    1 
Vandals     i 
habited    { 
n  of  the    i 
dGaul. 
ayence, 
ifGaul, 

lations, 
time  of 
itry  be- 
Tanais 

ily  from 
ihabited 

Ithic  au* 

Icertain, 
lird  and 
thrones. 

[the  pro- 

Lced  the 
llemeuts 
ley  who 
Ine  Seat 
lis,  were 
extend* 
Ins  situ* 
la.     At> 


PBKIOD  I.     A.  D.  406—800.  411 

tacked  in  these  vast  countries  by  the  Huns,  (375)  some  were 
Rubjugfaled,  and  others  compelled  to  abandon  their  habitations. 
A  part  of  the  Visigoths  then  fixed  their  abode  in  Thrace,  ia 
MiBsia,  and  the  frontiers  of  Dacia,  with  consent  of  the  emperors ; 
who  granted  also  to  the  Ostrogoths  settlements  in  Pannonia. 
At  length  the  Visigoths,  after  having;  twice  ravaged  Italy,  sacked 
and  plundered  Rome,  ended  their  conquests  by  establishing 
themselves  in  Gaul  and  in  Spain.  One  branch  of  these  Goths 
appears  to  have  been  the  Thuringians,  whom  we  find  in  the 
fifth  century  established  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  where  they 
erected  a  very  powerful  kingdom. 

Tub  Fbanks  were  probably  a  confederacy  which  the  German 
tribes,  situated  between  the  Rhine,  the  Maine,  the  Weser,  and 
the  Elbe,  had  formed  among  themselves,  in  order  to  maintain 
their  liberty  and  independence  against  the  Romans.  Tacitus, 
who  wrote  about  the  commencement  of  the  second  century,  did 
not  know  them  under  this  netv  name,  which  occurs  for  the  first 
time  in  the  historians  of  the  third  century.  Among  the  German 
tribes  who  composed  this  association,  we  find  the  Chauci,  the 
Sicambri,  the  Chamavi,  the  Cherusci,  the  Bructeri,  the  Catti, 
the  Ampsivarii,  the  Ripuarii,  the  Salii,  kc.*  These  tribes, 
though  combined  for  the  purposes  of  common  defence,  under 
the  general  name  of  Franks,  preserved,  nevertheless,  each  their 
laws  and  form  of  government,  as  well  as  their  particular  chiefs, 
and  the  names  of  their  aboriginal  tribes.  In  the  fourth,  and 
towards  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  the  whole  country 
lying  within  the  Rhine,  the  Weser,  the  Maine,  and  the  Elbe, 
was  called  Francia. 

Another  confederation  of  the  German  tribes,  was  that  of  the 
Alemanns  ;  unknown  also  to  Tacitus.  It  took  its  origin  about 
the  commencement  of  the  third  century.  Their  territories  ex- 
tended between  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  the  Necker,  the  Main, 
and  the  Lahn.  On  the  east,  in  a  part  of  Franconia  and  modem 
Suabia,  they  had  for  their  neighbours  and  allies  the  Suevi, 
who,  after  having  long  formed  a  distinct  nation,  were  at  length 
blended  wilh  the  Alemanns,  and  gave  their  country  the  name 
of  Suabia.  The  Alemanns  rendered  themselves  formidable  to 
the  Romans,  by  their  frequent  inroads  into  Gaul  and  Italy,  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries. 

The  Saxons,  unknown  also  to  Tacitus,  began  to  make  a 
figure  in  history  about  the  second  century,  when  we  find  th<>m 
settled  beyond  the  Elbe,  in  modem  Holstein,  having  for  their 
neighbours  the  Angles,  or  English,  inhabiting  Sleswick  Proper. 
These  nations  were  early  distinguished  as  pirates  and  free- 
booter* ;  and,  while  the  Franks  and  the  Alemanns  spread  them- 


I ; 


;  I 


!  i'^I 


44 


CHAPTER   II. 


selves  over  the  interior  of  Gaul,  the  Saxons  infested  the  coaoU 
and  even  extended  their  incursions  into  Britain.  The  Franks 
having  penetrated  into  Gaul  with  their  main  forces,  the  Saxons 
passed  the  Elbe,  and  in  course  of  time,  occupied,  or  united  in 
alliance  with  them,  the  greater  part  of  ancient  Francia,  which 
took  from  them  the  name  of  Saxony.  There  they  suhdivided 
themselves  into  three  principal  branches;  the  OstpLUiam  to 
the  east,  the  Westphalians  to  the  west,  and  the  Angriaiis  or 
Angrivarians,  whose  territories  lay  between  the  other  two, 
along  the  Weser,  and  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Hesse. 

The  HiTNS,  the  most  fierce  and  sanguinary  of  all  the  nations 
which  overran  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  fifth  century,  came 
trom  the  remote  districts  of  northern  Asia,  which  were  altogether 
unknown  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  From  the  de- 
scriptions which  the  historians  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries 
have  given  us  of  them,  we  are  led  to  believe,  that  they  were 
Kalmucks  or  Monguls  originally.  The  fame  of  their  arms  had 
begun  to  spread  over  Europe  so  early  as  the  year  376  of  the 
Christian  era.  Having  subdued  the  Alans,  and  crossed  the 
Tanais,  they  subverted  the  powerful  monarchy  of  the  Goths,  and 
gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  great  revolution  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, which  changed  the  face  of  all  Europe.  The  Eastern  empire 
first  felt  the  fury  of  these  barbarians,  who  carried  fire  and  sword 
wherever  they  went,  rendered  the  Emperors  their  tributaries, 
and  then  precipitated  themselves  on  the  West  under  the  conduct 
of  the  famous  Attila.' 

Several  of  the  nations  we  have  now  enumerated,  divided 
among  themselves  the  territories  of  Gaul.  This  province,  one 
of  the  richest  and  most  important  in  the  Western  empire,  was 
repeatedly  overrun  and  devastated  by  the  barbarous  hordes  of  the 
fifth  century.  The  Visigoths  were  the  first  that  formed  settle- 
ments in  it.  On  their  arrival  under  the  command  of  King  Aiulf 
or  Adolphus,  (412,)  they  took  possession  of  the  whole  country 
lying  within  the  Loire,  the  Rhine,  the  Durance,  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  Alps.  Toulouse  became  their  capital,  and  the 
residence  of  their  kings. 

The  Burgundians,  a  people,  it  would  appear,  originally  from 
the  countries  situated  between  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  fol- 
lowed nearly  in  the  track  of  the  Visigoths ;  as  we  find  them, 
about  the  year  413,  established  on  the  Upper  Rhine  and  in 
Switzerland.  After  the  dissolution  of  the  empire,  they  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  themselves  in  those  parts  of  Gaul,  known 
by  the  names  «f  the  Sequanois,  Lyonnois,  Viennois  knd  Nar- 
bonnois,  viz.  in  those  districts  which  formed,  in  course  of  lime, 
the  two  Burgundies,  the  provinces  of  Lyonnois,  Dauphiny  and 


'^t'ayj^^^.^dkd 


IM; 


w 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406— SOO,  45 

I      Provence  on  this  side  of  the  Durance,  Savoy,  the  Pays  de  Vand, 
he  Valais  and  Switzerland."     These  counlrie,   then  assumed 

j     the  name  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Bnrgundians. 

I     .v,7r  .^'-^f '■^' ""d  "if.  S"EV'  became  flourishing  nations  on 

I     the  banks  of  the  Upper  Rhine  and  the  Danube.     Thev  invaded 

hose  countries  in  Gaul,  or  the  Ger mania  Prima  of  the  Romans, 

known  since  under  the  names  of  Alsace,  the  Palatinate,  May- 

ence,  &c. ;  and  extended  their  conquests  also  over  a  considerable 

part  of  Rhetia  and  Vmdelicia. 

At  length  the  Franks,  having  been  repulsed  in  different  ren- 
counters  by  the  Romans,  again  passed  the  Rhine  (430,)  under 
the  conduct  of  Clodion  their  chief;  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  greater  part  of  Belgic  Gaul,  took  possession  of  Tournav, 
tambray  and  Amiens  ;  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  new 
kingdoni  of  France  m  Gaul.     The  Romans,  however,  still  main- 
tained their  authority  in  the  interior  of  that  province,  and  the 
brave^tius  their  general  made  head  against  all  those  hordes 
of  barbarians  who  disputed  with  him  the  dominion  of  Gaul. 
»K«  ,r!  "'  V     crisis  that  the  Hcjns  made  their  appearance  on 
he  theatre  of  war.     The  fierce  Attila,  a  man  of  great  military 
talents,  after  having  overthrown  various  states,  conquered  Pan- 
noma,  and  different  provinces  of  the  Eastern  empire  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  undertook  his  famous  expedition  into  Ga°j|. 
Marching  along  the  Danube  from  Pdnnonia,  at  the  head  of  an 
innumerable  army,^  he  passed  the  Rhine  near  the  Lake  of  Con- 
stance,  pillaged  and  ravaged  several  places,  and  spread  the  terror 
of  his  arms  over  all  Gaul.  The  Franks  and  the  Visigoths  united 
their  forces  with  those  of  the  Roman  General,  to  arrest  the 

K'n'r     M^^1?"^T"\  .^  '''""dyand  obstinate  encounter 
took  place  (451,)  on  the  plains  of  Chalons-sur-Marne,  or  Mery- 

and  m^'th         r^.S°'*,'''"i-  .Thierry,  King  of  the  Visigoth's, 

the  field  of  battle.  Night  separated  the  combatants ;  and  Attila, 
who  found  his  troops  too  much  exhausted  to  renew  the  combat 
resoved  to  retreat.  The  following  year  he  made  a  descei.l 
on  Italy,  and  committed  great  devastations.  This  proved  hi* 
last  expedition  ;  for  he  died  suddenly  on  his  return,  and  the  i 
monarchy  of  the  Huns  expired  with  him.  I 

The  defeat  of  the  Huns  did  not  re-establish  the  shattered  and  | 
ruinous  affairs  of  the  Romans  in  Gaul.  The  Salian  Franks  ^  ! 
under  their  kings  Meroveus  and  Childeric  I.,  the  successors  of  ' 
Clodion,  extended  their  conquests  more  and  more ;  till  at  leneth  I 
Uovis,  son  of  Childerit  I.,  put  an  end  to  the  dominion  of  the  i 
Romans  in  that  country,  by  the  victory  which  he  gained  in  486  I 
at  S>oissons,  over  Syagrius,  the  last  of  "the  Roman  generals,  who     ' 


|i 


4 


-J 


a^Pfek- 


-*-fer 


iP- 


tP 


B 


40  CRAPTBR  n> 

died  of  a  broken  heart  in  consequence  of  this  defeat.  The  Ale* 
munns  afterwards  having  disputed  with  him  the  empire  of  the 
Guuis,  he  routed  them  completely  (496.)  at  the  famous  battle  of 
Tolbiac  or  Zulpich  ;»  seized  their  estates,  and  soon  after  em- 
braced Christianity.  Emboldened  by  his  new  creed,  and  backed 
by  the  orthodox  bishops,  he  attacked  the  Visigoths,  who  were 
of  the  heretical  sect  of  Arius,  defeated  and  killed  their  king, 
Alaric  II.,  in  the  plains  of  Vougle,  near  Poitiers,  (507,)  and 
stripped  them  of  all  their  possessions  between  the  Loire  and  the 
Pyrenees."  Gaul  became  thus,  by  degrees,  the  undisputed 
possession  of  the  Franks.  The  descendants  of  Clovis  added  to 
their  conauests  the  kingdom  of  the  Burgundians  (634,)  which 
they  totallv  overthrew.  .       •     u    ■ 

T hpoe  same  princes  increased  their  possessions  in  the  intenoi 
of  Germany,  by  the  destruction  of  the  powerful  kingdom  of  the 
Thurinojans  (631,)  comprising  those  vast  countries  between  the 
Werra,  the  Aller,  the  Elbe,  the  Saal,  the  Mulda,  and  the  Danube ; 
and  which  are  now  known  under  the  names  of  »axonv,  1  hu- 
ringia,  Franconia,  the  Upper  Palatinate,"  &c.  Thts  kingdom 
they  divided  with  their  allies  the  Saxons,  who  obtained  the  nor- 
thern part  of  it,  situated  between  the  Unstrut  and  the  baal. 

While  the  Visigoths,  the  Burgundians,  the  Franks  and  the 
Alemanns,  were  disputing  with  each  other  the  conquest  of  Gaul, 
the  Vandals,  the  Suevi,  and  the  Alans,  turned  their  ambitious 
views  towards  Spain.  After  having  settled  some  years  in  Gaul, 
these  tribes  passed  the  Pyrenees  (409.)  to  establish  themselves 
in  the  most  fertile  regions  of  Spain.  The  Vandals  seized  Bff. 
tica,  and  a  part  of  Gallicia  ;  the  Suevi  seized  the  rest  of  Gal- 
licia ;  while  the  Alans  took  possession  of  Lusitania,  and  the 
province  of  Carihagena.  The  Alans  afterxyards  submitted  to 
the  sway  of  Gonderic,  King  of  the  Vandals  (420,)  while  the 
Suevi  preserved  their  native  princes,  who  reigned  in  Gallicia 
and  Lusitania  ;  this  latter  province  having  been  abandoned  by 
the  Vandals,  (427,)  when  they  passed  into  Afric^. 

Meanwhile  new  conquerors  began  to  make  their  appearance 
in  Spain.  The  Visigoths,  pressed  by  the  Romans  in  Gaul, 
took  the  resolution  of  carrying  their  arms  beyond  the  Pyrenees. 
Under  the  conduct  of  th^ir  King,  Adolphus,  they  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  city  of  Barcelona  (in  416.)  Euric,  one  o 
the  successors  of  this  prince,  took  from  the  Romans  (472)  all 
that  yet  remained  of  their  possessions  in  Spain  ;  and  Leovigild, 
another  of  their  kings,  completed  the  conquest  of  all  that  coun- 
try  (584,)  by  reducing  the  kingdom  of  the  Suevi.  The  mo- 
narchv  of  the  Visigoths,  which  in  its  flourishmg  state  comprised, 
besides  the  continent  of  Spain,  -SepHmania  or  Languedoc  lO 


^l'' 


^fe^5S="' 


PERion  I.    A.  D.  406—800. 


47 


e  Ale* 

of  the 
ittic  of 
r  em- 
lacked 
(  were 
king, 
,)  and 
nd  the 
sputed 
ded  to 
which 

nterioi 
of  the 
ten  the 
inube; 
Thu- 
ngdom 
le  nor- 
lal. 

nd  the 
'Gaui, 
bitious 
I  Gaul, 
iselves 
id  B(r> 
•f  Gal- 
nd  the 
tted  to 
lie  the 
rallicia 
ned  by 

;arance 
Gaul, 
renees. 
i  them- 
,  one  of 
172)  all 
ovigild, 
it  coun- 
'he  mo- 
1  prised, 
edoc  io 


Gaul,  and  Mniiritonia  Tingitana  in  Africa,  maintained  its  exi^t* 
ence  until  the  commencement  of  the  eighth  century ;  when,  as 
we  shall  afterwards  see,  it  was  finally  overthrown  by  the  Arabs. 

Northern  Africa,  one  of  the  finest  possessions  of  the  Romans,  , 
was  wre'«ted  from  them  by  the  Vandals.  Count  Boniface,  who 
had  the  government  of  that  country,  having  been  falsely  accused 
at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Vnlentinian  III.,  and  believing  him- 
self ruined  in  the  esteem  of  that  prince,  invited  the  Vandals  over 
to  Africa;  proposing  to  them  the  surrender  of  the  provinces 
intrusted  to  his  command.  Genseric  was  at  that  time  king  of 
the  Vandals.  The  preponderance  which  the  Visigoths  had  ac- 
quired in  Spain,  induced  that  prince  to  accept  the  ofier  of  the 
Roman  General ;  he  embarked  at  the  port  of  Andalusia,  (427,) 
and  passed  with  the  Vandals  and  the  Alans  into  Africa.  Mean- 
time, Boniface  having  made  up  matters  amicably  with  the  Impe- 
rial court,  wished  to  retract  the  engagements  which  he  had 
made  with  the  Vandals.  Genseric  nevertheless  persisted  in  his 
^enterprise.  He  carried  on  a  long  and  obstinate  war  with  the 
Romans ;  the  result  of  which  turned  to  the  advantage  of  the 
barbarians.  Genseric  conquered  in  succession  all  that  part  of 
Africa  pertaining  to  the  Western  empire,  from  the  Straits  of 
Cadiz  as  far  as  Cyrenaica,  which  was  dependent  on  the  empire 
of  the  East.  He  subdued  likewise  the  Balearic  Isles,  with 
Sardinia,  Corsica  and  a  part  of  Sicily. 

The  writers  of  that  age  who  speak  of  this  invasion,  agree  in 
painting,  in  the  most  lively  colours,  the  horrors  with  which  it 
was  accompanied.  It  appears  that  Genseric,  whose  whole  sub- 
jects, including  old  men  and  slaves,  did  not  exceed  eighty  thou- 
sand persons,  being  resolved  to  maintain  his  authority  by  terror, 
caused,  for  this  purpose,  a  general  massacre  to  be  made  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Africa.  To  these  political  severities  were 
added  others  on  the  score  of  religion ;  being  devoted  with  all 
his  subjects  to  the  Arian  heresy,  he  as  well  as  his  successors 
became  the  constant  and  implacable  persecutors  of  the  orthodox 
Christians. 

This  prince  signalized  himself  by  his  maritime  exploits,  and 
by  the  piracies  which  he  committed  on  the  coasts  of  Italy  and 
the  whole  Roman  empire.  Encouraged,  as  is  supposed,  by  the 
Empress  Eudoxia,  who  wished  to  avenge  the  death  of  her  bus* 
band  Valentinian  III.,  he  undertook  an  expedition  into  Italy, 
(455,)  in  which  he  made  himself  master  of  Rome.  The  city 
was  pillaged  during  fifteen  days  by  the  Vandals,  spoiled  of  all 
its  riches  and  its  finest  monuments.  Innumerable  statues,  orna- 
ments of  temples,  and  the  gilded  cupola  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus,  were  removed  in  order  to  be  transported  to  Africa ; 


% 


■!   ! 


4S 


VIIAHTBR    li< 


I! 


toRclher  with  many  thousands  of  illustrious  cantjyes.     A  Tcwel 
loaded  wiilj  the  most  precious  monunients  of  Rome,  perishod 

in  the  nnssape.  , .     ,        •    •  l     j    j 

The  dominion  of  the  VandaU  in  Africa  lasted  about  a  hundred 
vear^.  Their  kingdom  was  destroyed  by  the  Emperor  Justmian, 
who  reunited  Africa  to  the  empire  of  ihe  Last.  Oilimer,  the 
jii^l  king  of  the  Vandals,  was  comiuered  by  Belixarius,  (5J4,) 
and  conducted  by  him  in  triumph  to  Constantinople. 

Britain,  inaccessible  by  its  situation  to  most  of  the  invaders 
that  overran  the  Western  empire,  was  infested,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, bv  the  northern  inhabitants  of  that  island,— the  free  Britons, 
known"  by  the  name  of  Caledonians  or  Picts,  and  Scots.      I  he 
Romans  having  withdrawn  their  legions  from  the  island  (446,) 
to  employ  them  in  Gaul,  the  Britons,  abandoned  to  their  own 
strength,' thought  proper  to  elect  a  king  of  their  own  nation, 
named  Vortigern  ;  but  finding  themselves  still  too  weak  to  resist 
the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots,  who,  breaking  over  the 
wall  of  Severus,  pillaged  and  laid  waste  the  Roman   province, 
thev  took  the  imprudent  resolution  of  calling  in  to  their  succour 
the   Angles,   Saxons,  and  Jutlanders,  who  were  already  dis- 
tinguished for  their  maritime  incursions.     A  body  of  these  An- 
glo-Saxons arrived  in  Britain  (450,)  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Marcian,  under  the  command  of  Hengist  and 
Horsa.     From  being  friends  and  allies,  they  soon  became  ene- 
mies of  the  Britons ;  and  ended  by  establishing  their  own  do- 
minion in  the  island.     The  native  islanders  after  a  protracted 
8trug.r|e.  were  driven  into  the  province  of  Wales,  where  they 
succeeded  in  maintaining  their  independence  against  their  new 
conquerors.      A  number  of  these  fugitive   Britons,  to  escape 
froin  the  yoke  of  the  invaders,  took  refuge  in  Gaul.      1  here 
they  were  received  by  the  Franks  into  Armorica  and  part  of  Ly- 
onnois,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Brittany. 

The  \nglo-Saxons  founded  successively  seven  petty  king- 
doms in  Britain,  viz.  Kent,  Sussex,  Wessex,  Essex,  Northura- 
berland.  East  Anglia,  and  Mercia.  Each  of  these  kingdoms 
had  severally  their  own  kings ;  but  they  were  all  united  in  a 
political  association,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Heptarchy. 
One  of  the  seven  kings  was  the  common  chief  of  the  confede- 
racy; and  there  was  a  general  convention  of  the  whole,  called 
ttittenagemot,  or  the  assembly  of  the  wise  men.  Each  king- 
dom  was  likewise  governed  by  its  own  laws,  and  had  its  se^ia- 
lale  assemblies,  whose  power  limited  the  royal  authority. 
This  federal  system  continued  till  the  ninth  century,  \vhen  Eg- 
lert  the  Great  succeeded  in  abolishing  the  Heptarchy  (827,1  and 
•  aised  hiiiisell  to  be  King  over  all  England 


HJ.iiii    ■ 


■ 


In  tho  midst  of  this  general  overthrow,  there  were  still  to  \m 
neen  in  Italy  the  phantoms  of  the  Roman  eniperori,  feebly  sun- 
portinff  a  diginty  which  h.ul  ionjr  since  ioM  its  splendour.  This 
hne  country  had  been  desolated  by  the  Visigoths,  the  Huns, 
and  the  Vandals,  m  succession,  without  becoming  the  fixed  re- 

,     sid.nce  of  any  one  of  these  nations.     The  conquest  of  ihiil  an- 
cient  seat  of  the  hrst  empire  in  the  world,  was  reserved  for  the 

;     Heruls  and  the  Rugians.     For  a  long  time,  these  German  na- 
tions,  who  are  generally  supposed  to  have  emigrated  from  the 

DamL     'ti  ^?'   ^"'^  I*"'"  '»PPr«»'--hing  towards  the 

Danube.  They  served  as  auxiliaries  to  the  Romans  in  Italy, 
after  the  example  of  various  other  tribes  of  their  countrymen 
being  resolved  to  usurp  the  dominion  of  that  country,  thev 
chose  for  their  king  Odoacer,  under  whose  conduct  they  seized 
Ravenna  and  Rome,  dethroned  Romulus  Momyllus  Aucrustu- 
lus,  the  last  of  the  Roman  Emperors  (476,)  and  put  an  "entire 
end  to  the  empire  of  the  West. 

The  Heruls  did  not  enjoy  these  conquests  more  than  seven- 
teen  years,  xvhen  they  were  deprived  of  them  in  their  turn  by 
the  Ostrogoths.      This  nation  then  occupied  those  extensive 
countries  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  in   Pannonia,  Illy, 
na,  and  Thrace  within  the  limits  of  the  Eastern  empire.  Thev 
had    rendered   themselves   formidable   to  the  Romans  in   that 
quarter,  by  tneir  frequent  incursions  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
empire,      fhe  Emperor  Zeno,  in  order  to  withdraw  these  dan- 
gerous  neighbours  from  his  frontiers,  encouraged  their  kinc 
Iheodoric,  as  IS  aHegod,  to  undertake  the  conquest  of   Italy 
from  the  Heruls      This  prince  immediately  penetrated  into  the 
country ;  he  defeated  the  Heruls   in  several  actions ;  and  at 
S  *  ^T       f''""''' '°  ^''"'himself  up  in  the  city  of  Ravenna 
(489,)  where,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  he  foil  into  the  hands  of    i 
the  conqueror,  who  deprived  him  at  once  of  his  throne  and  his  life      ' 

1  heodoric  deserves  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  other  bar^ 
barous  kings  of  the  fifth  century.  Educated  at  the  court  of  ' 
Constantinople,  where  he  passed  the  years  of  his  youth,  he  had 
learned  to  establish  his  authority  by  the  equity  of  his  laxvs.  ' 
and  the  wisdom  of  his  administrations.  He  ruled  an  empire  < 
which,  besides  taly,  embraced  a  great  part  of  Pannonia,  Rhetia.  : 
Noricum,  and  Illyria. 

This  monarchy,  formidable  as  it  was,  did  not  exist  beyond 
the  space  of  sixty  years :  after  a  sanguinary  warfare  of  eiffh- 
teen  years,  it  was  totally  subverted  by  the  Greeks.  The  Em- 
peror  Justinian  employed  his  generals,  Belisarius  "  and  Nui- 
«!s,  in  recovering  Italy  and  Sicily  from  the  hands  of  the  Goths, 
rhis  nation  defended  their  possessions  with  determined  obsii- 

4 


if 


fe^ 


^'1^ 


i»1, 


I*  CMAPTIR  n. 

nacv  Kncouragcd  by  Totila.  one  of  their  last  king.,  thcv 
main.aim"l  a  proUacto^  struggle  a«ninst  the  «re^l*«'  ""'I.  ""^;, 
rnSrable  Access  It  w«.  durin,  J^'-v^r  th.u  he  t^  ol 
Rome  WHS  piUnged  afresh,  and  at  length  (ol7,)  diMnnntu.i  oy 

with    he  exception  of  that  part  of  Rhelia  and  Noncum  wh  ch 
Thf  A^   nanns'occupied.  anS  which  during  the  war  between   he 
Greeks  and  the  Goths,  had  become  the  possession  of  the  l-rank^. 
A  new  revoUuion  happene'.  in  Italy.  (5»^.)  ^y  .^»)\";TZ 
f  .V  „  I  nrnhnrds      This  people,  who  originally  inhabited  the 
Intrnnart  of  Germany  on  the  Elbe,  and  formed  a  branch 
o?tt  gre^natiln  of  the  Levi,  had  at  length  fixed  themseWes 
?n  Pannon  a  (527.)  after  several  times  changing  ihe.r  abode 
Thev  "henTo  ned  with  the  Avars,  an  Asiatic  people,  against  the 
Genfdrwho  possessed  a  formidable  dominion  in  ancient  Dac.a, 
'  hrjrhank  of  the   Danube.     This  state  was  soon  over- 
turned by  the  ctinbne"  forces  of  the  two  nations  and  the  who  e 
terrilorieVof  the  Gepidm  passed  (565)  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Avlrs      The  Lombards  also  abandoned  to  them  their  pos- 
leLu.  IS  in  Pannonia.  and  went  in  quest  of  new  ^ettlemen 
no  Italy      It  was  in  the  spring  of  568  that  they  began_  the„ 
route    under  the  conduct  of  their  King  Albo.n.  who.  without 
comineTo  regular  combat  with  the  Greeks  took  from  then,,  ,n 
src's^ion.  a  great  number  of  cities  and  provinces.     Pav.a 
which    he  Gofhs  had  fortified  with  care,  was  l^e  only  town 
Tha  opposed  him  with  vigorous  resistance  ;  and  -t  d.d^^ot    ur 
'    render  till  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  in  572       Ihe  Lombara 
kinis  made  his  town  the  capital  of  their  new  dominions,  wh.oh, 
hesfderUpper  Italy,  known  more  especially  by  the  name  of 
LolrdVconp  el  ended  al.o  a  considerable  part  o   the  middle 
and  lower  disi^icts,  which  the  Lombards  gradually   wrested 

^'The'reSlluibn  of  which  we  have  just  now  given  a  summary 
view  c lianged  the  face  of  all  Europe  ;  but  it  iiad  a  more  ^ar- 
i^ular  influence  on  the  fate  of  ancient  Germany.  H'eber- 
nank  tribe  whose  former  boundaries  were  the  fth.ne  and  the 
Zub  now  extended  their  territories  beyond  these  rivers 
?S;t^„i.venam.^fU^-ati^.^ 

rfedtSrire'&t  Faxons.  Frisians.  Alemanns. 


;hcy 
wiin 

\h      ^ 

;)t  of       1 

rhich     I 

ly  no 

irhich 

ished 

•ccks, 

,vhich 

>n  the 

nks." 

vnsion 

3(1  the 

branch 

\selve8 

abode. 

nst  the 

,  Dacia, 

\  over- 

;  whole 

nion  ol 

;ir  pos- 

lements 
n  theii 
kvithout 
icm,  in 
Pavia 
ly  town 

Inot  sur- 
onibard 
,  which, 
name  of 
le  middlp 
wrested 

lummary 
liore  par- 

.M.e  Ger- 
:\nJ  the 
le  rivprs. 
Icitus,  fell 
lix  grand 

llemaniis. 


PBRIOD  I.     A.  D.  406 — 800. 


n 


Suabians,  nnd  Bavarians,'*  which  cmhriiced  all  the  regions  nU 
lerwardf  coinprchciided  under  the  name  of  Oermany. 

The  Aleinunns.  and  thoir  neighbours  the  Suabians,  occupied, 
nlonji  with  the  Bavnriiuis,  the  jjreater  part  of  what  is  called 
Uppor  (ftTinnny,  on  both  sides  of  the  Danube  as  far  as  the  Alps. 
The  Franks,  masters  of  a  powerful  monarchy  in  Gaul,  prcaerved, 
under  their  immediate  dominion  beyond  the  Rhine,  a  part  of 
ancient  France,  lojjetlier  with  the  territories  of  which  they  had 
deprived  the  .\lemanns'*  and  the  Thuringians.  In  short,  in 
all  Lower  Germany,  no  other  names  were  to  be  found  than 
those  of  the  Thuringians,  Saxons,  and  Frisians ;  and  as  to  the 
eastern  part,  situated  beyond  the  Saal  and  the  Elbe,  as  it  had 
been  deserted  of  inhabitants  by  the  frequent  emigrations  of  the 
German  tribes,  and  by  the  total  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Thuringians,  it  was  seized  in  turn  by  the  Slavi,  or  Slavo- 
nians.  a  race  distinguished  from  the  Germans  by  their  language 
■nd  their  manners. 

This  nation,  different  colonies  of  which  still  occupy  a  great 

Start  of  Europe,  did  not  begin  to  figure  in  history  until  the 
burth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Jornandes,  a  Gothic  writer 
of  the  sixth  century,  is  the  first  author  who  mentions  them. 
He  calls  them  Slavi,  or  Slavvia ;  and  distinguishes  them  into 
three  principal  branches,  the  Venedi,  the  Slavi,  and  the  Antes, 
whose  numerous  tribes  occupied  the  vast  countries  on  the  north 
of  the  Euxine  Sea,  between  the  Vistula,  the  Niester,  the  Nie- 
per,  tec.  It  was  after  the  commencement  of  the  sixth  century 
that  these  nations  emigrated  from  their  ancient  habitations,  and 
spread  them.«elves  over  the  east  and  south  of  Europe.  On  the 
one  side,  they  extended  their  colonies  as  far  as  the  Elbe  and 
the  Saal ;  on  the  other,  they  crossed  the  Danube,  and  penetra- 
ted into  Noricum,  Pannonia,  and  Illyria;  occupying  all  those 
countries  known  at  this  day  under  the  names  of  Hungary, 
Sclavonia,  Servia,  Bosnia,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  Carniola,  Carin- 
thta,  Stiria,  and  the  march  of  the  Venedi.  The  history  of  the 
sixth  century,  presents  nothing  more  memorable  than  the  bloody 
wars  which  the  emperors  of  the  East  had  to  maintain  against 
the  Slavians  of  the  Danube. 

Those  colonies  of  ihetn  who  first  distinguished  themselves 
on  the  Elbe,  the  Havel,  the  Oder,  and  in  the  countries  situated 
to  the  north  of  the  Danube,  were  the  Czechi,  or  Slavi  of  Bo- 
hemia ;  the  Sorabians  inhabiting  both  sides  of  the  Elbe,  be- 
tween the  Saal  and  the  Oder,  in  the  countries  now  known  under 
the  names  of  Misnia,  Saxony,  Anhalt  and  Lower  Lusnce  ;  the 
Wilzians,  or  Welatabes,  and  the  Abotriles,  spread  over  Bran- 
denburg, Pomerania,  and  Mecklenburg  proper ;  and,  lastly,  the 


H^  CHAPTBR   I). 

Mornvi.  or  Moravinnn,  M'Ulod  in  Mornvin,  and  in  a  p«rt  «f  mo. 
dern  Hui.gHry.  We  fimi,  in  llu'  s.-vi.Mil.  .•.  niury.  n  chief  named 
Sumo,  who  ruled  over  iniuiy  of  ihe.o  nuiioM!..  Ho  foughi  suc- 
ceH.fullv  u-^uin.l  ihc  armies  of  Kins  OxiT'-b.-rt.  Iii^  M.ppo.ed 
thai  ihis  man  wus  u  Frank  iiu-rihunl.  whom  several  of  ihe  Sla- 
vian  tribes  hud  elected  as  their  chief. 

There  is  one  thing  which,  at  ihi^  period,  ouRht  above  all  to 
fix  our  attention,  and  that  i.  the  influence  which  the  levolulion 
of  the  hfih  century   ha.l  on  the  governments,  laws,  manners, 
sciences,  and  arts  of  Europe.     The  German  tribes,  m  establish- 
inff  themselves  in  the  provinces  of  the  Western  empire,  mlro- 
duced  along  with  them  the  political  institutions  by  which  ihry 
had  been  governed  in  their  native  country.     The  governmems 
of  ancient  Germany  were  a  kind  of  military  democracies,  und-r 
general,  or  chiefs,  with  the  prerogatives  of  kings.     All  matt.  r» 
of  importance  were  decided  in  their  general  assemblies,  com- 
posed of  freemen,  having  the  privilege  of  carrying  arms,  and 
Hoing  to  w.ir.'"     The  succession  to  the  throne  was  not  hcredi- 
farv  ;  and  though  it  became  so  in  fact  in  most  of  the  new  German 
stales,  still,  on  the  accession  of  their  princes,  they  were;  attc,,. 
tive  to  preserve  ilie  ancient  forms,  which  evinced  the  primitive 
right  of  election  that  the  nation  had  reserved  to  itself. 

The  political  division  into  cantons  (gaw,)  long  used  in  ancient 
Germany,  was  iiiiroduccd  into  all  the  new  conquests  of  the  Ger- 
man tribes,  to  facilitate  the  administration  of  justice.  At  the 
head  of  every  canton  was  a  justiciary  officer,  called  (xrav,  m 
Latin  C«/,<e.v.  who  held  his  court  in  the  open  air,  assisted  by  a 
certain  n.imber  of  assessors  or  sherifTs  This  new  division 
caused  a  total  change  in  the  geography  of  Europe  The  ancient 
names  of  the  countries  were  every  where  replaced  by  new  ones  j 
and  the  alterations  which  the  nomenclature  of  these  divisions 
underwent  in  course  of  lime,  created  no  «mall  embarrassment 
in  the  study  of  the  history  and  geography  of  the  middle  ages 
I         Among  the  'reemen  who  composed  the  armies  of  the  German 

■  nations,  we  find  the  grandees  and  nobles,  who  w'ere  distinguisb.vl 
bv  the  number  of  men-at-arms,  or  freemen,  whom  they  carried 

;     in  their  train."     They  all  followed  the  king,  or  common  chief, 

■  of  the  expedition,  not  as  mercenaries  or  regular  soldiers,  but  as 

■  Tolunteers  who  had  come,  of  their  own  accord,  to  accompany 
him.     The  booty  and  the  conquests  which  they  made  in  war, 

'  thev  recrnrded  as  a  common  properly,  to  which  they  had  all  an 
equal  rrght.  The  kings,  chiefs,  and  grandees,  in  the  division 
of  their  territories,  received  larger  portions  than  the  other  mill- 
tary  and  freemen,  on  account  of  ihe  greater  efTonts  they  had 
male,  and  the  greater  number  ol  warriors  who  had  followed 


'-  '  ..-jMbb 


mo.  1 1 

lined  1 1 

sue-  1 

[)oxeil  1 1 

J  Sit.  i 

nil  to 
luiion 
nneM, 
iblish-      \ 
inlro- 
1  ihey 
imeiiiM 
,  und-r    ! 
nntli  T!» 
I,  com- 

18,    »M«1      ' 

hcretli- 
jerman 
V  aiun- 
rimilive 

ancient 
he  OiT- 
At  the 
Jmv,  in 
leil  by  a 
(livisiiin 
ancient 
w  one.* ; 
j  visions) 
[iissment 
jc  ages 
Germnn 
iguisln"'' 
carried 
[on  chief, 
fs,  but  aa 
ompany 
in  war, 
[ad  all  an 
division 
Iher  mili- 
|they  had 
followed 


PBRioD  I.     A.  D.  4(W — flOO.  n 

them  to  the  lif'ld.  Thpue  liiiuls  were  ,ivrii  them  as  property 
in  ovi  ry  rcNpcot  free  ;  iitiil  ultli()ii;;h  iin  ol)li(r,ition  wn»  impli«(l 
of  ihi'ir  coiiiiirrin;,'  in  (Icffncc  of  lh<'  ofdninon  nui.se,  yet  it  was 
rather  ii  sort  ol'  (•(iriNi'(|UPnc'e  of  the  i<>rriiorial  Kriitit,  iitul  not  im- 
posed upon  ihi'in  at  a  clause,  or  »'NS('ntiai  coruiiiinii  of  the  tenure. 

li  ix  thiTi'liirt'  wroiiif  to  rejfiini  this  (li^■i^i()M  of  Iimd.s  us  having 
given  rise  to  tiffs.  War  was  the  favourite  orinpation,  the  only 
honourable  rank,  and  the  inalienablo  preronmivc  of  u  German. 
They  were  .soldiert  not  of  necessity  or  constraint,  but  of  their 
own  free  will,  and  because  they  despised  every  other  employ- 
ment, and  every  other  mode  of  life.  Despotism  was,  therefore, 
never  to  bi>  apprehended  in  a  government  like  this,  where  the 
great  body  of  the  nation  were  in  arms,  sat  in  their  general  as- 
semblies, and  marched  to  the  field  of  war.  Their  kings,  how- 
ever, soon  invented  an  expedient  calculated  to  shackle  the 
national  liberty,  and  to  augment  their  own  influence  in  the  pub- 
lic assemblies,  by  the  number  of  retainers  which  they  found 
means  to  support.  This  expedient,  founded  on  the  primitive 
manners  of  the  Germans,  was  the  institution  of  fiefs. 

It  was  long  a  custom  among  the  ancient  Germans,  that  their 
chiefs  should  have,  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war,  a  numerou.s  suite 
of  the  bravest  youths  attached  to  their  person.  Beisides  provi- 
sions, tliey  supplied  them  with  horses  and  arm$,and  shared  with 
them  the  spoil  which  ihey  took  in  war.  This  practice  subsisted 
even  after  the  Germans  had  established  themselves  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  Western  Empire.  The  kmgs,  and,  after  their 
example,  the  nobles,  continued  to  entertain  a  vast  number  of 
companions  and  followers  ;  and  the  better  to  secure  their  alle- 
giance, they  granted  them,  instead  of  horses  and  arms,  the  enjoy- 
ment of  certain  portions  of  land,  which  they  dismembered  Irom 
their  own  territories. 

These  grants,  known  at  first  by  the  name  of  benefices,  and 
afterwards  of Jiefs,  subjected  those  who  received  them  to  personal 
services,  and  allegiance  to  the  superiors  of  whom  they  held 
them.  As  they  were  bestowed  on  the  individual  possessor,  and 
on  the  express  condition  of  personal  services,  it  is  obvious  that 
originally  fiefs  or  benefices  were  not  hereditary;  and  that  they 
returned  to  the  superior,  when  the  reason  for  which  they  had 
been  given  no  longer  existed. 

The  \aws  and  jurisprudence  of  the  Romans  were  in  full  prac- 
tice through  all  the  provinces  of  the  Western  Empire,  when  the 
German  nations  established  themselves  there.  Far  from  super- 
seding or  abolishing  them,  the  invaders  permitted  the  ancient 
inhabitants,  and  such  of  their  new  subjects  as  desired  it,  to  hve 
conformably  to  these  laws,  and  to  retain  them  in  their  courts  of 


1 1 


1 '  ? 


m 


M,^ 


m 


S4 


CHAPTER  11. 


lustice      Nevertheless,  without  adopting  this  system  of  jum. 

"  r""  teVXi  ':t  llela  in  the  Ro.an  provinces,  to  have  the.r 
ancUnt  customs,  to  which  they  were  so  pecuharly  attached,  di- 

^•^Th'e  C" Vef  ^t'sETn-d  Ripuarian  Franks,  those  of  the 
Vil^oths  the  Bu  gundians,  the  Bavarians  the  AngU>-Saxons 
ViMgotns,  uie  u">b  ,    ,      T„,,,bards,  were  collected 

P.n  .ans  as  well  as  of  their  attachment  to  that  personal  l.berty 
Gt-r  lans,  as  weii  a^'  "  characteristic  of  human     ; 

and  'nJeP«"d'^"'^*='.^^^''^;j^  '" According  to  these  laws,  every     . 

of  cattle.     Murder  'J^J»  "J'^'  equivalent,  which  was  more 

rSrs^vl'l^ai't-r/dyren.  «„.  o,c.„dUio„  », 

"'E°*"v''f  "™a„  wa»  exempt  Trom  cotpor.l  p.ml,hm«-,  .«d 
in  hand.     Hence,  we  ua  a    ^^  customs  of  the 


ir 


UTI8> 

their 
great 
theit 
i,  di-    I 

)fthfc 

xons, 

lected 

erned 

loose. 

A  the 

iberty 

luman 

every 
reance 

those 
ieredi- 
allow- 
ed,  by 
lumber 
ir ;  and 
s  more 
tion  of 


It;  and    \ 
parties     ; 
1  sword 
of  God, 
i  of  the 
sting  in 
,  encou- 
ss  on  all 
^ments 
them  to 
ich  they 
and  rob- 
standara 
i  perfidy 
ourt,  the 

the  bane- 
after  the 
1  a  single 


learnmgi 


PERIOD  I.      A.  D.  406—800. 


85 


it  is  true,  had  for  a  lonn;  time  been  gradually  falling  into  decay, 
and  a  corrupt  taste  had  bcpun  to  appear  among  the  Romans  in 
works  of  genius  and  imagination ;  but  no  comparison  can  be 
made  between  the  state  of  literature,  such  as  it  was  in  the  West 
anterior  to  the  revolution  of  the  fifth  century,  and  that  which  we 
find  there  afier  the  conquests  of  the  German  nations. 

These  barbarians,  addicted  solely  to  war  and  the  chase,  de- 
spised the  arts  and  sciences.  Under  their  destructive  hands, 
the  finest  monuments  of  the  Romans  were  levelled  to  the  ground  ; 
their  libraries  were  reduced  to  ashes  ;  their  schools  and  semi- 
naries of  instruction  annihilated.  The  feeble  rays  of  learning 
that  remained  to  the  vanquished,  were  unable  to  enlighten  or 
civilize  those  enemies  to  knowledge  and  mental  cultivation. 
The  sciences,  unpatronised  and  unprolocted  by  those  ferocious 
conquerors,  soon  fell  into  total  contempt. 

It  is  to  the  Christian  religion  alone,  which  was  embraced,  in 
succession,  by  the  barbarous  destroyers  of  the  empire,  that  we 
owe  the  preservation  of  the  mutilated  and  venerable  remains 
which  we  possess  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature.'^  The  cler- 
gy, being  the  authorized  teachers  of  religion,  and  the  only  inter- 
preters of  the  sacred  writings,  were  obliged  by  their  office  to 
have  some  tincture  of  letters.  They  thus  became,  over  all  the 
East,  the  sole  depositaries  of  learning;  and  for  a  long  series  of 
ages,  there  was  nobody  in  any  other  rank  or  profession  of  life, 
that  occupied  themselves  with  science,  or  had  the  slightest  ac- 
quaintance even  with  the  art  of  writing.  These  advantages 
which  the  clergy  enjoyed,  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to 
augment  their  credit  and  their  influence.  Every  where  they 
were  intrusted  with  the  management  of  state  affairs ;  and  the 
offices  of  chancellor,  ministers,  public  notaries,  and  in  general, 
all  situations  where  knowledge  or  the  art  of  writing  was  indis- 
pensable, were  reserved  for  them  ;  and  in  this  way  their  very 
name  (clericus)  became  as  it  were  the  synonyme  for  a  man  of 
letters,  or  any  person  capable  of  handling  the  pen.  The  bish- 
ops, moreover,  held  the  first  rank  in  all  political  assemblies,  and 
in  war  marched  to  the  field  in  person,  at  the  head  of  their  vassals. 

Another  circumstance  that  contributed  to  raise  the  credit  and 
the  power  of  the  clergy  was,  that  the  Latin  language  continued 
to  be  employed  in  the  Roman  provinces  which  had  been  sub- 
jected to  the  dominion  of  the  German  nations.  Every  thing 
was  written  exclusively  in  the  Roman  tongue,  which  became  the 
language  of  the  church,  and  of  all  public  acts ;  and  it  was  long 
before  the  German  dialects,  which  had  become  universally  pre- 
valent, could  be  reduced  to  writing.  The  corrupt  pronunciation 
of  the  Latin,  and  its  mixture  with  foreign  idioms  and  contsruc- 


mmM 


m  )i 


irif 


M 


66 


CHAPTER  II. 


tiuns,  pr.ve  birth,  in  course  of  time,  to  new  languages,  which 
still  retain  evidence  of  their  Roman  origm,  such  as  the  Italian, 
Snat.i>h,  Portuguese,  French  and  English  languages.     In  the 
filh  and  following  centuries,  the  Teutonic  language   or  that 
spoken  bv  the  conquerors  of  Gaul,  was  called  hngim  Francica; 
this  was  distinguished  from  the  Ung^m  Romana,  or  the  language 
spoken  by  the  people  ;  and  which  afterwards  gave  rise  to  the 
modern  /rench      It  appears,  therefore,  from  what  we  have  just 
Led,  that  the  incursion  of  the  German  tribes  mto  the  provinces     ; 
of  the  West,  was  the  true  source  of  all  the  barbarity,  ignorance     , 
and  superstition,  in  which  that  part  of  Europe  was  so  long  and 
so  universally  buried.  ,     , 

There  would  have  been,  therefore,  every  reason  to  deplore  a 

revolution,  not  less  sanguinary  in  j»\^lf '*^""  ^'^"^'.''""V"  Jl" 
consequences,  if,  on  the  one  hand,  it  had  not  been  the  instru- 
ment of  delivering  Europe  from  the  terrible  despotism  of  the 
Somans  ;  and,  on^the  other,  if  we  did  not  find,  in  the  rude  m- 
stiiuiions  of  the  German  conquerors,  some  germs  of  hberty» 
which,  sooner  or  later,  were  sure  to  lead  the  nations  of  Europe 
to  wiser  laws,  and  better  organized  governments. 

Amon<r  the  states  which  rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, that^of  the  Frnnks  aco   =red  the  preponderance;  and,  tor 
several  ages,  it  sustained  t'lr  •    iracter  of  being  l^e /"o^l  P^J" 
erful  kinidom  in  Europe,     ^u       ...archy,  founded  by  Clov.s 
and  extended  still  more  by  h       .  r.  ..sors,  embraced  the  whole 
I     of  Gaul  except  Languedoc,  «... ..  uelonged  to  the  Visigoths 
i     The  greater  part  of  Germany  also  was  subject  to  it,  with  the 
i     exception  of  Saxony,  and  the  territories  of  the  Slav..     Afte    it 
i     had   fallen  into  decay,  by  the  partitions  and  civil  wars  of  the 
I     descendants  of  Clovis,  it  rose  again,  solely  however  by  the  wis- 
j     dom  and  ability  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace,  who  restored  it  once 
',     more  to  its  original  splendour. 

These  mayors,  from  being  originally  merely  grand-masters  of 
I !     the  court,  rose  by  degrees  to  be  prime  ministers,  governors  ot 
;  i     the  state,  and  ulliniately  to  be  kings.     The  founder  of  their 
i '     ereatness.  was  Pepin  d'Heristal,  a  cadet  of  the  dynasty  of  tht 
' '     Carlovingians,  which  succeeded  that  of  the  Merovinguins,  to- 
'       wards  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century.     Under  the  Merovin- 
'       gian  princes,  the  sovereignty  was  divided  between  two  P"ni;'P1> 
! '     kin  Joms,  viz.  that  of  Austrasia,  which  comprehended  bast- 
i  I     ern^rance,  being  all  that  part  of  Gaul  situated  between  the 
i  i     Meuse,  the  Scheid,  and  the  Rhine ;  as  we  I  as  the  German  pro- 
• '     vinces  beyond  the  Rhine,  which  also  made  a  part  of  that  mo- 
i       narchv.   the  whole  of  Western  Gaul,  lying  between  the  Scheid, 
I      the  Meuse  and  the  Loire,  was  called  Neustria.      Burgundy, 
i  


J] 


mifif 


mur^ 


«; 


Till 


T! 


PERIOD  I.      A.  D.  406 — 800. 


hich 
lian, 

the 
that 
•ica ; 
uage 
I  the 

just 
inces 
-ance 

>  ^"^ 

ore  a 
n  its 
istru- 
if  the     ; 
ie  in-     ' 
berly,     ' 
urope     ' 

i 
n  em- 

id,  for 

;  pow- 

!)lovi3, 

whole 

oihs.* 

ih  the 

ider  it 

of  the 

le  wis- 

it  once 

sters  of 
nors  ot 
if  their 
of  tht 
ans,  to- 
erovin- 
rinc.ipal 
i  East- 
een  the 
lan  pro- 
lat  mo- 
Scheld, 
rgundy. 


ff7 


Aquitain,  and  Provence,  were  considered  as  d  jpondencies  of  this 
latter  kingdom. 

Dagobert  II.,  King  of  Aiistnisia,  having  been  assassinated,  in 
678,  the  Kmgnf  Neustria,  Thierry  III.,  would  in  all  probability 
have  reunited  the  two  monarchies ;  but  the  Auslrasians,  who 
dreaded  and  detested  Ebroin,  Mayor  of  Nousiria,  elected  a 
mayor  of  their  own,  under  the  nominal  authority  of  Thierry. 
ThLs  gave  rise  to  a  sort  of  civil  war  between  the  Austrasians  and 
the  Neustrians,  headed  by  Pepin  Heristal,  Mayor  of  Auslrasia, 
and  Bertaire,  Mayor  of  Neustria,  who  succeeded  Ebroin.  The 
battle  which  Pepin  gained  at  Testry,  near  St.  Quentin  (687.) 
decided  the  fate  of  the  empire  ;  Bertaire  was  slain,  and  Thierry 
III.  fell  under  the  power  of  the  conqueror.  Pepin  afterwards 
confirmed  to  Thierry  the  honours  of  royalty,  and  contented  him- 
self with  the  dignity  of  mayor,  and  the  title  of  Duke  and  Prince 
of  the  Franks;  but  regarding  the  throne  as  his  own  by  right  of 
conquest,  he  vested  in  himself  the  sovereign  authority,  and 
granted  to  the  Merovingian  Prince,  nothing  more  than  the  mere 
externals  of  majesty,  and  the  simple  title  of  king.  Such  was 
the  revolution  that  transferred  the  supreme  authority  of  the 
Franks  to  a  new  dynasty,  viz.  that  of  the  Carlovingians,  who 
with  great  moderation,  still  preserved,  during  a  period  of  sixty- 
five  years,  the  royal  dignity  to  the  Merovingian  princes,  whom 
they  had  stripped  of  all  their  power." 

Pepin  d'Heristal  being  dead  (714,)  the  partizans  of  the  ancient 
dynasty  made  a  last  efTort  to  liberate  the  Merovingian  kings 
from  that  dependence  under  which  Pepin  had  held  them  so  long. 
This  prince,  in  transferring  the  sovereign  authority  to  his  grand- 
son Theodwald,  only  six  years  of  age,  had  devolved  on  his 
widow,  whose  name  was  Plectrude,  the  regency  and  guardian- 
ship of  the  young  mayor. 

A  government  so  extraordinary  emboldened  the  factious  to 
attempt  a  revolution.  The  regent,  as  well  as  her  grandson,  were 
divested  of  the  sovereignty,  and  the  Neustrian  grandees  chose 
a  mayor  of  their  own  party  named  Rainfroy  ;  but  their  triumph 
was  only  of  short  duration.  Charles  Martel,  natural  son  cf 
Pepin  as  is  supposed,  having  escaped  from  the  prison  where  he 
had  been  detained  by  the  regent,  passed  into  Austrasia,  and  then 
caused  him.self  to  be  proclaimed  duke,  after  the  example  of  his 
father.  He  engaged  in  a  war  against  Chilperic  II.  and  his  mayor 
Rainfroy ;  three  successive  victories  which  he  gained,  viz.  at 
Stavelo,  Vinci  near  Cambray,  and  Soissons,  in  716-17-18.  made 
him  once  more  master  of  the  throne  and  the  sovereign  authority. 
The  Duke  of  Aquitain  having  delivered  up  King  Chilperic  to 
him,  he  confirmed  anew  the  title  of  royalty  to  that  prince ;  and 


li 


:# 


H 


•1  S 


[tl  i' 


■-tM 


■^ 


68 


CHAPTEB  II. 


shortly  after  raised  his  glory  to  its  highest  pitch,  by  the  brilliant 
victories  which  he  gained  over  the  Arabs  (732-737,)  in  the  plains 
of  Poitiers  and  Nnrbonne.  r  r>i.    ^ 

Pepin  le  Bref,  (or  the  Short)  son  and  successor  of  Charles 
Marlel,  finding  his  authority  established  both  writhin  and  with- 
out  his  dominions,  judged  this  a  favourable  opportunity  for  re- 
uniting the  title  of  royalty  to  the  power  of  the  sovereign.  He 
manacred  to  have  himself  elected  King  in  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  Franks,  which  was  convened  in  the  Champ-de-Mars, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Soissons.  Childeric  III.  the  last  of 
the  Merovingian  kings,  was  there  deposed  (752,)  and  shut  up 
in  a  convent.  Pepin,  with  the  intention  of  rendering  his  person 
sacred  and  inviolable,  had  recourse  to  the  ceremony  of  corona- 
tion ;  and  he  was  the  first  King  who  caused  himself  to  be 
solemnly  consecrated  and  crowned  in  the  Cathedral  of  Soi9- 
sons,  by  St.  Boniface,  first  archbishop  of  Mayence.*  Tho 
example  of  Pepin  was  followed  soon  after  by  several  princes  and 
sovereigns  of  Europe.  The  last  conquest  he  added  to  his  do- 
minion wai-  nie  province  of  Languedoc,  which  he  took  (75») 

from  the  Arabs.  ,    ,     „  .a- 

The  oricrin  of  the  secular  power  of  the  Roman  pontiHs  com- 
mences with  the  reign  of  Pepin.  This  event,  which  had  so 
peculiar  an  influence  on  the  religion  and  government  of  the  Euro- 
pean nations,  requires  to  be  detailed  at  some  length. 

At  the  period  of  which  we  write,  there  existed  a  violent  con- 
troversy between  the  churches  in  the  East,  and  those  in  thn 
West,  respecting  the  worship  of  images.     The  Emperor  Leo 
the  Isaurian  had  declared  himself  against  this  worship,  and  had 
proscribed  it  by  an  imperial  edict  (726.)     He  and  his  successors 
persisted  in  destroying  these  objeUs  of  idolatry,  as  well  as  in 
persecuting  those    who   avowed    hemselves  devotees   to  this 
heresy.      This  extravagant  zeal,  which   the   Roman   pontiffs 
blamed  as  excessive,  excited   the    indignation   of  the   people 
against  the  Grecian  Emperors.'^     In  Italy,  there  were  frequent 
rebellions  against  the  imperial  officers  that  were  charged  with 
the  execution  of  their  orders.     The  Romans  especially,  took 
occasion,  from  this,  to  expel  the  duke  or  governor,  who  resided 
in  their  city  on  the  part  of  the  emperor ;  and  they  formally 
erected  themselves  into  a  republic  (730,)  under  the  pontificate 
of  Gregory  H-,  by  usurping  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  reviving  the  ancient  names  of  the  senate  anil 
the  Roman  people.     The  Pope  w--  recognised  as  chief  or  head 
of  this  new  republic,  and  had  the  general  direction  of  allatlairs, 
both  at  home  and  abroad.     The  territory  of  this  republic,  formed 
01  the  dutchy  of  Rome,  extended,  from  north  to  south,  from 


I 


n^ 


'.^SfiSSSMESI 


IW    } 


rilliant      ' 
plains 

Charles 

I  with- 
for  re- 

1.     He    j 

\.ssem- 

!-Mars, 

last  of 
hut  up 

person 
corona-    ^ 
f  to  be    ! 
if  Soia- 
3    The    I 
ices  and    | 

his  do- 
le (759) 

fls  corn- 
had  so 
le  Euro- 

ent  con- 
j  in  thn 
ror  Leo 
and  had 
ccessors 
ill  as  in 
to  this 
pontiffs 
•   people 
frequent 
red  with 
Uy,  took 
D  resided 
formally 
ontiticate 
nty,  and, 
jtiate  and 
if  or  head 
ill  affairs, 
ic.  formed 

II  th,  from 


r?^ 


il 


PBRIOO    I.       A.    D.    406 800. 


6» 


Viterbo  as  far  as  Terracina  ;  and  from  east  to  west,  from  Narni 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  Such  was  the  weakness  of  the 
Eastern  empire,  that  all  the  efforts  of  the  emperors  to  reduce 
the  Romans  to  subjection  proved  unavailing.  The  Greek  vice- 
rr»y— the  Duke  of  Naples,  who  had  marched  to  besiege  Rome, 
was  killed  in  battle,  together  with  his  son  ;  and  the  exarch  him- 
self was  compelled  to  make  peace  with  the  republicans. 

This  state  of  distress  to  which  the  Grecian  empire  was  re- 
duced, afforded  the  Lombards  an  opportunity  of  extending  their 
possessions  in  Italy.  Aistolphus  their  king  attacked  the  city  of 
Ravenna  (751,)  where  the  exarchs  or  governors-general  of  the 
Greeks  had  fixed  their  residence  ;  and  soon  made  himself  master 
of  it,  as  well  as  the  province  of  the  exarchate,-^  and  the  Pen- 
tapolis.  The  exarch  Eutychius  was  obliged  to  fly,  and  took 
shelter  in  Naples. 

This  surrender  of  the  capital  of  Grecian  Italy,  emboldened 
the  Lombard  King  to  extend  his  views  still  farther ;  he  demanded 
the  submission  of  the  city  and  dutchy  of  Rome,  which  he  con- 
■iidered  as  a  dependency  of  the  exarchate.  Pope  Stephen  II. 
bt'came  alarmed,  and  began  to  solicit  an  alliance  with  the 
Greek  empire,  whose  distant  power  seemed  to  him  less  formi- 
ilable  than  that  of  the  Lombards,  his  neighbours ;  but  being 
r.kisely  pressed  by  A.istolphus,  and  finding  that  he  had  no  suc- 
cour to  expect  from  Constantinople,  he  determined  to  apply  for 
protection  to  the  Franks  and  their  King  Pepin. 

The  Franks,  at  that  time,  held  the  first  rank  among  the  na- 
tions of  Europe  ;  their  exploits  against  the  Arabians  had  gained 
theni  a  high  reputation  fnv  mlour  over  all  the  West.  Stephen 
repaired  in  person  to  France,  and  in  an  interview  which  he  had 
with  Pepin,  he  found  means  to  in»»rest  that  prince  in  his  cause. 
Pepin  did  not  yet  regard  himself  as  securely  established  on  a 
throne  which  he  had  so  recently  usurped  from  the  Merovinf^ian 

frinces  ;  more  especially  as  there  still  existed  a  son  of  Childeric 
IL,  named  Thierry,  and  a  formidable  rivalry  in  the  puissant 
dukes  of  Aquitain,  who  were  cadets  of  the  same  family.  He 
had  no  other  right  to  the  crown  than  that  of  election  ;  and  this 
title,  instead  of  descending  to  his  sons,  might  perhaps  serve  as 
a  pretext  for  depriving  them  of  the  sovereignty.  Anxious  to 
render  the  crown  hereditary,  he  induced  the  Pope  to  renew  the 
ceremony  of  his  coronation  in  the  Church  of  St.  Denis ;  and, 
ut  the  same  time,  to  consecrate  his  two  sons,  Charles  and  Car- 
joman.  The  Pope  did  more ;  he  disengaged  the  King  from  the 
oath  which  he  had  taken  to-Childeric,  and  bound  all  the  nobility 
of  the  Franks,  that  were  present  on  the  occasion,  in  the  name 
of  Jesus  Christ  and  St.  Peter,  to  preserve  the  royal  dignity  in 


•if 

'I 


»u 


^ 


m 


4 


* 
f 


llWi 


(to 


CHAPTER  n. 


the  riffht  of  Pepin  and  his  .lescendants ;  and  lastly,  that  he 
n.isrhi  ilu-  more  ellectuaily  secun-  the  aitachment  of  Pep.n  und 
hi!feons  and  procure  for' himself  .he  li'-le  of  be.ngthe.r  pro- 
teclor,  he  publicly  conferred  on  ihem  the  honour  of  being  pain- 

*^"sn  "real  condescension  on  the  part  of  the  Pope  could  not  hut 
ex.-itrihe  gratitude  of  Pepin.     He  not  only  promised  him  sue- 
cour  against  the  Lombards ;  he  engaged  to  recover  the  exarchate 
from  their  hands,  and  make  a  present  of  it  to  'he  H«ly  See 
he  even  made  him  a  grant  of  it  by  anticipation,  which  he  signed 
at  the  Castle  of  Chiersi-sur-rOise,  and  which  he  likewise  caused 
to  be  signed  by  the  princes  his  sons.**     It  was  in  fulhlment  of 
tSese  sti^pulations  thai  Pepin  undertook  (755-^)  two  successive 
expeditions  into  Italy.    He  compelled  A.stolphus  to  acknowledge 
himself  his  vassal,  and  deliver  up  to  him  the  exarchate  with 
the  Peutapolis,  of  which  he  immediately  put  his  Holiness  in 
possession.     This  donation  of  Pepin  served  to  confirm  and  to 
Ixtend  the  secular  power  of  the  Popes,  which  had  already  been 
augmented  by  various  grants  of  a  similar  kmd.     The  original 
document  of  this  singular  contract  no  longer  exists;  but    he 
names  of  the  places  are  preserved  which  were  ceded  to  the 

pontifical  hierarchy.**  .    .  i,„  „„«- 

^  In  the  conclusion  of  this  period,  it  may  be  proper  to  take  some 

notice  of  the  Arabs,  commonly  called  ,^«;^'^7«-    «"tll  and 
irruption  into  Europe.     Mahomet,  an  Arab  of  noble  birth,  and 
a  native  of  Mecca,  had  cons.iiuled  himself  a  prophet  a  legis  a 
tor,  and  a  conqueror,  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century 
of  the  Christian  era.     He  had  been  expelled  from  Mecca   622) 
on  account  of  his  predictions,  but  afterwards  ^f  "/^'l  a'    »« 
head  of  an  army;  and  having  made  himself  master  of  the  city, 
he  succeeded  by  degrees,  in  subjecting  to  his  yoke  the  numerous 
tribes  of  Ardbia.     His  successors,  known  by  the  name  of  La- 
1  or  vicars  spiritual  and  temporal  of  the  prophet,  followed 
the    Le  triumphant  career.     They  propagated  their  religion 
wherever  they  extended  their  empire    and  "^ran  with  their 
conauests  the  vast  regions  both  of  Asia  and  Africa.     Ssyria, 
PalSne  Egypt.  Barcl  Tripoli  and  the  whole  nortern  coasts 
of  Africa,  were  won  from  the  Greek  empire  by  the  Caliphs 
who  at  the  same  time  (651)  overthrew  the  powerful  monarchy 
of  the  Persians ;  conquered  Charasm,  Transox.ana,  and  the  In- 
dies, and  founded  an  empire  more  e'ften.sive  than  that  ol  the 
Roman"  had  been.     The  capital  of  the  Caliphs,  which  had  on- 
ginXlcen  at  Medina,  and  'afterwards  at  Cufa,  was  transferred 
(661)  by  the  Caliph  Moav.a  I.  to  Damascus  '"  Syrm :  and  by 
the  Caliph  AlmaLor,  to  Bagdad  in  Irak-Arabia,  (766)  which 
was  founded  hv  that  prince. 


.'«*jiii 


?■ . 


It 


PERIOD  1.      A.  D.  406 — 800. 


dl 


at  he 
n  :iiid 
r  pro.     j 
pain- 

lot  but 
n  sue- 
rebate 

See  ; 
signed 
:aused 
lent  of 
lessive 
.vledge 
e  with 
less  in 
nnd  to 
y  been 
iriginal 
)Ut  the 

to  the 

e  some 
if  their 
th,  and 
legisla 
:eritury 
tt (622) 

at  the 
he  city, 
merous 

of  Ca- 
nllowed 
religion 
ih  their 

Syria, 
n  coasts 
!aiiphs; 
anarchy 

the  In- 

of  the 
had  ori- 
nsferred 

and  by 
1)  whicn 


It  was  under  the  Calipbnle  of  Wulid  (711,)  that  the  Arabs 
first  invaded  Europe,  and  aituckod  ilu;  iiioiiarcliy  of  ihe  Visigoths 
ill  Spain.  This  cnonurchy  had  already  sunk  under  the  feeble- 
ness of  its  kings,  and  the  despotic  preropiiivos  which  the  gran- 
dees, and  especially  the  bishops,  hud  arrogated  to  tbeinselves. 
These  latter  disposed  of  the  throne  at  ihuir  pleasure,  having 
declared  it  to  be  elective.  They  decided  with  supreme  authority 
in  the  councils  of  the  nation,  and  in  all  affairs  of  state.  Muza 
at  that  time  commanded  in  northern  Africa,  in  name  of  the  Ca- 
liph Walid.  By  the  authority  of  that  sovereign,  he  sent  into 
Spain  one  of  his  generals,  named  Taric  or  Tarec-Abcnzara, 
who,  having  made  a  descent  on  the  coasts  of  Andalusia,  took 
his  station  on  the  hill  which  the  ancients  called  Caipe,  and  which 
has  since  been  known  by  the  name  of  Gibraltar  (Gibel-TaricJ 
or  the  hill  of  Taric,  in  commemoration  of  the  Arabian  general. 

It  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  Xeres  de  iu  Frontera, 
in  Andalusia,  that  Taric  encountered  the  army  of  the  Visigoths, 
commanded  by  their  King  Roderic.  The  battle  was  decisive, 
as  the  Visigoths  sustained  a  total  defeat.  Koderic  perished  in 
the  flight;  and  Muza,  the  Arabian  governor,  having  arrived  to 
second  the  efforts  of  Taric,  the  conquest  of  all  Spain  followecl 
as  a  consequence  of  this  victory.*'  Septimania,  or  Languedoc, 
which  then  made  a  part  of  the  Visigoihic  monarchy,  passed  at 
the  same  time  under  the  dominion  of  the  Arabs. 

These  fierce  invaders  did  not  limit  their  conquests  in  Europ^ 
to  Spain  and  Languedoc  ;  the  Balearic  Isles,  Sardinia,  Corsica, 
part  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  fell  likewise  under  their  dominion  : 
they  infested  the  sea  with  their  fleets,  and  more  than  once  car- 
ried terror  and  desolation  to  the  very  jratet.  of  Rome.  It  is  pro- 
bable even  that  all  Europe  would  have  submitted  to  their  yoke, 
if  Charles  Martel  had  not  arrested  the  career  of  their  victories. 
He  defeated  their  numerous  and  warlike  armies  in  the  bloody 
battles  which  were  fought  near  Poitiers  and  Narbonne  (732- 
737,)  and  at  length  compelled  them  to  shut  themselves  up 
within  the  province  of  Languedoc. 

The  unity  of  the  empire  and  the  religion  of  Mahomet,  did 
not  long  remain  undivided.  The  first  dynasty  of  tlie  Caliphs, 
that  of  the  Oinmiades,  was  subverted ;  and  all  the  princes  of 
that  family  massacred  by  the  Abassides  (749,)  who  seized  the 
caliphate.'*  A  solitary  descendant  of  the  Onmiiades,  named  Ab- 
dalraham,  grandson  of  the  fifteenth  Caliph  Huscham,  was 
saved  in  Spain,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Cordova ;  and  beina 
acknowledged  as  Caliph  by  the  Mussulmans  there,  he  detached 
that  province  from  the  greil  empire  of  the  Arabians.     ^756.) 

This  revolution,  and  the  confusion  with  which  it  was  accom- 


'i' 


^.v 


•■!■? 


m 


1 


CIIAPTRa  II. 


I! 


pnnied,  gave  fresh  cournpe  to  the  xninll  number  of  Visigoths, 
who,  to  rscnpp  the  iMnhoiiifliin  yoke,  hml  retireil  In  the  moun. 
tains  of  A^lurin?'.  Issuiii-j  from  lh»'ir  retreats,  they  retaliated 
on  the  Intitlels ;  an<l  towards  the  iiiiddk^  of  the  ei^jhlh  eenlury, 
they  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  Christiar\  state,  called  after- 
wards the  kin'^'doni  of  Oviedo  or  Leon.  Aiphonso  I.,  sur- 
named  the  Catholic,  must  be  regarded  as  the  first  founder  of 
this  now  monarchy.'" 

The  Franks,  likewise,  took  advantage  of  these  events,  to  ex- 
pel the  Arabs  from  Laiiiriiedoc.  Pepin  took  possession  of  the 
cities  of  Nismes,  Magiielonne,  Acrde.  and  Boziers  (7/52,)  which 
were  delivered  up  to  him  by  a  noble  Goth,  named  Osmond. 
The  reduction  of  Narbonne  was  by  no  means  so  easy  a  task. 
For  seven  years  he  continued  to  blockade  it ;  and  it  was  not 
until  Vfl!)  that  he  became  master  of  the  city,  and  the  whole  of 
Lanifuedoc. 

The  loss  of  Spain,  on  the  part  of  the  Abassides,  was  soon 
after  followed  by  that  of  North'  \frioa.  Ibrahim  Ben-Aplab, 
having  been  sent  thither  as  governor  by  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad, 
Haroun  Alrashid  (900,)  he  found  means  to  constitute  himself 
sovereign  prince  over  the  countries,  then  properly  termed  Afri- 
ca ;  of  "which  Tripoli.  Cairoan,  Tunis,  and  Algiers,  formed  a 
part.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Aglabites ;" 
while  another  usurper,  named  Edris,  having  conquered  Numi- 
dia  and  Mauritania,  called  by  the  Arabs  Mogreh,  founded  that 
of  the  Edrissites.  These  two  dynasties  were  overturned  (about 
90H)  by  Aboul  Cassem  Mohammed,  son  of  Obeidallah,  who 
claimed  to  be  descended  from  Ali,  by  Fatimo,  daughter  of  the 
prophet;  he  s-.bjected  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa  to  his 
yoke,  and  took  the  titles  of  Mahadi  ond  Caliph.  From  him 
were  descended  the  Caliphs,  called  Fatimites,  who  extended 
their  conquests  to  Egypt,  and  laid  there  the  foundation  of  Ka- 
herah,  or  Grand  Cairo  (968.)  where  they  established  the  seat 
of  their  caliphate,  which,  in  the  twelfth  century,  was  destroyed 
by  the  Ayoubides. 

The  irruption  of  the  Arabs  into  Spain,  disastrous  as  it  was, 
did  not  fail  to  produce  effects  beneficial  to  Europe,  which  myes 
its  civilization  partly  to  this  circumstance.  The  Abassidian 
Caliphs,  aspiring  to  be  the  protectors  of  letters  and  arts,  began 
to  foimd  schools,  and  to  encourage  translations  of  the  most 
eminent  Greek  authors  into  the  Arab,«  language.  Their  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  the  Caliphs  of  Cordova,  and  even  by 
the  Fatimites,  who  held  the  sovereignty  of  Egypt  and  Northern 
Africa.  In  this  manner  a  taste  for  learning  was  communi^cated 
to  all  the  Mahometan  states.     From  Bagdad  it  passed  to  Cairo ; 


']\ 


PERIOD  II.     A.  n.  SOO — 962. 


6!) 


[Toihti, 
noun- 
ilinted 
niury, 
after- 
,  sur- 
ier  of 

to  cx- 
of  the 
which 
mnnd. 
1  task. 
IS  not 
ole  of 

?  soon 
Aplab, 
ngdad, 
linisell 
I  Afri- 
ined  a 
»ites ;" 
Numi- 
d  that 
(about 
I,  who 
of  the 
to  his 
rn  him 
:lended 
of  Ka- 
le seat 
stroyed 

it  was, 
h  owes 
ssidian 
,  bi'gan 
«■  most 
icir  ex- 
ven  by 
orthern 
micated 
I  Cairo ; 


and  from  the  banks  of  the  Eiiphriites  and  the  Nile,  it  spread 
itself  as  liir  as  liiu  Tagus.  Alathcinatifi.  "  Astronomy.  Ciie- 
misiry,  Medicine,  Botany,  ami  Materia  Medira,  were  the  sci- 
ences which  the  Arabians  adected  chiefly  to  cultivate.  They 
exrellecl  al.-io  in  poetry,  and  in  the  art  nf  embodying  the  fictions 
of  imagination  in  the  most  agreeable  narratives.  Khazes,  Aver- 
roes,  Avicenna,  are  among  the  niimlier  of  their  celebrated  phi- 
losophers and  physicians.  Elmacin,  Abuifeda,  Abulplmragius, 
and  Bohadin,  as  historians,  have  become  famous  to  all  [Misti-rity. 
Thus  Spain,  under  the  Mahometans,  by  cultivating  many 
sciences  little  known  to  tlve  rest  of  Europe,  became  the  semi- 
nary of  the  Christians  in  the  West,  who  resorted  thither  in 
crowds,  to  prosecute  in  the  schools  of  Cordova  the  study  of 
learning  and  the  liberal  arts."  The  use  of  the  numerical  cha- 
racters, the  manufacture  of  paper,  cotton,  and  gun-powder, 
were  derived  to  us  from  the  Arabians,  and  especially  from  the 
Arabians  of  Spain.  Agriculture,  manufactures,  and  naviga- 
tion, are  all  equally  indebted  to  the  Arabians.  They  gave  u 
new  impulse  to  the  commerce  of  the  Indies  ;  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  they  extended  their  trade  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  to  the  borders  of  the  Black  Sea.  Their  carpets, 
and  embroideries  in  gold  and  silver,  their  cloths  of  silk,  and  their 
manufactures  in  steel  and  leather,  maintained  for  years  a  ce- 
lebrity and  a  perfection  unknown  to  the  other  nations  of  Europe. 


CHAPTER    III. 

PERIOD    II. 

From  Charlemagne  to  Otho  the  Great,     a.  d.  800—962. 

The  reign  of  Charles  the  Great  forms  a  remarkable  epoch  in 
the  history  of  Europe.  That  prince,  who  succeeded  his  father 
Pepin  (7^,)  eclipsed  all  his  predecessors,  by  the  superiority  of 
his  genius,  as  well  as  by  the  wisdom  and  vigour  of  his  admin- 
istration. Under  him  the  monarchy  of  the  Franks  was  raised 
to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  glory,  fte  would  have  been  an  ac- 
complished prince,  and  worthy  of  being  commemorated  as  the 
benefactor  of  mankind,  had  he  known  how  to  restrain  his  im- 
moderate thirst  for  conquest. 

He  carried  his  victorious  arms  into  the  centre  of  Germany; 
and  subdued  the  warlike  nation  of  the  Saxons,  whose  territories 
extended  from  the  Lower  Rhine,  to  the  Elbe  and  the  Baltic 
sea.  After  a  bloody  war  of  thirty-three  years,  he  compelled 
Ihern  to  receive  his  yoke,  and  to  embrace  Christianity,  by  the 


4  4 


it-. 


It 

f 


■.Ml  I 


91  ciiArTeii  III. 

peace  which  ho  concluded  with  thrtn  (803)  at  Sallz  on  tha 
Saal.  The  bi.shopriis  of  Munsler,  OMjuhurii^,  Miiiden,  Pnder- 
born,  Verdi'ii,  Bremen,  Hildeshciin,  mid  Hnlberxludl,  owe  their 
orifjin  Id  thi;*  prince.  Several  of  the  Sliivonian  mitions  the 
Abotrites  (789,)  the  Wilzians  (805.)  the  Sorubians  (8(>6,)  the 
Bobeiiiians  {81 1,)  Sec,  acknowledged  lheiii«-lves  his  tributaries; 
and  l)y  a  treaty  of  peace  whicii  he  concluded  with  Hemming, 
Kill*,'  of  Jutland,  he  fixed  the  river  Eyder,  ««  the  northern 
limi?  of  his  empire  aKninst  the  Danes.  Besides  these,  the 
powerful  monarchy  of  the  Avars,'  which  comprehended  all  the 
.ounlries  known  in  modern  times  by  the  names  of  Austria. 
Huiiirary,  Transylvania,  Sclavonia,  Dalmalia  and  Croatia,  was 
completely  subverted  by  him  (791  ,)  and  he  likewise  despoiled 
the  Arabians  of  all  that  part  of  Spain  which  is  situated  between 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Ebro  (796,)  as  also  of  Corsica,  Sardinia, 
and  the  Balearic  Isles.  In  Spain  he  established  military  com- 
manders  under  the  title  of  Margraves. 

Of  these  conquests,  the  one  that  deserve.i  the  most  particu- 
lar uilenlion  is  that  of  Italy,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards. 
At  the  solicitation  of  Pope  Adrian  I.,  Charles  undertook  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  la>l  of  the  Lombard  kings.  He  besieged 
that  prince  in  his  capital  at  Pavia ;  and  having  made  him  pri- 
soner, after  a  long  siege,  he  shut  him  un  in  confinement  for  the 
rest  of  his  days,  and  incorporated  his  dominions  with  the  mo- 
narchy of  the  Franks.  The  Dukes  of  Benevento,  who,  as 
vassals  of  the  Lombard  kings,  then  occupied  the  greater  part  of 
Lowor  Italy,  were  at  the  same  time  compelled  to  acknowledge 
the  sovereignty  of  the  conquerors,  who  allowed  them  to  exer- 
"ise  their  hereditary  rights,  on  condition  of  their  paying  an 
annual  tribute.  The  only  pla-os  in  this  part  of  Italy  that  re- 
mained unsubdued,  were  the  maritime  towns,  of  which  the 
Greeks  still  found  means  to  maintain  the  possession. 

In  order  to  secure  the  conquest  of  this  country,  as  well  as  to 
protect  it  against  the  incursions  of  the  Arabian.?,  Charles  estab- 
lished several  marches  and  military  stations,  such  as  the 
marches  of  Friuli,  Tarento,  Turin,  Liguira,  Teti,  &c.  The 
downfall  of  the  Lombards,  put  an  end  to  the  republican  govern- 
ment of  the  Romans.  During  the  blockade  of  Pavia,  Charles 
having  gone  to  Rome  to  be  present  at  the  feast  of  Easter  (774,) 
was  received  there  with  all  the  honours  due  to  an  Exarch 
and  a  Patrician ;  and  there  is  inconteilable  proof  that  he  after- 
wards received,  under  that  title,  the  rights  of  sovereignty  over 
Rome  and  the  Ecclesiastical  Stales. 

The  Patrician  dignity,  instituted  by  Constantine  the  Great, 
ranked,  in  the  Greek  eiripire,  next  after  that  of  emperor.     It  wm 


Miii 


^^^^^s 


mmit 


\328r- 


Rome  |iliiiulcrc(l  \>y  liiu  VuiulaU.     P.    17. 


I 


1! 


I 


1' 


^^ 


1' 


'•SI' 


ffl 


J 


Anglo-Saxoni  landing  in  England.     P.  Js, 


km 


ii'ii 


»' 


It: 

■''I'M 


V  . 


ptRroD  II,    A.  D.  800—962.  05 

'     of  nur.h  con5.i,lor™t,on,  ihnt  even  fmrh.irinn  king,,  ihe  de.itroveri 

I     for   fM>  h<„,or.r  at  llw.-  Cm.rt  of  ConMnntinopln.     Tho  exu  "hJ 

of  l{„v,.nMnw..r..srr,K.raIly  invented  with  it,  „  ,d  exercised  umh.J 

I     this  t.tl..  rathor  than  that  of  cxar.-h  or  poiernor.  the  auth  "  tv 

I     whTh  they  enjoyed  at  R«,„c.     Pope  Stephen    F   had   twtj 

nlihouKh  these  princes  appear  never  to  hove  exercised  the  riahr 
rc^'^r,huK  ,,  ^erely  „.s  an  honorary  title,  «o  lonTa  Yea     n    thL' 

StS'LT  t  e'rh^'f  "rV^T""''''  ""'^  from  Rome  1:  he 
State,  of  the  Church.  Charles  no  sooner  saw  himself  master 
of  that  k.npdojn  than  he  affected  to  add  to  his  li  e"  of  Ki„S 
the  I-  ranks  and  Lombards  that  of  Patrician  of  the  Romans  and 
Wan  to  exercise  over  Rome  and  the  Ecclesiastic  "sTates  Ihooe 
entp'ST-hS  ''''-'  '''  ""''''  ^"'P— ^  «-"'  S 
This  prince  returned  to  Rome  towards  the  end  of  the  year 
800  m  order  to  mciuire  into  a  conspiracy  which  some  ol^'ho 
Roman  nobihiy  had  concerted  a^ainsl  ihelife  of  Pope  Leo  III 
The  whole  affair  having  been  Siscussed  in  his  presence  and 

I'^iratThe"  1  ""'  ^"''  t^'^y  ^^'"•'"••'''^'1'  Charles  went  "3 
assist  at  the  so  emn  mass  which  was  celebrated  in  St.  Peter's 
Church  on  Christmas  day  (800.)  The  Pope.  anxLs  o  show 
him  some  public  testimony  of  his  gratitude.  ;hose  the  mo  „e„" 
when  the  prince  was  on  hfs  knees  a'l  the  foot  of  the  gra  Jdtar 
to  put  he  imperial  crown  on  his  head,  and  cause  him  to  be  nri 
claimed  to  the  people  Emperor  of  the  Romans.  ^ 

iTom  this  affair  must  be  dated  the  revival  of  the  Roman  Em- 

Sledllr^^Th'""  ""^  vvhich  had  been  extinct  fofZehu^- 
dred  years.     The  emperors  of  the  East  who,  durinjr  that  in'er- 
val,  had  continued  exclusively  in  the  enjoymen    of  that  tide 
appeared  to  have  some  reason  for  opposing  an  innovation  whch 
might  eventually  become  prejudicial  to  them.     The  cS 
which  arose  on  this  sub  ect  between  the  two  emnerors    wT,  » 
length  (803)  terminated^  treaty.     The  GreekXper^^TeeoJ 
Zll^"  newd'ffnityof  Ciharles'(812;)  and  on  thefe  condSj 
they  were  allowed  to  retain  those  possessions,  which  they  stHl 
held  by  a  feeble  tenure  in  Italy,  i  .    .^jr  sun 

In  thus  maintaining  the  imperial  dignity  against  the  Greek 
emperors,  Charles  added  nothing  to  his  real  po^er;  heacquS 
from  It  no  new  right  over  the  dismembered  pro  ^"0?  he 
Western  empire,  the  state  of  which  had,  for  a  long  time  past 
been  fixed  by  specific  regulations.  He  did  not  even  augment' 
his  authority  over  Rome,  where  he  continued  to  exerSX 


1 


.'.h 


,    ,i3l 


> 


'i^ 


i 


t*« 


66 


CHAPTER  in. 


same  rights  of  superiority  under  the  title  of  emperor,  which  he 
had  formerly  done  under  that  of  patrician. 

This  prince,  whose  genius  soared  beyond  his  age,  did  not 
figure  merely  as  a  warrior  and  a  conqueror ;  he  was  also  a  le- 
gislator, and  a  zealous  patron  of  letters.     Bv  the  laws  which  he     , , 
published  under  the  title  of  Capitularies,  he  reformed  several     , 
abuses,  and  introduced  new  ideas  of  order  and  justice.     Com-     , 
missioners  nominated  by  himself,  were  charged  to  travel  through 
the  provinces,  to  superintend  the  execution  of  the  laws,  listen 
to  the  complaints  of  the  people,  and  render  justice  to  each 
without  distinction  and  without  partiality.     He  conceived  like- 
wise the  idea  of  establishing  a  uniformity  of  weights  and  mea- 
sures throughout  the  empire.     Some  of  the  laws  of  that  great 
man,  however,  indicate  a  disposition  tinctured  with  the  barba- 
rism  and  superstition  of  his  age.     The  Judgments  of  God  are 
expressly  held  by  him  to  be  legal  tests  of  right  and  wrong,  and 
the  greater  part  of  crimes  expiable  by  money.     By  a  general     j 
law,  which  he  passed  in  779,  introducing  the  payment  of  eccle-     i 
siastical  tithes,  and  which  he  extended  to  the  vanquished  Saxons     1 
(791 )  he  alienated  the  affectiom  of  ihat  people ;  and  the  code 
which  he  dictated  on  this  occasion,  is  remarkable  for  its  atrocity ; 
which  their  repeated  revolts,  and  frequent  returns  to  paganism, 

cannot  justify.  ...  ,  i    .i. 

As  to  his  patronage  and  love  of  letters,  this  is  attested  by  the 

numerous  schools  which  he  founded,  and  the  encouragements 
I  he  held  out  to  them ;  as  well  as  the  attention  he  showed  in  m- 
1  viting  to  his  court,  the  most  celebrated  learned  men  from  every 
1    country  in  Europe.     He  formed  ihem  into  a  kind  of  academy, 

or  literary  society,  of  which  he  was  himself  a  member.  When 
I  at  an  advanced  age,  he  received  instruction  m  rhetoric,  logic 
1    and  astronomy,  from  the  famous  Alcuin,  an  Englishman,  to 

I  whom  he  was  much  attached.     He  endeavoured  also  to  improve 
his  vernacular  tongue,  which  was  the   Teutonic,  or  Imgua 

i  Francica,  by  drawing  up  a  grammar  of  that  language,  giving 

!  German  names  to  the  months  and  the  winds,  which  had  not  yet 

received  them ;  and  in  making  a  collection  of  the  military  songs 

i !  of  the  ancient  Germans.     He  extended  an  equal  protection  tc 

I I  the  arts,  more  especially  architecture,  a  taste  for  which  he  had 
I  imbibed  in  Italy  and  Rome.  Writers  of  those  times  speak 
' '  with  admiration  of  the  palaces  and  edifices  constructed  bv  his 

orders,  at  Ingelheim,  near  Mentz,  at  Nimegnen,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Waal,  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  These  buildings  were 
adorned  with  numerous  paintings,  as  well  as  marble  and  mosaic 
work,  which  he  had  brought  from  Rome  and  Ravenna. 

The  empire  of  Charlemagne,  which  may  bear  a  comparison 


I! 
I! 


t 

0 

tl 
b 
o 
o 
n 
n; 
tf 
in 

sa 

01 
V( 

th 
th 
th 

to 
mi 
Fi 
S^ 
ist 

CO 

sei 
of 
thi 
oth 
tha 
cor 

the 
fan 


f-tvVlYi-;.  -%fl.ij=f7^^^^j^^:?jt^^^. 


?ip5i4^(^-mi«*ife:^?'^^^pe^pp 


■Mmil  <ltl.'»  I  Vlllilgt- .' ' '  MMmiWllI 


hhe 

1  not 

a  le-     j I 

ch  he     1 , 

iveral     , 

Com- 

•ough 

listen 
each 
like- 
mea- 
gre at 

barba- 

od  are 

5,  and 

eneral 

eccle- 

laxons     ; 

;  code     1 

ocity ; 

anism, 

by  the 
jmenls 
1  in  in- 
I  every 
idemy, 
When 
c,  logic 
nan,  to 
mprove 
lingua 
giving 
not  yet 
y  songs 
ction  t( 
he  had 
s  speak 
i  by  his 
eft  bank 
gs  were 
I  mosaic 

nparison 


PKRIOD  11.     A.  D.  800—962. 


•7 


P 


L!::::^ 


as  to  its  extent  with  the  ancient  empire  of  the  West,  embraced 

he  prmcpal  part  of  Europe.     All  &aul,  Germany,  and  Spain 

mlZZ         *^'"-°'  '''^'y  ^°  Benevento,  several  islands  inT 

I     thi^     ?.r       ""'  ^^'"?  .-i  consHlemble  part  of  Pannonia.  composed 

th  .  vast  empiro,  which,  from  west  to  east,  extended  from  the 

thS"5  ?  u"  fu    ""-^  '^^  ^'-"^'^ :  «"d  fr«'"  ^''"th  to  no   h  frlm 

der  t     hV^  ^Tl'^r"'  "'.'^  '^'  ^•^"''"^  S^«  »°  the  River  eT 

de,wh.ch  formed  the  boundary  between  Germany  and  Denmark. 

In  defining  the  hmits  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne   care 

pomted  with  tiie  empire  with  those  that  were  merely  tributary 
The  former  were  governed  by  officers  who  might  be  recalled  at 
the  will  of  the  prince  ;  while  the  latter  were  ffee  slates,  whose 
only  tenure  on  the  empire  was  by  alliance,  and  the  contributions 
they  engaged  to  pay.     Such  was  the  policy  of  this  prince  that 
orihrrt  ."'"''r  P"  -"i'-y  ^tationsVhic'h  he  had'e"tab  Istd 
on  the  fron  lers  of  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy,  he  chose  to  retain 
nil    f  rlP."'"''  "'^  •'"•'  dominions,  nations  who,  under  the 
name  of  tributaries,  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  Franks,  and 
might  act  as  a  guard  or  barrier  against  the  barbarous  tribes  of 
he  east  and  north,  who  had  long  been  in  the  habit  of  making 
mcursions  mto  the  western  and  southern  countries  of  Europe^ 
^2Z  ^l  .         «<■  Benevento  in  Italy,  who  were  simply  Vas- 
sals  and  tributaries  of  the  empire,  supplied  as  it  were  a  rampart 
or  bulwark  against  the  Greeks  and  Arabians;  while  the  Scla- 
th„".;rh  TT"  '^  ^""''"^'  ^«""°"'«'  I>'»'™''tia,  and  Croatfa. 
K  ^rtK°"''  "■■  r^**'^  of  France,  were  governed,  never- 
h!  Pk:- V  '''^";.''!^"  '««^«>  and  in  general  did  not  even  profess 
the  Christian  religion.  '^ 

From  this  brief  sketch  of  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  it  is  easv 
to  perceive,  that  there  was  then  no  single  power  in  Europe  for^ 
midable  enough  to  enter  into  competition  with  the  empire  of  the 
Franks.     The  monarchies  of  the  north.  Denmark.  Norway  and 
Sweden,  and  those  of  Poland  and  Russia,  were  not  then  in  ex- 
istence;  or  had  not  emerged  from  the  thick  darkness  that  still 
ZZf  if  ^T  i  '^""tinental  Europe,     England  then  pre- 
nf  in  '"P'r ''^  ""^  '7'"  ^•""f^'J^'-ate  governments,  the  union 
of  which  was  far  from  being  well  consolidated.     The  kings  of 
ltrJ°^^  •'■"'^  ''"■'^  incessantly  engaged  in  war  with  each 
thnfp  T  ,Vn    "°t. ""til  several  years  after  Charlemagne,     i 
that  Egbert  the  Great,  King  of  Wessex,  prevailing  in  the  contest      '' 
constituted  himself  King  of  all  England,  in  827.  ' 

The  Mahometpn  part  of  Spain,  after  it  was  separated  from 
the  great  empire  of  the  Caliph's,  was  engaged  in  perpetual  war-     ! 
fare  with  the  East.     The  Ommiades.  sovereigns  of  CordZ,     ' 


J 


¥ 


I       1 

'f^  In* 


rzrrri 


H». 


i'"':  IF 


"tm 


f . 


CHAPTER    in. 


far  from  provoking  their  western  neighbours,  whose  valour  they 
had  a^^adv  expehenced,  showed  themselves,  on  the  contrary. 
Sttenti  e  tJ  preserve  peace  and  good  understand.ng  w.th  them 
The  Greek  emperors,  who  were  con.;  lually  quarrelhng  with  the 
irabs  and  Bulgarians,  and  agitated  by  factions  and  m  est  ne 
cmnmotrons,  could  no  longer  be  an  object  of  susp.c.on  or  rivalry 

"  ThuTStVmV':  o'f  ctriemagne  enjoy  the  glory  of  being 
the  ascendant  power  in  Europe  ;  but  it  did  not  long  sustain  .t^ 
orltnal  spfendbr.  It  would  have  required  a  man  of  extracrdi- 
narrtaent  to  manage  the  reins  of  a  government  so  extensive 
and  so  complicated.  Louis-le-Debonnaire,  or  the  Gentle,  the 
Zn  anSTuc  essor  of  Charles,  did  not  possess  a  s>ng  «  q^l'^* 
caUon  proper  to  govern  the  vast  dominions  which  his  father  had 
beaueaKed  to  him.  As  impolitic  as  he  was  weak  and  super- 
Sus  he  had  not  the  art  of  making  himsel  either  loved  or 
?e"ed  by  his  subjects.  By  the  imprudent  partition  of  his  domi- 
n^ns  beWen  h  s  sons,  which  he  made  even  in  his  h  etime.he 

rtheaniennoWitvi^erished" Louis  and  Charles  victorious 
this  enTagm^^^^^  "Wijed  their  brother  to  take  refuge  in  Italy. 
Thev  nexf^arched  to  Strasbourg,  wnere  they  renewed  their  alli- 
ance^'SS.)  and  confirmed  it  by  oath  at  the  head  of  their  troops  ' 
The^princes  were  on  the  point  of  dividing  the  whole  mo- 
narchv  befween  them,  when,  by  the  interference  of  the  nobility 
Tev  became  reconciled  to  their  elder  brother,  and  concluded  a 

tince  of  Barcelona,  and  ihe  lernlones  which  Charlemagne  naa 

'Trwi'rr.reL'l^roS- 'peaking,  .ha.  n,.o<len,  Fn.«ce 
commence,,  which  i/J  a  depi,.men.  of  .he  ancen.  empire  of 


"W^"'-'"^ 


■  --^   7:*?^'\',S!^ 


they 
trary. 
ihem. 
ththe 
estine 
ivalry 

being 
ain  its 
acrdi- 
ensive 
e,  the     I ; 
[ualiii-     I 
er  had     { 
super-     1 
ved  or     j 
1  domi-     ; 
me,  he     | 
family,     j 
il  wars     { 
death.     | 
mbined     > 
the  fa-     j 
!  flower 
rious  in 
1  Italy, 
leir  alli- 
troops.' 
ole  mo- 
lobility, 
iluded  a 
•ted  the 
jothaire 
and  the 
Meuse, 
Sermany 
intons  of 
of  Gaul 
and  the 
division 
the  prc- 
tgne  had 

a  France 
smpire  of 


mmmmmtm 


i  PERIOD  II.    A.  D.  800 — 962.  60 

i     the  Franks,  or  monarchy  of  Charlemagne.     For  a  long  time  it 
returned  the  boundaries  which  the  conference  at  Verdun  had 
assigned  it ;  and  whatever  it  now  possesses  beyond  these  limits 
was  the  acquisition  of  conquests  which  it  has  made  since  the  four- 
teenth century.  Charles  the  Bald  was  in  fact  then  the  first  King 
of  France,  and  it  his  from  him  that  the  series  of  her  kings  com- 
mences.    It  was  moreover  under  this  prince  that  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Neustrians  or  Western  Franks  assumed  a  new 
aspect.    Before  his  time  it  was  entirely  of  a  Frankish  or  German 
constitution ;    the  manners  and  customs  of  the  conquerors  of 
Oaul  every  where  predominated ;  their  language  (the  linirua 
Jiranctca)  was  that  of  the  court  and  the  government.    But  after 
the  dismemberment  of  which  we  have  spoken,  the  Gauls  im- 
ported it  into  Neustria  or  Western  France ;  the  customs  and 
popular  language  were  adopted  by  the  court,  and  had  no  small 
influence  on  the  government.     This  language,  which  was  then 
known  by  the  name  of  the  RoTnan  or  Romance,  polished  by  the 
refinements  of  the  «ourt,  assumed  by  degrees  a  new  and  purer 
form,  and  in  course  of  time  became  the  parent  of  the  modern 
French.      It  was   therefore   at  this  period,  viz.  the  reign  of 
Charles  the  Bald,  that  the  Wejtern  Franks  began,  properly 
speaking,  to  be  a  distinct  nation,  and  exchanged  their  more 
ancient  appellation  for  that  of  French;  do  name  by  which  thev 
are  still  known.  ' 

At  this  same  period  Germany  was,  for  the  first  time,  embo- 
died into  a  monarchy,  having  its  own  particular  kings.  Louis 
the  German,  was  the  first  monarch  of  Germany,  as  Charles  the 
Bald  was  of  France.  The  kingdom  of  Louis  for  a  long  time 
was  called  Eastern  France,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Western 
kingdom  of  that  name,  which  henceforth  exclusively  retained 
the  name  of  France. 

The  empire  of  Charlemagne,  which  the  treaty  of  Verdun  had 
divided,  was  for  a  short  space  reunited  (884)  under  Charles 
surnamed  the  Fat,  younger  son  of  Louis  the  German,  and  King 
of  Germany;  but  that  prince,  too  feeble  to  support  so  great  a     i 
weight,  was  deposed  by  his  German  subjects  (887,)  and  their     i 
example  was  speedily  followed  by  the  French  and  the  Italians 
The  vast  empire  of  the  Franks  was  thus  dismembered  for  ever     ! 
(888,)  and  besides  the  kingdoms  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy      ! 
U  gave  birth  to  three  new  States— the  kingdoms  of  Lorraine 
Burgundy,  and  Navarre.  ' 

The  kingdom  of  Lorraine  took  its  name  from  Lothaire  II 
younger  son  of  the  Emperor  Lothaire  I.,  who,  in  the  division 
which  he  made  of  his  estates  among  his  sons  (855,)  gave  to  this     ' 
Lothnire  the  provinces  situated  between  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse, 


i: 


W 


m 


t'  .1- 


p^rd* 


,N- 


«p*'- 


'Ii* 


70 


CHAPTER  III< 


I'-* 


and  the  Scheld,  known  since  under  the  name  of  Lorraine,  Al- 
sace, Treves,  Cologne,  Juliers,  Liege,  and  the  Low  Countries.     ^ 
At  the  death  of  Lothaire  IL,  who  left  no  ma^  or  leg't'.nale     ^ 
heirs,  his  kingdom  was  divided  by  the  treaty  of  Procaspis  (870.) 
into  two  equal  portions,  one  of  which  was  assigned  to  Lou.s 
ihe  German,  and  the  other  to  Charles  the  Bald.^     By  a  subse- 
quent  treaty,  concluded  (879)  between  the  sons  of  Lou.s,  .ur- 
Lmed  the  Stammerer,  King  of  France,  and  Lou.s  the  Young 
King  of  Germany,  the  French  division  of  Lorra.ne  was  ceded 
to  this  latter  prince,  who  thus  reunited  the  whole  of  that  k.ng- 
dom.     It  remained  incorporated  with  Germany,  at  the  I'^e  when 
the  last  dismemberment  of  that  monarchy  took  place,  (896,)  on 
the  deposition  of  Charles  the  Fat.     Arnulph  King  of  Germany, 
and  successor  of  Charles,  bestowed  the  kingdom  of  Lorra.ne  on 
Swenlibald  his  natural  son,  who  after  a  reign  of  five  years,  was 
deposed  by  Louis,  surnamed  the  Infant,  so.,  and  successor  of 
Arnulph.     Louis  dying  without  issue,  (912,)  Charles  the  Sim- 
ple, King  of  France,  took  advantage  of  the  commotions  in  Ger- 
many,  to  put  himself  in  possession  of  that  kingdom,  which  was 
at  length  finally  reunited  to  the  Germanic  crown  by  Henry, 

surnamed  the  Fowler.  ,       ,       ,  r  n  ,„„„j„ 

Two  new  kingdoms  appeared  under  the  name  of  Burgundy, 
viz.  Provence  or  Cisjurane  Burgundy,  and  Transjurane  Bur^ 
eundv.     The  founder  of  the  former  was  a  nobleman  named 
Boson,  whose  sister  Charles  the  Bald  had  espoused.     Eleva  ed 
by  the  king,  his  brother-in-law,  to  the^'g'^««}J^lg"'"^l,\";*^« 
state,  he  was  created,  in  succession.  Count  of  Vienna,  Duke  of 
Provence,  Duke  of  Italy,  and  Prime  M.n.ster,  and  even  obtained 
in  marriage  the  Princess  Irmengarde,  daughter  of  Louis  II., 
Emperor  and  King  of  Italy.     Instigated  by  this  princess,  he  did 
not  scruple  to  raise  his  ambitious  views  to  the  throne.     The 
death  of  Louis  the  Stammerer,  and  the  troubles  that  ensued, 
afforded  him  an  opportunity  of  attaching  to  his  interest  most  of 
the  bishops  in  those  countries,  intrusted  to  his  government      In 
an  assembly  which  he  held  at  Mantai  le  in  Dauphin^,  (fS.)  he 
engaged  them  by  oath  to  confer  on  him  the  royal  d.gn.ty.    The 
schedule  of  this  election,  with  the  signatures  of  the  bishops  affix- 
ed, informs  us  distinctly  of  the  extent  of  this  new  kingdom, 
which  comprehended  Franche-Comtcs  Ma^on  Chalons-sur-Sa. 
one,  Lyons,  Vienne  and  its  dependences,  Agde.  Viviers,  Usez. 
with  their  dependencies  in  Languedoc,  Provence,  and  a  nart  of 
Slvov.     Boson  caused  himself  to  be  anointed  k.ng  at  Lyons 
by  the  archbishop  of  that  city.     He  mamta.ned  Possession  of 
his  usurped  dominions,  in  spile  of  the  co.nbined  efforts  which 
were  .nade  by  the  kings  of  France  and  Germany  to  reduce  hira 
to  "ubjection. 


i 

V 

h 

g 
i 
a> 
c 
S 
it 
tt 

tl 
vi 
fr 

C(l 

m 
in 
M 
th 
di 
G 
ti( 
fn 
de 
de 
CI 
cit 
fin 
pei 


fm* 


I,  Al. 

tries.     I 
mate 
870.) 
^ouis     j 
ubse-     j 
.  i.ur- 
3ung, 
:eded 
king- 
when 
},)  on 
nany, 
ne  on 
i,  was 
>or  of 
Sim- 
i  Ger- 
h  was 
[enry, 

undy, 

Bur- 
lamed 
jvated 
in  the 
uke  of 
tained 
lis  II., 
he  did 
The 
nsued, 
nost  of 
It.     In 
^9,)  he 
.   The 
s  affix- 
igdom, 
■ur-Sa- 
,  Usez, 
part  of 
Lyons, 
sion  of 

which 
ice  him 


PERIOD  11.      A.  D.  800—969. 


71 


The  example  of  Boson  was  followed  soon  after  by  Rodolph, 
I     governor  of  fransjurane  Burgundy,  and  related  by  the  female 
I     side  to^the  Carlovingians.     He  was  proclaimed  king,  and  crown- 
ed  at  at.  Maurice  in  the  Valais ;  and  his  new  kingdom,  situa- 
ted between  Mount  Jura  and  the  Penine  Alps,  contained  Swit- 
{     zeriand,  a^  far  as  the  River  Reuss,  the  Valais,  and  a  part  of 

■u\'  B  ^  .  '"*'"'''  "''  ^°^°"'  '^"PPen'ng  about  this  time,  fur- 
nished Rodolph  with  a  favourable  opportunity  of  extending  his 
frontiers,  and  seizing  a  part  of  the  country  of  Burgundy. 

These  two  kingdoms  were  afterwards  (930)  united  into  one. 
Hugo,  kmg  of  Italy,  exercised  at  that  time  the  guardianship  of 
the  young  Coiistantine,  his  relation,  the  son  of  Louis,  and  grand- 
son of  Boson.     The  Italians,  discontented  under  the  government 
of  Hugo,  and  having  devolved  their  crown  on  Rodolph  II.,  king 
of  fransjurane  Burgundy,  Hugo,  in  order  to  maintain  himself 
on  the  throne  of  Italy,  and  exclude  Rodolph,  ceded  to  him  the 
district  of  Provence,  and  the  kingdom  of  his  royal  ward.     Thus 
united  in  the  person  of  Rodolph,  these  two  kingdoms  passed  to 
his  descendants,  viz.  Conrad,  his  son,  and  Rodolph  III.,  his 
grandson.     These  princes  are  styled,  in  their  titles,  sometimes 
Kings  of  Burgundy;  sometimes  Kings  of  Vknne  or  Aries  • 
sometimes  Kiiigs  of  Provence  and  Allermnia.     They  lost,  in 
course  of  time,  their  possessions  beyond  the  Rhone  and  the 
fsaone;  and  in  the  time  of  Rodolph  III.,  this  kingdom  had  for 
Its  boundaries  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the  Saone,  the  Reuss,  and 
the  Alps. 

Navarre,  the  kingdom  next  to  be  mentioned,  known  among 
the  ancients  under  the  name  of  Vasconia,  was  one  of  the  pro- 
vinces beyond  the  Pyrenees,  which  Charlemagne  had  conquered 
from  the  Arabs.     Among  the  counts  or  wardens  of  the  Marches, 
called  by  the  Germans  Margraves,  which  he  established,  the 
most  remarkable  were  those  of  Barcelona  in  Catalonia,  Jacca 
in  Arragon,  and  Pampeluna  in  Navarre.     All  these  Spanish 
Marches  were  comprised  within  Western  France,  and  within 
the  division  which  fell  to  the  share  of  Charles  the  Bald,  on  the 
dismemberment  of  that  monarchy  among  the  sons  of  Louis  the 
Gentle.     The  extreme  imbecility  of  that  prince,  and  the  calam 
ties  of  his  reign,  were  the  causes  why  the  Navarrese  revolted 
irom  France,  and  erected  themselves  into  a  free  and  indepen- 
dent state.     It  appears  also,  that  they  were  implicated  in  the 
defection  of  Aquitain  (853,)  when  it  threw  ofT  the  yoke  of     i 
Charles  the  Bald.     Don  Garcias,  son  of  the  Count  Don  Gar-     ' 
cms,  and  grandson  of  Don  Sancho,  is  generally  reckoned  the 
first  of  their  monarchs,  that  usurped  the  title  of  King  of  Pam- 
peluna, (858.)     He  and  his  successors  in  the  kingdom  of  Na- 


ft 


:!»< 


t 


.    I 


72 


CHAPTEH   in. 


varre,  possessed,  at  the  same  time,  the  provjnre  of  Jacca  in 
Arraeon.  The  Counts  of  Barcelona  were  the  only  Spanish 
dependencies  that,  for  many  centuries,  continued  to  acknowledge 
the  soveieignty  of  the  Kings  of  France.  .        •„.    .„ 

On  this  part  of  our  subject,  it  only  remains  for  us  to  point  out 
the  causes  that  conspired  to  accelerate  the  downfall  of  the  em- 
pire of  the  Franks.     Among  these  we  may  reckon  the  inconve- 
niences of  the  feudal  system,-a  system  as  unfitted  for  the  pur- 
poses  of  internal  administration,  as  it  was  incompatible  with  the 
maxims  that  ought  to  rule  a  great  empire.     The  abuse  of  fiefs 
was  canied  so  far  by  the  Franks,  that  almost  all  property  had 
become  feudal;  and  not  only  grants  of  land,  and  portions  of 
large  estates,  but  governments,  dukedoms,  and  counties,  were 
conferred  and  held  under  the  title  of  fiefs.     The  consequence 
of  this  was,  that  the  great,  by  the  allurement  of  fiefs  or  benefices, 
became  devoted  followers  of  the  kmgs,  while  the  body  of  the 
nation  sold  themselves  as  retainers  of  the  great.     Whoever  re- 
fused  this  vassalage  was  despised,  and  had  neither  favour  nor 
honour  to  expect.*     By  this  practice,  the  liberty  of  the  subject 
was  abridged  without  augmenting  the  royal  authority.     Ihe 
nobles  soon  became  so  powerful,  by  the  liberality  of  their  kings, 
and  the  number  of  their  vassals  they  found  means  to  procure, 
that  they  had  at  length  the  presumption  to  dictate  laws  to  the 
sovereign  himself.     By  degrees,  the  obligations  which  they 
owed  to  the  state  were  forgotten,  and  those  only  recognised 
which  the  feudal  contract  imposed.     This  new  bond  of  alliance 
was  not  long  in  opening  a  door  to  licentiousness,  as  by  a  natural 
consequence,  it  was  imagined,  that  the  feudal  superior  might  be 
changed,  whenever  there  was  a  possibility  of  charging  him  with 
a  violation  of  his  engagements,  or  of  that  reciprocal  fidelity  which 

he  owed  to  his  vassals.  ....       j      v      i     ♦ 

A  system  like  this,  not  only  overturned  public  order,  by  plant- 
ine  the  germs  of  corruption  in  every  part  of  the  internal  admi- 
nistration ;  it  was  still  more  defective  with  regard  to  the  external 
operations  of  government,  and  directly  at  variance  with  all  plans 
of  aeerandizement  or  of  conquest.     As  war  was  carried  on  by 
means  of  slaves  or  vassals  only,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  such 
armies  not  being  kept  constantly  on  foot,  were  with  difficulty  put 
in  motion;  that  they  could  neither  prevent  intestine  rebellion, 
nor  be  a  protection  against  hostile  invasion ;  and  that  conquests 
made  by  means  of  such  troops,  must  be  lost  with  the  same  faci- 
lity that  they  are  won.    A  permanent  military,  fortresses  and 
garrisons,  such  as  we  find  in  modern  tactics,  were  altogether 
unknown  among  the  Franks.     These  politic  institutions,  indis- 
pensable  in  great  empires,  were  totally  repugnant  to  the  genius 


PKRIOD  11.      A.  D.  800—962. 


73 


of  the  German  nations.  They  did  not  evon  know  what  is  meant 
by  hnances,  or  regular  .systems  of  taxation.  Their  kings  had 
no  other  pecuniary  resource  than  the  simple  revenues  of  their 
demesnes,  which  served  for  the  maintenance  of  their  court. 
Gratuitous  donations  the  perquisites  of  bed  and  lodging,  fines, 
the  third  of  which  belonged  to  .he  king,  rights  of  custom  and 
toll,  added  but  little  to  their  wealth,  and  could  not  be  reckoned 
among  the  number  of  state  resources.  None  but  tributaries,  or 
conquered  nations,  were  subjected  to  the  payment  of  certain  m- 
posts  or  assessments ;  from  these  the  Franks  were  exempted  ; 
they  would  have  even  regarded  it  as  an  insult  and  a  blow  siruck 
at  their  national  liberty,  had  they  been  burdened  with  a  sinele 
imposition.  ° 

It  is  obvious,  that  a  government  like  this,  so  disjointed  and 
incoherent  in  all  its  parts,  in  spite  of  the  advantages  which  ac- 
crued  to  ,t  from  no-irishing  a  spirit  of  liberty,  and  opposin<r  « 
sort  o!  barrier  against  despotism,  was  nevertheless  far  from  beTnir 
suitable  to  an  empire  of  such  prodigious  extent  as  that  of  the 
franks.     Charlemagne  had  tried  to  infu.se  a  new  vigour  into 
the  state  by  the  wise  laws  which  he  published,  and  the  military 
stations  which  he  planted  on  the  frontiers  of  his  empire.  Raised, 
by  the  innate  force  of  his  genius  above  the  prejudices  of  the  ase 
in  which  he  lived,  that  prince  had  formed  a  system  capable  of 
giving  unity  and  consistency  to  the  state,  had  it  been  of  longer 
duration.     But  this  system  fell  to  pieces  and  vanished,  when 
no  longer  animated  and  put  in  execution  by  its  author.    Disorder 
and  anarchy  speedily  paralyzed  every  branch  of  the  government 
and  ultimately  brought  on  the  dismemberment  of  the  empire     ' 
Another  cause  which  accelerated  the  fall  of  this  vast  empire 
was  the  territorial  divisions,  practised  by  the  kings,  both  of  the 
Merovingian,  and  the  Carlovingian  race,      Charlemagne  and 
Louis  the  Gentle,  when  they  ordered  the  empire  to  be  divided 
among  their  sons,  never  imagined  this  partition  would  terminate 
m  a  formal  dismemberment  of  the  monarchy.     Their  intention 
was  rather  to  preserve  union  and  amity,  by  means  of  certain 
rights  of  superiority,  which  they  granted  to  their  eldest  sons, 
whom  they  had  invested  with  the  Imperial  dignity.     But  this 
subordination  of  the  younger  to  their  elder  brothers  was  not  of 
long  continuance ;  and  these  divisions,  besides  naturally  weak- 
ening  the  state,  became  a  source  of  perpetual  discord:  and 
reduced  the  Carlovingian  princes  to  the  necessity  of  courtin? 
the  grandees,  on  every  emergency,  and  gaining  their  interest 
by  new  gifts,  or  by  concessions  which  went  to  sap  the  founda- 
tion of  the  throne. 
This  exorbitant  power  of  the  nobles,  must  also  be  reckoned 


r 


d 


m 


■  I' 


•B 


'   I'  IL  ■* 


!|-- 


71 


CHAPTER    III. 


h^h 


among  the  number  of  causes  that  hastened  the  decline  of  th« 
cni|)iro.  Dukes  and  Counts,  besides  being  intrusted  with  the 
justice  and  police  of  their  respective  governments,  exercised,  ut 
the  same  time,  a  military  power,  and  collected  the  revenues  of 
the  Exche({uer.  So  many  and  so  different  jurisdictions,  united 
in  one  and  the  same  power,  could  not  but  become  dangerous  to 
the  royal  authority  ;  while  it  facilitated  to  the  nobles  the  means 
of  fortifying  theuiselves  in  their  governments,  and  breaking,  by 
degrees,  the  unity  of  the  stale.  Charlemagne  had  felt  this  in- 
convenience ;  and  he  thought  to  remedy  the  evil,  by  succes* 
sively  abolishing  the  great  dutchies,  and  dividing  them  into 
several  counties.  Unfortunately  this  policy  was  not  followed 
out  by  his  successors,  wh«i  returned  to  the  ancient  practice  of 
creating  dukes  ;  and  besides,  being  educated  and  nurtured  in 
superstition  by  the  priests,  they  put  themselves  wholly  under 
dependence  to  bishops  and  ecclesiastics,  who  thus  disposed  of 
the  slate  at  their  pleasure.  The  consequence  wa.«,  that  govern- 
ments, at  first  alterable  only  by  the  will  of  the  King,  passed 
eventually  to  the  children,  or  heirs,  of  those  who  were  merely 
administrators,  or  superintendents,  of  them. 

Charles  the  Bald,  first  King  of  France,  had  the  weakness  to 
constitute  this  dangerous  principle  into  a  standing  law,  in  the 
parliament  which  he  held  at  Chiersi  (877,)  towards  the  close  of 
his  reign.  He  even  extended  this  principle  generally  to  all 
fiefs  ;  to  those  that  held  immediately  of  the  crown,  as  well  as  to 
those  which  held  of  laic,  or  ecclesiastical  superiors. 

This  new  and  exorbitant  power  of  the  nobles,  joined  to  the 
injudicious  partitions  already  mentioned,  tended  to  sow  fresh 
discord  among  the  dilTerent  members  of  the  state,  by  exciting  a 
multitude  of  civil  wars  and  dotnestic  feuds,  which,  by  a  neces- 
sary consequence,  brought  the  whole  body-politic  into  a  state  of 
decay  and  dissolution.  The  history  of  the  successors  of  Charle- 
magne presents  a  sad  picture,  humiliating  and  distressing  to 
humanity.  Every  page  of  it  is  filled  with  insurrections,  devas- 
tations, and  carnage :  princes,  sprung  from  the  same  blood, 
armed  against  each  other,  breathing  unnatural  vengeance,  and 
bent  on  mutual  destruction  :  the  royal  authority  insulted  and 
despised  by  the  nobles,  who  were  perpetually  at  war  with  each 
other,  either  to  decide  their  private  quarrels,  or  aggrandize  them- 
selves at  the  expense  of  their  neighbours  ;  and,  finally,  the  citi- 
zens exposed  to  all  kinds  of  oppression,  reduced  to  misery  and 
servitude,  without  the  hope  or  possibility  of  redress  from  the 
government.  Such  was  the  melancholy  situation  of  the  States 
that  composed  the  Empire  of  Charlemagne,  when  the  irruption 
of  new  barbarians,  the  Normans  from  the  extremities  of  the 


fth«  I' 

h  ihe 
;d,  ut 
lea  of 
iiiited 
)UM  to 
neans 

lis  in- 
ucces- 
11  into 
llowed 
lice  of 
red  in 
under    , 
ised  of    j 
rovern- 
passed     | 
merely     j 

nesa  to 

in  the 

:lose  of 

|y  to  all 

ill  as  to 

to  the 
|\v  fresh 
(citing  a 

neces- 

state  of 

jCharle- 

Issing  to 

I,  devas- 

blood, 
jce,  and 
tied  and 
|ith  each 
!e  them- 
Ithe  citi- 
tery  and 
from  the 
|e  States 
jrruption 
of  the 


PBRIOD  II.     A.  D.  800—962. 


n 


North,  and  thu  Hunfrarians  from  the  back  settlements  of  Asia, 
exposed  it  afresh  to  the  terrible  scourge  of  foreign  invasion. 

The  Normans,  of  Gerinun  origin,  and  inlinbiting  ancient 
Scandinavin,  that  is  to  say,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  modern 
Norway,  begun,  towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  to  cover 
the  sea  with  their  ships,  and  to  infest  successively  all  the  niari* 
time  coasts  of  Europe.*  During  the  space  of  two  hundred  years, 
they  continued  their  incursions  and  devastations,  with  a  fierce- 
ness and  perseverance  that  surpasses  all  imagination.  This  phe- 
nomenon, however,  is  easily  explained,  if  we  iittend  to  the  state 
of  barbarism  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  Scandinavia,  in  general, 
were  at  that  time  plunged.  Despising  agriculture  and  the  arts, 
they  found  themselves  unable  to  draw  from  fishing  and  the 
chase,  the  necessary  means  even  for  their  scanty  subsistence. 
The  comfortable  circumstances  of  their  neighbours  who  culti- 
vated their  lands,  excited  their  cupidity,  and  invited  them  to 
acquire  by  force,  piracy,  or  plunder,  what  they  had  not  sufficient 
skill  to  procure  by  their  own  industry.  They  were,  moreover, 
animated  by  a  sort  of  religious  fanaticism,  which  inspired  them 
with  courage  for  the  most  perilous  enterprise.  This  reckless 
superstition  they  drew  from  the  doctrines  of  Odin,  who  was  tho 
god  of  their  armies,  the  rewarder  of  valour  and  intrepidity  in 
war,  receiving  into  his  paradise  of  /  alhalla,  the  brave  who  fell 
beneath  the  swords  of  the  enemy ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  abode  of  the  wretched,  called  by  them  Heleete,  was  pre- 
pared for  those  who,  abandoned  to  ease  and  efTeminacy,  prefer- 
red a  life  of  tranquillity  to  the  glory  of  arms,  and  the  perils  of 
warlike  adventure. 

This  doctrine,  generally  diffused  over  all  the  north,  inspired 
the  Scandinavian  youth  with  an  intrepid  and  ferocious  courage, 
which  made  them  brave  all  dangers,  and  consider  the  sangui- 
nary death  of  warriors  as  the  surest  path  to  immortality.  Often 
did  it  happen  that  the  sons  of  kings,  even  those  who  were 
already  destined  as  successors  to  their  father's  throne,  volun- 
teered as  chiefs  of  pirates  and  brigands,  under  the  name  of  Sea 
Kings,  solely  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  name,  and  signaliz- 
ing themselves  by  their  maritim?  exploits. 

These  piracies  of  the  Normans,  which  at  first  were  limited 
to  the  seas  and  countries  bordering  on  Scandinavia,  soon  ex- 
tended over  all  the  western  and  southern  coasts  of  Europe. 
Germany,  the  kingdoms  of  Lorraine,  France,  England,  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  Spain,  the  Balearic  Isles,  Italy,  Greece,  and  even 
the  shores  of  Africa,  were  exposed  in  their  turn  to  the  insults 
and  the  ravages  of  these  barbarians." 

France  more  ev>ecially  suffered  f'om  their  incursions,  under 


i 


I 


m- 


">.i 


t 


CHAPTER  III. 


the  fpeWn  reigns  of  Chnrlos  ihn  Bnid,  ^nd  Charles  tho  Fat. 
Not  content  with  the  hnvoc  which  they  innde  on  the  coasts, 
they  a^'cridt'd  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  the  (iaronne.  nnd  the  Rhone, 
carrying  fire  and  sword  to  the  very  centre  of  the  kingdom. 
Nantes,  Angers,  Tours,  Blois,  Orleans,  Mons,  Poitiers,  Boiir- 
deaiix,  Rouen,  Paris,  Sens,  Laon,  Soissons,  and  various  other 
cities,  experienced  the  fury  of  these  invaders.  Paris  was  three 
times  .sacked  and  pillaged  by  them.  Robert  the  Strong,  n  scion 
of  the  royal  House  of  Capet,  whom  Charles  the  Bald  had  created 
(861,)  Duke  or  Governor  of  Neusirin,  was  killed  in  battle  (866,) 
while  combating  with  success  against  the  Normans.  At  length, 
the  terror  which  they  had  spread  every  where  was  such,  that  the 
French,  who  trembled  at  the  very  name  of  the  Norman.s,  had 
no  longer  courage  to  encounter  them  in  arms  ;  and  in  order  to 
rid  themselves  of  such  formidable  enemies,  they  consented  to 

fmrchase  their  retreat  by  a  sum  of  money ;  a  wretched  and 
ieeble  remedy,  which  only  aggravated  the  evil,  by  inciting  the 
invaders,  by  the  hope  of  gain,  to  return  to  the  charge. 

It  is  not  however  at  all  astonishing,  that  France  should  have 
been  exposed  so  long  to  these  incursions,  since,  besides  the  in- 
efficient state  of  that  monarchy,  she  had  no  vessels  of  her  own 
to  protect  her  coasts.  The  nobles,  occupied  solely  with  the 
care  of  augmenting  or  confirming  their  growing  power,  ofTered 
but  a  feeble  opposition  to  the  Normans,  whose  presence  in  the 
kingdom  caused  a  diversion  favourable  to  their  views.  Some 
of  them  even  had  no  hesitation  in  joining  the  barbarians,  when 
they  happened  to  be  in  disgrace,  or  when  they  thought  they  had 
reason  to  complain  uf  the  government. 

It  was  in  consequence  of  these  numerous  expeditions  overall 
the  seas  of  Europe,  that  the  monarchies  of  the  North  were 
formed,  and  that  the  Normans  succeeded  also  in  founding  several 
other  states.  It  is  to  them  that  the  powerful  monarchy  of  the 
Russians  owes  its  origin ;  Ruric  the  Norman  is  allowed  to  have 
been  its  founder,  towards  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.''  He 
and  the  grand  dukes  his  successors,  extended  their  conquests 
from  the  Baltic  and  the  White  Sea,  to  the  Euxine  ;  and  during 
the  tenth  century  they  made  the  emperors  of  the  East  to  trem- 
ble on  their  thrones.  In  their  native  style  of  piratical  warfare, 
they  embarked  on  the  Dnieper  or  Borysthenes,  infested  with 
their  fleets  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  carried  terror  and  dismay 
to  the  gates  of  Constantinople,  and  obliged  the  Greek  emperors 
to  pay  them  large  sums  to  redeem  their  capital  from  pillage. 

Ireland  was  more  than  once  on  the  point  of  bein^  subdued  by 
the  Normans,  during  these  piratical  excursions.  Their  first  in- 
Tasioti  of  this  island  is  stated  to  have  been  in  the  year  795 


Jai 


■TJDW"- 


0  Fat. 

rnaxt.s, 
Khnne, 
i?ilom. 
,  Bour- 
s  other 
is  three 
n  Rcion 
created 
B  (866,) 
length, 
that  the 
n!<,  had 
order  to 
ntcd  to 
icd  iind 
ing  the 

lid  have 
!  the  in- 
tier  own 
vith  the 
,  oflered 
;e  in  the 
Some 
IS,  when 
they  had 

s  overall 
rth  were 
g  several 
\y  of  the 

1  to  have 
iry.'  He 
onquests 
id  during 
,  to  trem- 

warfare, 
sted  with 
d  dismay 
emperors 
jillage. 
ibduedby 
ir  first  in- 
year  796 


MHioD  II.     A.  t>.  800— 9fl2.  77 

G.eat  ravage,  wore  committed  by  the  harlmrians.  who  connuor- 
wh;"L  1"      ;'•  "'",'""'  "''  ^^'""•'•'■"r'l.  Dubli,,.  and   LimeVick. 

'  w,.  '  I  n  i"""'  """  T'"'"""  '"'"y  '<"'«'l"""'-  fhri.lianily 
Wi.  i..lro.luc..d  among  ihf.n  towards  the  middle  of  the  tenlh 
muury ;  and  ,t  was  not  till  the  twelfth,  the  tim.  „f  it.  i„v„.sion 
by  the  Lnah.sl,,  that  they  suc.-erded  in  ..xpolling  them  from  the 
i.sianci,  when  they  were  dispossessed  of  the  cities  of  VVaterford 
and  Dublin(1170)  by  Henly  II.  of  England.  ^^«"^""f'« 

.hoM"'^f'M"  "^^f'''^'*' '^':  Shetlan.l  and  Faroe  Islands,  and 
the  I.lo  of  Man,  were  also  discovered  and  peopled  by  the  Nor- 

where  they  founded  a  republic  (874.)  which  preserved  its  inde- 
pendence  till  nearly  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when 
that  island  was  conquered  by  the  Kings  of  Norway."  Norman- 
dy,  ui  h  ranee,  also  received  its  name  from  this  people.  Charles 
the  Simple,  wishing  to  put  a  check  on  their  continual  incur- 
sions, concluded  at  St  C^lair-sur-Epte  (892.)  «  treaty  with  Kollo 
or  Kolf,  chief  of  the  Normans,  by  whicli  he  abandoned  to  them 
all  that  part  of  Nensiriu  which  reaches  from  the  rivers  Andelle 
and  Aure  to  the  ocean.  To  this  he  added  a  part  of  Vexin, 
-.uated  between  the  rivers  Andelle  and  Epte  ;  as  also  the  ter- 
mory  of  Brctagne.  Ro  lo  embraced  Christianity,  and  received 
the  baptismal  name  of  Robert.  He  submitted  to  become  a  vas- 
sal  of  the  crown  of  Franco,  under  the  title  of  Duke  of  Norman- 
ay;  and  obtained  in  marriage  the  .princess  Gisele,  daughter  of 
Chares  the  Simple.  In  the  following  century,  we  shall  meet 
with  these  Normans  of  I- ranee  as  the  conquerors  of  England, 
and  the  founders  of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies 

The  Hungarians,  a  people  of  Turkish  or  Finnish   origin, 
emigrated,  as  is  generally  supposed,  from  Baschiria.  a  counlrv 
lying  10  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  between  the  Wolgn,  the 
Kama,  and  Mount  Ural,  near  the  source  of  the  Tobol  and  the 
Jaik,  or  modern  Ural.     The  Orientals  designate  them  by  the 
generic  name  of  Turks,  while  they  denominate  themselves 
Magtars,  from  the  name  of  one  of  their  tribes.     After  havinir 
been  long  dP4,endent  on  the  Chazars,'o  a  Turkish  tribe  to  thi 
north  of  the  Paius  Mceotis,  they  retired  towards  the  Danube,  to 
avoid  the  oppressions  of  the  Fatzinacites;"   and  established 
themselves  (887)  in  ancient  Dacia,  under  the  auspices  of  a  chief 
named  Arpad,  from  whom  the  ancient  sovereigns  of  Hunearv 
derive  their  origin      Arnulph,  King  of  Germany,  employed 
♦hese  Hungarians  (892)  against  the  Slavo-Moravians,  who  pos- 
sessed  a  flourishing  state  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube    the 
Morau,  and  the  Elbe.'-'    While  engaged  in  this  expedition.'they 
were  attacked  agam  in  their  Dacian  possessions  by  ihe  Pataina- 


'■!] 


I 


N  i^! 


m^m 


If- 


«r- 


'ITI'' 


^1* 


r 


w 


CBAPTRR  III. 


cites,  who  «»c<'pP(lf!(l  nt  lonpith  in  pxpnllinff  them  from  their 
tprriloric!*.'''  'I'nkinjj  advnntiij,'^  afHTwnrd.i  of  the  death  of 
Swiiitopulk,  kin^  of  the  IVlnriiviiin.«,  nod  the  trntiblpH  conne* 
qiiciit  on  thiit  event,  ihcy  disnevert^d  from  Moraviii  all  the  coun- 
try which  extends  from  the  frontiers  of  Mohlaviu,  Wnllachia 
and  Transylvania,  to  the  Danube  and  the  Morau.  They  con- 
quered, about  the  same  time,  Fannonia,  with  a  part  of  Noricum, 
which  they  liad  wrested  from  the  (jcrmons ;  and  thus  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  new  slate,  known  since  by  the  name  of  Hungary. 

No  sooner  had  tlio  Hungarians  established  themselves  in 
Panrmnin,  than  they  commenced  their  incursions  into  the  prin» 
cipal  states  of  Europe.  Germany,  Iialy,  and  Oaul,  agitated  by 
faction  and  anarchy,  and  even  the  Grecian  empire  in  the  East, 
became,  all  in  their  turn,  the  bloody  scene  of  their  ravages  and 
devastations.  Germany,  in  particular,  for  a  long  time  fell  the 
pfl'ects  of  their  fiiry.  All  its  provinces  in  succession  were  laid 
waste  by  the.se  barbarians,  and  compelled  to  pty  them  tribute, 
Henry  I.,  King  of  Germany,  and  his  son  Oiho  the  Great,  at 
length  succeeded  in  arresting  their  destructive  career,  and  de- 
livered Europe  from  this  new  yoke  which  threatened  its  in- 
dependence. 

It  was  in  consequence  of  these  incursions  of  the  Hungarians 
and  Normans,  to  which  may  be  added  those  of  the  Arabs  and 
Slavonians,  that  the  kingdoms  which  sprang  from  the  empire  of 
the  Franks  lost  once  more  the  advantages  which  the  political 
mstitutions  of  Charlemagne  had  procured  them.  Learning, 
which  that  prince  had  encouraged,  fell  into  a  state  of  absolute 
languor;  an  end  was  put  both  to  civil  and  literary  improvement, 
by  the  destruction  of  convents,  schools,  and  libraries  ;  the  po- 
lity and  internal  security  of  the  states  were  destroyed,  and 
commerce  reduced  to  nothing.  England  was  the  only  excep- 
tion, which  then  enjoyed  a  transient  glory  under  the  memora- 
ble reign  of  Alfred  the  Great.  That  prince,  grandson  of  Egbert 
who  was  the  first  king  of  all  England,  succeeded  in  expelling 
the  Normans  from  the  island  (887,)  and  restored  peace  and  tran- 
quillity to  his  kingdom.  After  the  example  of  Charlemagne, 
he  cultivated  and  protected  learning  and  the  arts,  by  restoring 
the  convents  and  schools  which  the  barbarian.s  had  destroyed ; 
inviting  philosophers  and  artists  to  his  court,  and  civilizing  his 
subjects  by  literary  institutions  and  wise  regulations.'*  It  is 
to  be  regretted,  that  a  reig'n  so  glorious  was  so  soon  followed 
by  new  misfortunes.  After  the  Normans,  the  Danes  reappeared 
in  England,  and  overspread  it  once  more  with  turbulence  and 
desolation. 

During  these  unenlightened  and  calamitous  times,  we  find 


k: 


find 


rEnioD  HI.    A.  p.  »6S— 1074. 


19 


fine  his  adventures  to  ihe  c-oa  70      oli„|,^        ,.■''''  '""  T*"' 

area,,,  ,p„ken,  we  find,  in  the  ton.h'entl   ;;  „      'o   .;:  A,"" 
ments^rnn,/„7S  ?"^"''""' '  ""^  "'•-.  rrmLg^e    e-' 


CHAPTER   IV. 

PERIOD   m, 

Prm  Otko  the  Great  to  Gresory  the  Great.    ..  p.  962-1074 

comprised,    besides  the  three  canton.  nf%  •       i»r      "'"*'  " 
Mayence,  on  this  side  the  Rhin?.    u       '"'"'''  ^^  ''™^'  ""^ 

From  the  first  formation  of  this  kingdom,  the  royal  authority 


m 


I 

(  "'      .'.  .<  v.-    ' 


'Ji'^* 


lUii  - 


m 


\  m 


•iUSii.,. 


|.    if'i 


li 


80 


CHAPTER  IV. 


was  limited ;  and  Louis  the  German,  in  an  assembly  held  at 
Marsen  (S51,)had  formally  engaged  to  maintain  the  states  m  their 
rights  and  privileges ;  to  follow  their  coumel  and  advice,  and 
to  consider  them  as  his  true  colleagues  and  coadjutors  in  all  the 
affairs  of  government.  The  states,  however,  soon  found  means 
10  vest  in  themselves  the  right  of  (ihoosmg  their  kings.  I  he 
first  Carlovingian  monarchs  of  Germany  were  hereditary. 
Louis  the  German  even  divided  his  kingdom  among  his  three 
sons,  viz.  Carloman,  Louis  the  Young,  and  Chores  the  tat; 
but  Charles  having  been  deposed  in  an  assembly  held  at  !•  rank- 
fort  (887,)  the  states  of  Germany  elected  in  his  place  Arnulph,  a 
natural  son  of  Carloman.  This  prince  added  to  his  crown  both 
Italy  and  the  Imperial  dignity. 

The  custom  of  election  has  continued  in  Germany  down  to 
modern  times.  Louis  I'Enfant,  or  the  Infant,  son  of  Arnulph. 
succeeded  to  the  throne  by  election ;  and  that  prince  having  died 
very  young  (911,)  the  states  bestowed  the  crown  on  a  trench 
nobleman,  named  Conrad,  who  was  duke  or  governor  of  France 
on  the  Rhine,  and  related  by  the  female  side  to  the  Lariovin- 
Pian  line.  Conrad  mounted  the  throne,  to  the  exclusion  ol 
Charles  the  Simple,  King  of  France,  the  only  male  and  legiti- 
mate  heir  of  the  Carlovingian  line.  This  latter  prince,  how- 
ever,  found  means  to  seize  the  kingdom  of  Lorram,  which 
Louis  the  Young  had  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Germany.  Un 
the  death  of  Conrad  I.  (919,)  the  choic3  of  the  states  fell  on 
Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  a  scion  of  the  Saxon  dynasty 
of  the  kings  and  emperors  of  Germany.  ,       ,. 

It  was  to  the  valour  and  the  wisdom  of  Henry  I.,  and  to  his 
institutions,  civil  and  military,  that  Germany  was  indebted  foi 
its  renewed  grandeur,     f  hat  monarch,  taking  advantage  of  the 
intestine  troubles  which  had  arisen  in  France  under  Charles  the 
Simple,  recovered  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Lorram,  the 
nobility  of  which  made  their  submission  to  him  m  the  years 
923  and  925.     By  this  union  he  extended  the  limits  of  Germa- 
ny towards  the  west,  as  far  as  the  Meuse  and  the  Scheld.   The 
kings  of  Germany  afterwards  divided  the  territory  of  Lorrain 
into  two  governments  or  dutchies,  called  Upper  and  Lower  Lor- 
rain.     The  former,  situated  on  the  Moselle,  was  called  the 
dutchy  of  the  Moselle  ;  the  other,  bounded  by  the  Rhine,  the 
Meuse,  and  the  Scheld,  was  known  by  the  name  of  Lothiers  or 
Brabant.     These  two  dutchies  comprised  all  the  provinces  of 
he  kingdom  of  Lorrain,  except  those  which  the   emperors 
judged  proper  to  exempt  from  the  authority  and  jurisdiction  of 
the  dukes.     The  dutchy  of  the  Moselle,  alone,  finally  retained 
the  name  of  Lorrain;  and  passed  (1048)  to  Gerard  of  Alsace, 


leld  al  I 

n  their  \ 
!..   and 
all  the 

means  \ 

.     The  1 

jditary.  | 

s  three  '• 

le  Fat ;  : 

Frank-  | 

lulph,  a  i 

vn  both  1 

[own  to  j 
.rnulph, 
ng  died 
French 
■  France 
arlovin- 
ision  of 
J  legiti* 
:e,  how- 
,  which 
ly.  On 
;  fell  on 
dynasty 

id  to  his 
;bted  foi 
re  of  the 
arles  the 
rain,  the 
fie  years 
f  Germa- 
!ld.   The 
f  Lorrain 
wer  Lot' 
illed  the 
hine,  the 
)thiers  or 
vinces  of 
emperors 
liction  of 
'  retained 
f  Alsace, 


]'• 


1 


;  (. 


\- 


m 

§ 

p^ 

^  i 

■ 

w  1 

'•:  ;X 

■;■!  ^ 

,  :%: 

1'''  ' 

'^^ 

I' 

iii 

I    -3 


l.,f     i 


n 


H 


m 


m 


I  !i 


11 


:?to»^ 


i*:,  .-itt 


"iiif? 


Flight  of  Maliomet.    P.  (io. 


r 


■p 


Crowning  of  Chjirlcmagne.    P.  05. 


n  m. 


1     . 


{4i 


r 


PERIOD  III.      A.  D.  962 — 1074. 


81 


from  whom  doscended  the  dukes  of  that  name,  wlio  in  the  eigh- 
teentli  century,  succeeded  to  tlie  Imperial  throne.  As  to  the 
dutchy  of  Lower  Lonain,  tiie  Emperor  Henry  V.  conferred  it  on 
Godfrey,  Count  of  Louvain  (1108),  whose  male  attendants  kept 
possession  of  it,  under  the  title  of  Dukes  of  Brabant,  till  1355, 
when  it  passed  by  female  succession  to  the  Dukes  of  Burgun- 
dy, who  found  means  also  to  acquire,  by  degrees,  the  greater 
part  of  Lower  Lorrain,  commonly  called  the  Low  Countries. 

Henry  L,  a  prince  of  extraordinary  g.iiius,  proved  himself 
the  true  restorer  of  the  German  kingdom.  The  Slavonian 
tribes  who  inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Saal,  and  the  country  be- 
tween the  Elbe  and  the  Baltic,  committed  incessant  ravages  on 
the  frontier  provinces  of  the  kingdom.  With  these  he  waged 
a  successful  war,  and  reduced  them  once  more  to  the  condition 
of  tributaries.  But  his  policy  was  turned  chiefly  against  the 
Hungarians,  who,  since  the  reign  of  Louis  IL,  had  repeatedly 
renewed  their  incursions,  and  threatened  to  subject  all  Germa- 
ny to  their  yoke.  Desirous  to  repress  effectually  that  ferocious 
nation,  he  took  the  opportunity  of  a  nine  years  truce,  which  he 
had  obtained  with  them,  to  construct  new  towns,  and  fortify 
places  of  strength.  He  instructed  his  troops  in  a  new  kind 
of  tactics,  accustomed  them  to  military  evolutions,  and  above 
all,  he  formed  and  equipped  a  cavalry  sufficient  to  cope  with 
those  of  ti.e  Hungarians,  who  particularly  excelled  in  the  art 
of  managing  horses.  These  depredators  having  returned  with 
fresh  forces  at  the  expiry  of  the  truce,  he  completely  defeated 
them  in  two  bloody  battles,  which  he  fought  with  them  (933) 
near  Sondershausen  and  Meraeburg ;  and  ;hus  exonerated  Ger- 
many from  the  tribute  which  it  had  formerly  paid  them.' 

This  victorious  prince  extended  his  conquests  beyond  the 
Eyder,  the  ancient  frontier  of  Denmark.  After  a  prosperous 
war  with  the  Danes  (931,)  he  founded  the  margravate  of  Sles- 
wick,  which  the  Emperor  Conrad  U.  afterwards  ceded  back 
(1033)  to  Canute  the  Great,  King  of  Denmark. 

Otho  the  Great,  son  and  successor  of  Henry  I.,  added  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  to  the  conquests  of  his  father,  and  procured 
also  the  Imperial  dignity  for  himself,  and  his  successors  in  Ger- 
many. Italy  had  become  a  distiiict  kingdom  since  the  revolu- 
tion, which  happened  (888)  at  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
the  Fat.  Ten  princes  in  succession  occupied  the  throne  during 
the  space  of  seventy-three  years.  Several  of  these  prinres,  such 
as  Guy,  Lambert,  Aniulf,  Louis  of  Burgundy,  and  Berenger  I., 
were  invested,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  Imperial  dignity.  Be- 
renger I.  having  been  assassinated  (924,)  this  latter  dignity 
ceased  entirely,  and  the  city  of  Rome  was  even  dismembered 
from  the  kingdom  of  Italv.     0 


I' 


Mi 

I 


"^f^ 


n 


V 


IP 


111 

'  i 


■'  !:■#' ' 


II  J^f' 


III' 


m. 


i|f 


*t'j 

i  'i.  'j 


^m*' 


"•W» 


t  ■  ■ 

:  1, 

I'll     ■  ? 


S8 


CHAFTER   IV. 


The  sovereignty  of  that  city  was  seized  by  the  famous  Maro* 
zia,  widow  of  a  nobleman  named  Alberic.  She  raised  her  son 
to  the  pontificate  by  the  title  of  John  XI. ;  and  the  better  to  es- 
tablish  her  dominion,  she  espoused  Hugo  King  of  Italy  (932,) 
»vho  became,  in  consequence  of  thi?  marriage,  master  of  Rome. 
But  Alberic,  another  son  of  Marozia,  soon  stirred  up  the  people 
against  this  aspiring  princess  and  her  husband  Hugo.  Having 
driven  Hugo  from  the  throne,  and  shut  up  his  mother  in  prison, 
he  assumed  to  himself  the  sovereign  authority,  under  the  title 
of  Patrician  of  the  Romans.  At  his  death  (954,)  he  transmit- 
ted the  sovereignty  to  his  son  Octavian,  who,  though  only  nine- 
teen years  of  age,  caused  himself  to  be  elected  pope,  by  the  titlo 
of  John  XII. 

This  epoch  was  one  most  disastrous  for  Italy.  The  weak- 
ness of  the  government  excited  factions  among  the  nobility, 
gave  birth  to  anarchy,  and  fresh  opportunity  for  the  depredations 
of  the  Hungarians  and  Arabs,  who,  at  this  period,  wore  the 
scourge  of  Italy,  which  they  ravaged  with  impunity.  Pavia, 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  was  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Hunga- 
rians. These  troubles  increased  on  the  accession  of  Berenger 
II.  (950,)  grandson  of  Berenger  i.  That  prince  associated  his 
son  Adelbert  with  him  in  the  royal  dignity;  and  the  public 
voice  accused  them  of  having  caused  the  death  of  King  Lothaire, 
son  and  successor  of  Hugo. 

Lothaire  left  a  young  widow,  named  Adelaide,  daughter  of 
Rodolph  II.,  King  of  Burgundy  and  Italy.  To  avoid  the  impor- 
tunities of  Berenger  II.,  who  wished  to  compel  her  to  marry  his 
son  Adelbert,  this  princess  called  in  the  King  of  Germany  to 
her  aid.  Oiho  complied  with  the  solicitations  of  the  distressed 
queen  ;  and,  on  this  occasion,  undertook  his  first  expedition  into 
Italy  (941.)  The  city  of  Pavia,  and  several  other  places,  having 
fallen  into  hi-  hands,  he  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  King 
of  Italy,  and  married  the  young  queen,  his  protegee.  Berenger 
and  his  son,  bemg  driven  for  shelter  to  their  strongholds,  had 
recourse  to  negotiation.  They  succeeded  in  obtaining  for  them- 
selves a  confirmation  of  the  royal  title  of  Italy,  on  condition  of 
doing  homage  for  it  to  the  King  of  Germany  ;  and  for  this  pur- 
pose, they  repaired  in  person  to  the  dirt  a«semhle(l  at  Augsburg 
(953,)  where  they  took  the  oath  of  vassalage  under  the  hand.s 
of  Olho,  who  solemnly  invested  them  with  the  royalty  of  Italy  ; 
reserving  to  himself  the  towns  and  marches  of  Aquileia  and 
Verona,  the  command  of  which  he  bestowed  on  his  '  uher  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria. 

In  examining  more  nearly  all  that  passed  in  this  affair,  it  ap- 
pears that  it  was  not  without  the  regret,  and  even  contrary  to 


1.  f  % 


i  Maro- 
her  son 
r  to  es- 
r  (932,) 
'  Rome. 

people 
Having 

prison, 
the  title 
ansmit- 
ly  nine- 
the  titlo 

I  weak- 
lobiiity, 
sdiitions 
ore  the 
Pa  via, 
Hunga- 
erenger 
itcd  his 
1  public 
othaire, 

^hter  of 
3  impor- 
arry  his 
nany  to 
stressed 
ion  into 
,  having 
3d  King 
lercnger 
Ids,  had 
)r  them- 
lition  of 
his  pur- 
ngsburg 
p.  hands 
}f  Italy ; 
Icia  and 
ther  the 

ir,  it  ap- 
itrarv  to 


-z=~\ 


PERIOD  II!.     A,  n.  962—1074.  88 

the  wish  of  Adelaide,  that  Otho  agreed  to  enter  into  terms  of 
accommodation  with  Bcrenger,  and  to  ratify  the  compact  which 
Conrad,  Duke  of  Lorrain,  and  son-in-law  of  the  Emperor,  had 
made  with  that  prince.  Afterwards,  however,  he  lent  a  favour- 
able cPT  to  th.;  complaints  which  Pope  John  XII.,  and  some 
Italian  noblemen  had  addressed  to  him  against  Berenger  and 
his  son  ;  and  took  occasion,  or.  '  ,ir  account,  to  conducl  a  new 
Hrmy  mto  Italy  (9f)l.)  Bcrenj:.  ,  too  feeble  to  oppose  him,  re- 
tired a  second  time  within  his  fortifications.  Otho  marched 
from  Pavia  to  Milan,  and  there  caused  himself  to  be  crowned 
King  of  Italy  ;  from  thcnco  he  passed  to  Rome,  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  following  year.  Pope  John  XII.,  who  had 
himself  invited  him,  and  again  implored  his  protection  against 
Berenger,  gave  him,  at  first,  a  very  brilliant  reception ;  and  re- 
vived the  Imperial  dignity  in  his  favour,  which  had  been  dor- 
mant for  thirty-eight  years. 

It  was  on  the  2'd  of  February  9G2,  that  the  Pope  consecrated 
and  crowned  him  Emperor  ;  but  he  had  soon  cause  to  repent  of 
this  proceeding.     Otho,  immcdiatolv  after  his  coronation  at 
Rome,  undertook  the  siege  of  St.  Leon,  a  fortress  in  Umbria, 
where  Berenger  and  hi ,  Queen  had  taken  refuge.     While  en- 
gaged in  the  siege,  he  received  frequent  intimations  from  Rome 
of  the  misconduct  and  immoralities  of  the  Pope.     The  remon- 
strances which  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  make  on  this  subject, 
offended  the  young  Pontiff,  who  resolved,  in  consequence,  to 
break  off  union  with  the  Emperor.     Hurried  on  by  the  impe- 
tuosity of  his  character,  he  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  Adel- 
bert;  and  even  persuaded  him  to  come  to  Rome,  in  order  to 
concert  with  him  measures  of  defence.     On  the  first  news  of 
this  event,  Otho  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  large  detachment, 
with  which  he  marched  directly  to  Rome.     The  Pope,  however, 
did  not  think  it  advisable  to  wait  his  approach,  but  fled  with  the' 
Kinfj,  his  new  ally.     Otho,  on  arriving  at  the  capital,  exacted  a 
solemn  oath  from  the  clergy  and  the  people,  that  henceforth 
they  would  elect  no  pojie  without  his  counsel,  and  that  of  the 
Emperor  and  his  successors.**      Having  then  assembled  a  coun- 
cil, he  caused   Pope  John  XII.  to  be  deposed  ;  and  Leo  VIII. 
was  elected  in  his  place.     This  latter  Pontiff  was  maintained 
the  papacy,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  which  his  adversary 
ide  to  regain  it.     Berenger  II.,  after  havinsr  sustained  a  long 
siege  at  St.  Leon,  fell  at  length  (9()-l)  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
queror, who  sent  him  into  exile  at  Bamberg,  and  compelled  his 
son,  Adelbert,  to  take  refuge  in  the  court  of  Constantinople. 

All  Italy,  to  the  extent  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Lorn-     , 
bards,  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Germans ;  only  a  few 


in 
mac 


!■■ 


0 
I* 


I' 


if. 


*  ■» 


i  i  ;li 


l»i 


.1  n\ 


i 


» 


■vf 


I.* 


l! 
II 


84  CHAPTER   IV. 

irmrilime  towns  in  Lower  Italy,  with  the  greater  part  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria,  still  remained  in  the  power  of  the  Greeks.  This 
kingdom,  together  with  the  Imperial  dignity,  Otho  transmitted 
to  his  successors  on  tlie  throne  of  Germany.  From  this  time 
the  Germans  held  it  to  be  an  inviolable  principle,  that  as  the  im- 
perial dignity  was  strictly  united  with  the  royalty  of  Italy,  kings 
elected  by  the  German  nation  should,  at  the  same  time,  in  virtue 
of  that  election,  become  kings  of  Italy  and  Emperors.  The 
practice  of  this  triple  coronation,  viz.  of  Germany,  Italy,  and 
Rome,  continued  for  many  centuries  ;  and  from  Otho  the  Great, 
till  Maximilian  I.  (1508,)  no  king  of  Germany  took  the  title  of 
Emperor,  until  after  he  had  been  formally  crowned  by  the  Pope. 

The  kings  and  emperors  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  did  not 
terminate  their  conquests  with  the  dominions  of  Lorrain  and 
Italy.  Towards  the  east  and  the  north,  they  extended  them  be- 
yond the  Saal  and  the  Elbe.  All  the  Slavonian  tribes  between 
the  Havel  and  the  Oder*  the  Abotrites,  the  Rhedarians,  the 
Wilzians,  the  Slavonians  on  the  Havel,  the  Sorabians,  the  Dale- 
mincians,  the  Lusitzians,  the  Milzians,  and  various  others  ;  the 
dukes  also  of  Bohemia  and  Poland,  although  they  often  took  up 
arms  in  defence  of  their  liberty  and  independence,  were  all  re- 
duced to  subjection,  and  again  compelled  to  pay  tribute.  In  order 
to  secure  their  submission,  the  Saxon  kings  introduced  German 
colonies  into  the  conquered  countries ;  and  founded  there  several 
margravatcs,  such  as  that  of  the  North,  on  this  side  of  the  Elbe, 
afterwards  called  Brandenburg  ;  and  in  the  East,  those  of  Misnio 
and  Lusatia.  Otho  the  Great  adopted  measures  for  promulga- 
ting Christianity  among  them.  The  bishopric  of  Oldenburg 
in  Wagria,  of  Havelberg,  Brandenburg,  Meissen,  Merscburg, 
Zeitz;  those  of  Posnania  or  Posen,  in  Poland,  of  Prague  in  Bo- 
hemia ;  and  lastly,  the  metropolis  of  Magdeburg,  all  owe  their 
origin  to  this  monarch.  His  grandson,  the  Emperor  Otho  III., 
founded  (in  1000)  the  Archbishopric  of  Gnesna,  in  Poland,  to 
which  he  subjected  the  bishoprics  of  Colberg,  Cracow,  and 
Breslau, reserving  Posen  to  the  metropolitan  See  of  Magdeburg. 

The  Saxon  dynasty  became  extinct  (1024)  with  tho  Emperor 
Henry  II.  It  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Franconia,  commonly 
called  the  Salic.  Conrad  II..  the  first  emperor  of  this  house, 
united  to  the  German  crown,  the  kingdom  of  Buruundy ;  or,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  tho  kingdom  of  Arle-'.  This  monarchy, 
situate  between  the  Rhine,  the  Rcuss,  Mount  Jura,  the  Soaue, 
the  Rhone,  and  the  Alps,  had  been  divided  among  a  certain 
number  of  counts,  or  governors  o{'  provinces,  who,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  weakness  of  their  last  kings,  Conrad  and  Kodolph 
111.,  had  converted  their  temporary  jurisdictions  into  hereditary 


i 


Vpulia 

This      : 
niittt-'d 
s  time     \ 
he  irn-     ; 
.kings     i 
virtue     ' 
The     I 
y,  and 
Great,     ; 
title  of     I 
I  Pope.     I 
lid  not     I 
in  and     \ 
lem  be-     j 
etvveen     ' 
lis,   the 
e  Dale- 
rs  ;  the 
took  lip 
all  re- 
n  order 
ierrnan 
several 
e  Elbe, 
Misnia 
mulga- 
nbiirg 
eburg, 
in  Bo- 
their 
10  III., 
and,  to 
V,  and 
ebur^. 
mperor 
monly 
house, 
or,  as 
narchy, 
^^Dftiie, 
certain 
conse- 
iodolph 
reditary 


7TJ 


PERIOD   HI.       A.  D.  962—1074. 


8fi 


and  patrimoniiil  ofRccs.  after  the  exm  pie  of  the  French  nobility, 
who  had  nlroiuly  usurped  the  same  pnwer.  The  principal  and 
most  puissant  of  these  Burgundian  nobles,  were  the  Counts  ol 
Pr'>vciu-e,  Vicnne,  (nflerwards  called  Dauphins  of  Vienne,)  Sa- 
voy, Burgundy,  and  Montbelliard ;  the  Archbishop  of  Lyons, 
Besancon,  and  Aries,  and  the  Bishop  of  Basle,  Ice.  The  con- 
tempt in  which  these  powerful  vassals  held  the  royal  authority, 
induced  Rodolph  to  apply  for  protection  to  his  kinsmen  the 
Emperors  Henry  II.  and  Conrad  II.,  and  to  acknowledge  them, 
by  several  treaties,  his  heirs  and  successors  to  the  crown.  It 
was  in  virtue  of  these  treaties,  that  Conrad  II.  took  possession 
of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  (1032)  on  the  death  of  Rodolph  III. 
He  maintained  his  rights  by  force  of  arms  against  Eudes, 
Cunt  of  Champagne,  who  claimed  to  be  the  legitimate  suc- 
cessor, as  being  nephew  to  the  last  king. 

This  reunion  was  but  a  feeble  addition  to  the  power  of  the 
German  emperors.  The  bishops,  counts,  and  great  vassals  of 
the  kingdom  they  had  newly  acquired,  still  retained  the  au- 
thority which  they  had  usurped  in  their  several  departments ; 
and  nothing  was  left  to  the  emperors,  but  the  exercise  of  their 
feudal  and  proprietory  rights,  together  with  the  slender  remains 
of  the  demesne  lands  belonging  to  the  last  kings.  It  is  even 
probable,  that  the  high  rank  which  the  Burgundian  nobles  en- 
joyed, excited  the  ambition  of  those  in  Germany,  and  emboldened 
them  to  usurp  the  same  prerogatives. 

The  emperors  Conrad  II.  (i033)  and  Henry  HI.  (1038,)  were 
both  crowned  Kings  of  Burgundy.  The  fimperor  Loihaire 
conferred  the  viceroyalty  or  regency  on  Conrad  Duke  of  Zah- 
ringen,  who  then  took  the  title  of  Governor  or  Regent  of  Bur- 
gundy. Berthold  IV.,  son  of  Conrad,  resigned  (1156,)  in  favour 
of  the  Emperor  Frederic  I.,  his  rights  of  viceroyalty  over  that  part 
of  the  kingdom  situate  beyond  Mount  Jura.  Switzerland,  at 
that  time,  was  subject  to  the  Dukos  of  Zahringen,  who,  in  order 
to  retain  it  in  vassalage  to  their  government,  fortified  Morges, 
Mouden,  Yverdun,  and  Berthoud ;  and  built  the  cities  of  Fii- 
bourg  and  Berne.  On  the  extinction  of  the  Zahringian  iiuk?». 
(1 191,)  Switzerland  became  an  immediate  province  of  the  er.ipive. 
It  was  afterwards  (1218)  formed  into  a  republic  ,  and  the  "iher 
parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  or  Aries  were  gradually 
united  to  France,  ao  we  shall  see  in  course  of  our  narrative. 

The  Hungarians,  since  their  first  invasion  under  Louis  I'En- 
fant,  had  wrested  from  the  German  crown  all  its  possessions  in 
Pannonia,  with  a  part  of  ancient  Noricum  ;  and  the  boundaries 
of  Germany  had  been  contracted  within  the  river  Ens  in  Bava- 
ria.    Their  growing  preponderance  afterwards  enabled  the  Ger- 


.^ 


ki. 


ll  It 

'!    f 


ii:»' 


!■     ■•! 


"m^' 


S6  CHAPTER  IV. 

mans  to  recover  from  the  Hungarians  a  part  of  their  conquests. 
They  succeeded  in  expelling  them,  not  only  from  Noricum,  but 
even  from  that  part  of  Upper  Pannonia  which  lies  between 
Mount  Cetius,  or  Kahienbcrg  as  it  is  culled,  and  the  river  Leita. 
Henry  III.  secured  the  possession  of  these  territories  by  the 
treaty  of  peace  which  he  concluded  (1043)  with  Samuel,  sur- 
named  Aba,  King  of  Hungary.  This  part  of  Hungary  was 
annexed  to  the  eastern  Margravate,  or  Austria,  which  then  be- 
gan to  assume  nearly  its  present  form. 

Such  then  was  the  progressive  aggrandizement  of  the  German 
empire,  from  the  reign  of  Henrv  1.  to  the  year  1043.  Under 
its  most  flourishing  slate,  thai  i»,  under  the  Emperor  Henry  III., 
it  embraced  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  monarchy  of  Charlemagne. 
All  Germany  between  the  Rhine,  the  Eyder,  the  Oder,  the  Leita, 
and  the  Alps  ;  all  Italy,  as  far  as  the  confines  of  the  Greeks  in 
Apulia  and  Calabria;  Gaul,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Scheldt,  the 
Meuse,  and  the  Rhone,  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the 
emperors.  The  Duke?  of  Bohemia  and  Poland,  were  their  tri- 
butaries ;  a  dependence  which  continued  until  the  commotions 
which  agitated  Germany  put  an  end  to  it  in  the  thiricenlh  century. 

Germany,  at  this  period,  ranked  as  the  ruling  power  in  Europe ; 
and  this  preponderance  was  not  owing  so  much  to  the  extent  of 
her  possessions,  as  to  the  vigour  of  her  government,  which  still 
maintained  a  kind  of  system  of  political  unity.  The  emperors 
may  be  regarded  as  true  monarchs,  dispensing,  at  their  pleasure, 
nil  dignities,  civil  and  ecclesiastical— possessing  very  large  do- 
mains in  all  parts  of  the  empire— and  exercising,  individually, 
various  branches  of  the  sovereign  power  ;— only,  in  affairs  of 
great  importance,  asking  the  advice  or  consent  of  the  grandees. 
This  greatness  of  the  German  emperors  gave  rise  to  a  system 
of  polity  which  the  Popes  took  great  care  to  support  with  all 
their  credit  and  authority.  According  to  this  system,  the  whole 
of  Christendom  composed,  as  it  were,  a  single  and  individual 
republic,  of  which  the  Pope  was  the  spiritual  head,  and  the 
Emperor  the  secular.  The  duty  of  the  latter,  as  head  and  patron 
of  the  Church,  was  to  take  cognizance  that  nothing  ^hould  be 
done  contrary  to  the  general  welfare  of  Christianity.  It  was 
his  part  to  protect  the  Catholic  Church,  to  be  the  guardian  of  its 
preservation,  to  convocate  its  general  councils,  and  exercise  such 
rights  as  the  nature  of  his  office  and  the  interests  of  Christianity 
seemed  to  demand. 

It  was  in  virtue  of  this  ideal  system  that  the  emperors  enjoyed  a 
precedency  over  other  monarchs,  with  the  exclusive  right  of  elect- 
ing kings  ;  and  that  they  had  bestowed  on  them  the  title  of  mas- 
ters of  the  world,  and  sovereign  of  sovereigns.     A  more  impor- 


11 


t  t. 


FRRIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074. 


87 


tant  Drerogatlve  was  that  which  they  possessed  in  the  election  of 
the  Popes.  From  Otho  the  Great  to  Kcnry  IV.,  all  the  Roman 
ponlifls  were  chosen,  or  at  least  confirmed,  by  the  emperors. 
Henry  III.  deposed  three  schisniatieal  popes  (1046,)  and  sub- 
stituted in  their  place  a  German,  who  took  the  name  of  Clement 
II.  Tlie  same  emperorafterwardsnominated  various  other  popes 
of  his  own  nation. 

However  vast  and  formidable  the  power  of  these  monarchs 
seemed  to  be,  it  was  nevertheless  far  from  being  a  solid  and 
durable  fabric ;  and  it  was  easy  to  foresee  that,  in  a  short  time, 
it  would  crumble  and  disappear.  Various  causes  conspired  to 
accelerate  its  downfall ;  the  first  and  principal  of  which  necessa- 
riljr  sprang  from  the  constitution  of  the  empire,  which  was  faulty 
in  itself,  and  incompatible  with  any  scheme  of  aggrandizement 
or  conquest.  A  great  empire,  to  prolong  its  durability,  requires 
a  perfect  unity  of  power,  which  can  act  with  despatch,  and  com- 
municate with  facility  from  one  extremity  to  the  other;  an 
armed  force  constantly  on  foot,  and  capable  of  maintaining  the 
public  tranquillity;  frontiers  well  defended  against  hostile  Inva- 
sion ;  and  revenues  proportioned  to  the  e.xigencies  of  the  state. 
All  these  characteristics  of  political  greatness  weie  wanting  in 
the  Geman  empire. 

That  empire  was  elective;  the  states  co-operated  jointly  with 
the  emperors  in  the  exercise  of  the  legislative  power.     There 
were  neither  permanent  armies,  nor  fortresses,  nor  taxation,  nor 
any  regular  system  of  finance.     The  government  was  without 
vigour,  incapable  of  protecting  or  punishing,  or  even  keeping 
m  subjection,  Hs  remote  provinces,  consisting  of  nations  who 
difl!ered  in  language,  manners,  and  legislation.     One  insurrec- 
tion, though  quelled,  was  only  the  forerunner  of  others ;  and 
the  conquered  nations  shook  off  the  yoke  with  the  same  facility 
as  they  received  it.     The  perpetual  wars  of  the  emperors  in 
Italy,  from  the  first  conquest  of  that  country  by  Otho  the  Great, 
prove,  in  a  manner  most  evident,  the  strange  imbecility  of  the 
government.     At  every  change  of  reign,  and  every  little  revo- 
lution which  happened  in  Germany,  the  Italians  rose  in  arms, 
and  put  the  emperors  again  to  the  necessity  of  reconquering 
that  kingdom  ;  which  undoubtedly  it  was  their  interest  to  have 
abandoned  entirely,  rather  than  to  lavish  for  so  many  centuries 
their  treasures  and  the  blood  of  their  people  to  no  purpose.   The 
climate  of  Italy  was  also  disastrous  to  the  Imperial  armies; 
and  many  successions  of  noble  German  families  found  there  a 
foreign  grave. 

An  inevitable  consequence  of  this  vitiated  constitution,  was 
the  decline  of  the  royal  authority,  and  the  gradual  increase  of 


'   I 


\(*m<^ 


m 


'!)•• 


» 


ill  L 


i\  'la 

m 


(    1* 


i  il!>i 


;;<ifi! 


:i:';Mj 


88  ciurTKR  IV. 

the  power  of  the  nobility.  It  is  important,  however,  to  remark 
tiiat  in  Germany  the  progress  of  liie  feudal  system  hnd  t>een 
much  less  rnpid  than  in  France.  The  dukos,  counts,  and  mar- 
graves,  that  i.s,  the  governors  of  provinces,  and  wardens  of  the 
marches,  continued  for  long  to  be  regarded  merely  as  imperial 
officers,  without  any  pretension?^  to  consider  their  governments 
as  hereditary,  or  exercise  the  rights  of  sovereignty.  Even  fiefs 
remained  for  many  ages  in  their  primitive  slate,  without  being 
perpetuated  in  the  families  of  those  to  whom  they  had  been 
originally  granted. 

A  total  change,  however,  took  place  towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century.  The  dukes  and  count?,  become  formidable 
by  the  extent  of  their  power  and  their  vast  possessions,  by  de- 
grees, constituted  themselves  hereditary  officers ;  and  not  content 
with  the  appropriation  of  their  dutchies  and  counties,  they  tonk 
advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  emperors,  and  their  quarrels 
with  the  popes,  to  extort  from  them  new  privileges,  or  usurp  tho 
prerogatives  of  royalty,  formerly  reserved  for  the  emperors 
alone.  The  aristocracy,  or  landed  proprietors,  followed  tho 
example  of  the  dukes  and  counts,  and  after  the  eleventh  century, 
they  all  b'>'j;an  to  play  the  part  of  sovereigns,  styling  them- 
selves, in  tiieir  public  acts.  By  the  Grace  of  God.  At  length  fiefs 
became  also  hereditary.  Conrad  II.  was  the  first  emperor  that 
permitted  the  transmission  of  fiefs  to  sons  and  grandsons ;  the 
succession  of  collateral  branches  was  subsequently  introduced. 
The  system  of  hereditary  feudalism  became  thus  firmly  esta- 
blished in  Germany,  and  by  a  natural  consequence,  it  brought 
on  the  destruction  of  the  imperial  authority,  and  the  ruin  of 
the  empire. 

Nothing,  however,  was  more  injurious  to  this  authority  than 
the  exlravogant  power  of  the  clergy,  whom  the  emperors  of  the 
Saxon  line  had  loaded  with  honours  and  benefactions,  either 
from  a  zeal  for  religion,  or  with  the  intention  of  using  them  as 
a  counterpoise  to  the  ambition  of  the  dukes  and  secular  nobility. 
It  was  chiefly  to  Otho  the  Great  that  the  bishops  of  Germany 
were  indebted  for  their  temporal  power.  That  prince  bestowed 
on  them  large  grants  of  land  from  the  imperial  domains ;  he 
gave  them  towns,  counties,  and  entire  dukedoms,  with  the  pre- 
rogatives of  royalty,  s\ich  as  justiciary  powers,  the  right  of  coin- 
ing money,  of  levying  tolls  and  other  public  revenues,  Sec. 
These  rights  and  privileges  he  granted  them  under  the  feudal 
law.  and  on  condition  of  rendering  him  military  servitude. 
Nevertheless,  as  the  disposal  of  ecclesiastical  dignities  belonged 
then  to  the  crown,  and  fiefs  had  not,  in  general,  becorhe  heredi- 
larj',  the  Emperor  still  retained  possession  of  those  which  he 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074. 


\n 


89 


conferred  on  the  cIrTfry;  thoso  he  b.-stowo.!  on  u'hom.soPvor  he 
h.-iffprl  proper ;  usmir  them,  hou-over,  nUv.y.  in  conformity  with 
hi!"  own  views  and  intert'sts.  •' 

The  .ame  policy  that  induced  Olho  to  transfer  to  the  hi.hop^ 
a  larpe  portion  of  his  domain.,  led  him  nl.s,,  „,  imrnsl  them  wifh 
the  jrovernment  o  c.ties.  At  th,u  time,  there  was  a  distinction 
o(  towns  into  r..y«  and  prfjvrtorinl.  The  latter  were  d.-pendent 
on  the  d.ikes.  while  the  former,  subject  immediately  m  the  kinc 
gnye  rise  to  what  has  since  been  called  imi.enal  ritln.     It  was 

of  establishmu'  counts  and  burjromasters  or  mairi.strates  to  ex- 
ercisc  m  their  name  the  right,  of  justice,  civil  and  criminal,  the 
evjmjr  of  money,  customs,  &c.  as  well  as  other  preromuives 
usually  reserved  to  the  Kinff.  Otho  conferred  the  connfies,  or 
governorships  of  cities  where  a  bishop  resided,  on  the  bishops 
hemsclves.  who,  in  process  of  time,  made  use  of  this  new  power 
to  subject  these  cities  to  their  own  authority,  and  render  th.-m 
mediate  and  episcojml,  instead  of  being  immediate  and  roual  as 
thev  were  originally.  ^ 

the  successors  of  Otho,  as  impolitic  as  himself  imitated  his 
example.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  possessions  of  the  crown 
were,  by  degrees  reduced  to  nothing,  and  the  authority  of  the 
emperors  declined  with  the  diminution  of  their  wealth.  The 
bishops  at  first  devoted  to  the  emperors,  both  from  necessity 
and  gratitude,  no  sooner  perceived  their  own  strength,  than  thev 
were  tempted  to  make  use  of  it,  and  to  join  the  secular  princes^ 
in  order  to  sap  the  imperial  authority,  as  well  as  to  consolidate 
their  own  power.  To  these  several  causes  of  the  downfall  of 
he  empire  must  be  added  the  new  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs, 
the  origin  of  which  is  ascribed  to  Pope  Gregory  VII.  In  the 
followmg  Period,  this  matter  will  be  treated  more  in  detail 
meantime  we  shall  proceed  to  give  a  succinct  view  of  the  other 
states  that  figured  during  this  epoch  on  the  theatre  of  Europe 

The  dynasty  of  the  Ommiades  in  Spain,  founded  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  was  overturned  in  the  eleventh. 
An  insurrection  having  happened  at  Cordova  against  the  Ca- 
liph  Hescham  that  prince  was  dethroned  (10.30,)  and  the  caliph- 
ate  ended  with  him  The  governors  of  cities  and  provinces, 
and  the  principal  nobility  of  the  Arabs,  formed  themselves  into 
independent  sovereigns,  under  the  title  of  kings  ;  and  as  many 
petty  Mahometan  States  rose  in  Spain  as  there  had  been  prin- 
cipal  cities.  The  most  considerable  of  these,  were  the  kin<r. 
vTn  m''"'"'  Se''''^- Toledo,  Lisbon,  Saragossu,  Torto"a. 
Valencia,  Murcia,  &c.  This  partition  of  the  caliphate  of  Cor- 
dora,  enabled  the  princes  of  Christendom  to  aggrandize  their 


I 


j.;;;; 


'11^;*  1 


'tffi 


!*!|! 


I 


Ml* 


I ' 


'  II 


«!> 


in<* 


90 


CIIAPTIR  IV. 


power  at  the  expcu.se  of  the  Mahometans.  Besides  ihu  king* 
dom:s  (if  Leon  and  Navarro,  then-  pxisti'd  in  Spain  at  the  com- 
incncprnciil  of  the  en  v(>i\th  fniiliiry,  the  county  of  Caslille,  which 
hud  l)t't.'ti  disnienibiTc'd  from  the  kinj^doin  of  Leon,  and  the 
county  of  IJurcclonu,  which  aci<novvledged  the  sovereignty  of 
tlie  Kings  of  France. 

Suncho  tiie  Great,  King  :;"  Novairo,  had  the  fortune  to  unite 
in  his  own  family  all  tlu'sc  .M!i  i'lit  sov  figntics  with  the  ex« 
cepiion  of  Hurcefonu  ;  and  as  th:-  occuri  u  nearly  n'.  the  isame 
time  with  the  desir'Jction  of  llu-  calii'lnli:  >ir  Cordova,  it  would 
have  been  ( ;i-y  fur  the  Christians  u>  './utain  u  complete  ascen- 
dency over  ilic  MahoiucUUKs,  if  they  ha-l  kept  llieir  forces  united. 
But  the  King  of  Navarro  fell  into  the  same  mi-take  that  had 
been  so  fatal  to  the  Mahometans;  he  divided  his  dominions 
among  hie  sons  (10.'j.j.)  Don  Garcias,  the  eldest,  had  Navarre, 
and  was  (he  ancestiir  of  a  long  line  of  Navarrese  kings  ;  the 
last  of  whom,  Jolm  iI'Aliiert  was  deposed  (1512)  by  Ferdinand 
the  Calholi".  From  Frrdiiiand.  'he  younger  son,  King  of  Leon 
and  Castillo,  were  doscon^'i  il  ai!  the  soveroifns  of  Castillo  and 
Leon  down  to  Queen  IsmIkIIu  who  transferred  these  kingdoms 
(1 17-1,)  by  ;;i  nTia(,'o,  to  For!l,uMd  the  Catlioiic.  Lastly,  Den 
Ramira,  nutuial  son  of  Sancl.(.,  was  the  sUnn  from  wiiorn  sprung 
all  the  ki.ig-  of  Arrugon,  down  to  Ferdinand,  who  by  his  mor- 
riage  wiih  Isabella,  happened  to  unite  all  the  difTeront  Christian 
Statics  in  Spain;  and  put  an  end  also  to  the  dominion  of  the 
Arabs  and  Moor.^  in  that  peninsula. 

In  France  the  royal  authority  declined  more  and  more,  from 
the  rapid  progress  which  the  feudal  system  made  in  that  king- 
dom, after  the  feeble  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald.  The  Dukes 
and  the  Counts,  usurping  the  rights  of  royalty,  made  war  on 
each  other,  and  raised  on  every  occasion  the  standard  of  revolt. 
The  kings,  in  order  to  gain  over  some,  and  maintain  others  in 
their  allegiance,  were  obliged  to  give  up  to  them  in  succession 
every  branch  of  the  royal  revenue  ;  so  that  the  last  Carlovin- 
gian  princes  were  reduced  to  such  a  state  of  distress,  that,  fat 
from  being  able  to  counterbalance  the  power  of  the  nobility,  they 
had  hardly  left  wherewithal  to  furnish  a  scanty  subsistence  for 
their  court.  A  change  of  dynasty  became  then  indispensable  ; 
and  the  throne,  it  was  evident,  must  fall  to  the  share  of  the  most 
powerful  and  daring  of  its  vassals.  This  event,  which  had  long 
been  foreseen,  happened  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  surnamed  tha 
Slothful  (987,)  the  last  of  the  Carlovingians,  who  died  childless 
at  the  age  of  twenty. 

Hugh  Capet,  great-grandson  of  Robert  the  Strong,  possessed 
at  that  time  the  central  parts  of  the  kingdom.     He  was  Count 


^. 


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'^"^. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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I   |;S    112.0 


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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14S80 

(716)872-4503 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
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PBBioo  III.    A.  u.  962 — 1074. 


of  Paris,  Duke  of  France  and  Neustria;  and  his  brother  Henry 
was  master  of  the  dutchy  of  Burgundy.  It  was  not  difficult  for 
Hugh  to  form  a  party  ;  and  under  their  auspices  he  got  himselt 
proclaimed  king  at  Noyon,  and  crowned  at  Rheims.  Charles 
Duke  of  Lorrain,  paternal  uncle  of  the  last  king,  and  sole  legiti- 
mate heir  to  the  Carlovingian  line,^  advanced  his  claims  to  the 
crown  ;  he  seized,  by  force  of  arms,  on  Laon  and  Rheims  ;  but 
being  betrayed  by  the  Bishop  of  Laon,  and  delivered  up  to  his 
rival,  he  was  confmed  in  a  prison  at  Orleans,  where  he  ended 
his  days  (991.) 

Hugh,  on  mounting  the  throne,  restored  to  the  possession  of 
the  crown,  the  lands  and  dominions  which  had  belonged  to  it 
between  the  Loire,  the  Seine,  and  the  Meuse.  His  power  gave 
a  new  lustre  to  the  royal  dignity,  which  he  found  means  to  ren- 
der  hereditary  in  his  family ;  while  at  the  same  time  he  per- 
mitted the  grandees  to  transmit  to  their  descendants,  male  and 
female,  the  dutchics  and  counties  which  they  held  of  the  crown, 
reserving  to  it  merely  the  feudal  superiority.  Thus  the  feudal 
government  was  firmly  established  in  France,  by  the  hereditary 
tenure  of  the  great  fiefs  ;  and  that  kingdom  was  in  consequence 
divided  among  a  certain  number  of  powerful  vassals,  who  ren- 
dered fealty  and  homage  to  their  kings,  and  marched  at  their 
command  on  military  expeditions  ;  but  who  nevertheless  were 
nearly  absolute  masters  in  their  own  dominions,  and  often  dic- 
tated the  law  to  the  sovereign  himself.  Hugh  was  the  progeni- 
tor of  the  Capetian  dynasty  of  French  kings,  so  called  from  his 
own  surname  of  Capet. 

England,  during  the  feeble  reigns  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  pnnces, 
successors  to  Alfred  the  Great,  had  sunk  under  the  dominion  of 
priests  and  monks.  The  consequence  was,  the  utter  ruin  of  its 
finances,  and  its  naval  and  military  power.  This  exposed  the 
kingdom  afresh  to  the  attacks  of  the  Danes  (991,)  who  imposed 
on  the  English  a  tribute  or  tax,  known  by  the  name  of  Danegelt. 
Under  the  command  of  their  kings  Sueno  or  Sweyn  L,  and  Ca- 
nute the  Great,  they  at  length  drove  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  from 
their  thrones,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  all  England 
(1017.)  But  the  dominion  of  the  Danes  was  only  of  short  con- 
tinuance. The  English  shook  off  their  yoke,  and  conferred  their 
crown  on  Edward  the  Confessor  (1042)  a  prince  of  the  royal 
blood  of  their  ancient  kings.  On  the  death  of  Edward,  Harold, 
Earl  of  Kent,  was  acknowledged  King  of  England  (1066 ;)  but 
he  met  with  a  formidable  competitor  in  the  person  of  William 
Duke  of  Normandy. 

This  prince  had  no  other  right  to  the  crown,  than  that  founded 
on  a  verbal  promise  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  confirmed  by  an 


i ' 

1 1 


i 

1              ' 

. 

it 

'1 

■    ■     ..              ■ 

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■■    -      'W  ,; 

■   ,  ..     li 

■     1 

'4      ^       -i  '' 


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I   i 


.*'*'il 


t 

\i^ii 


ir 


I 


w 


CHAPTER  IV. 


oath  which  Harold  had  given  him  while  Earl  of  Kent.  William 
landed  in  England  (October  14th  1066,)  at  the  head  of  a  conside- 
rable army,  and  having  offered  battle  to  Harold,  near  Hastings  in 
Sussex,  he  gained  a  complete  victory.  Harold  was  killed  in 
the  action,  and  the  conquest  of  all  England  was  the  reward  of 
the  victor.  To  secure  himself  in  his  new  dominions,  William 
constructed  a  vast  number  of  castles  and  fortresses  throughout 
all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  which  he  took  care  to  fill  with  Nor- 
man garrisons.  The  lands  and  places  of  trust  of  which  he  had 
deprived  the  English,  were  distributed  among  the  Normans, and 
other  foreigners  who  were  attached  to  his  fortunes.  He  intro- 
duced the  feudal  law,  and  rendered  fiefs  hereditary ;  he  ordered 
the  English  to  be  disarmed,  and  forbade  them  to  have  light  in 
their  houses  after  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening.  He  even  at- 
tempted to  abolish  the  language  of  the  country,  by  establishing 
numerous  schools  for  teaching  the  Norman-French;  by  pub- 
lishing the  laws,  and  ordering  the  pleadings  in  the  courts  of 
justice  to  be  made  in  that  language  ;  hence  it  happened  that  the 
ancient  British,  combined  with  the  Norman,  formed  a  new  sort 
of  language,  which  still  exists  in  the  modern  English.  William 
thus  became  the  common  ancestor  of  the  kings  of  England, 
whose  right  to  the  crown  is  derived  from  him,  and  founded  on 
the  Conquest. 

About  the  time  that  William  conquered  England,  another  co- 
lony of  the  same  Normans  founded  the  kingdom  of  the  two 
Sicilies.  The  several  provinces  of  which  this  kingdom  was 
composed,  were,  about  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century, 
divided  among  the  Germans,  Greeks,  and  Arabians,^  who  were 
incessantly  waging  war  with  each  other.  A  band  of  nearly  a 
hundred  Normans,  equally  desirous  of  war  and  glory,  landed  in 
that  country  (1016,)  and  tendered  their  services  to  the  Lombard 
princes,  vassals  of  the  German  empire.  The  bravery  which 
they  displayed  on  various  occasions,  made  these  princes  desirous 
of  retaining  them  in  their  pay,  to  serve  as  guardians  of  their 
frontiers  against  the  Greeks  and  Arabians.  The  Greek  princes 
very  soon  were  no  less  eager  to  gain  their  services ;  and  the 
Duke  of  Naples,  with  the  view  of  attaching  them  to  his  interest, 
ceded  to  them  a  large  territory,  where  they  built  the  city  of 
Aversa,  three  leagues  from  Capua.  The  emperor  Conrad  II. 
erected  it  into  a  county  (1038,)  the  investiture  of  which  he 
granted  to  Rainulph,  one  of  their  chiefs. 

At  this  same  period  the  sons  of  Tancred  conducted  a  new 
colony  from  Normandy  into  Lower  Italy.  Their  arrival  is  gen- 
erally referred  to  the  year  1033  ;  and  tradition  has  assigned  to 
Tancred  a  descent  from  RoUo  or  Robert  I.  Duke  of  Normandy 


J 

h 

t 

V 
V 

u 

b 
h 

C( 

tl 
v: 
ti 
tc 
nn 
m 
in 
a 
d( 
d( 

m 
tis 
re 
ac 
re! 


—  I 


William 
'aconside- 
■lastings  in 
s  killed  in 
reward  of 
is,  William 
throughout 
with  Nor- 
tich  he  had 
>rnians,and 

He  intro- 
he  ordered 
iVe  light  in 
le  even  at- 
sstablishing 
h ;  by  pub- 
e  courts  of 
ned  that  the 
I  a  new  sort 
William 
)f  England, 
founded  on 

another  co- 

of  the  two 

igdom  was 

ith  century, 

'  who  were 

of  nearly  a 

y,  landed  in 

le  Lombard 

very  which 

:es  desirous 

ins  of  their 

eek  princes 

and  the 

lis  interest, 

he  city  of 

Conrad  li- 

which  he 

ted  a  new 
ival  is  gen- 
Eissigned  to 
Normandy 


rRRioD  111.    A.  D.  963 — 1074. 


m 


-11 
i! 


These  new  adventurers  undertook  the  conquest  of  Apulia  (1041,) 
which  they  formed  into  a  county,  the  investiture  of  which  they 
obtained  from  Henry  III.  Robert  Guiscurd,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Tancred,  afterwards  (1047)  completed  the  conquest  of  that  pro- 
vince ;  he  added  to  it  that  of  Calabria,  of  which  he  had  also 
deprived  the  Greeks  (1059,)  and  assumed  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Apulia  and  Calabria. 

To  secure  himself  in  his  new  conquests,  as  well  us  in  those 
which  he  yet  meditated  from  the  two  empires,  Robert  concluded 
a  treaty  the  same  year  with  Pope  Nicholas  II.,  by  which  that 
Pontiff  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  the  dutchies  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria ;  granting  him  not  only  the  investiture  of  these,  but 
promising  him  also  that  of  Sicily,  whenever  he  should  expel 
the  Greeks  and  Arabians  from  it.  Robert,  in  his  turn,  acknow- 
ledged  himself  a  vassal  of  the  Pope,  and  engaged  to  pay  him 
an  annual  tribute  of  twelve  pence,  money  of  Pavia,  for  every 
pair  of  oxen  in  the  two  dutchies.*  Immediately  after  this  treaty, 
Robert  called  in  the  assistance  of  his  brother  Roger,  to  rescue 
Sicily  from  the  hands  of  the  Greeks  and  Arabs."  No  sooner  had 
he  accomplished  this  object,  than  he  conquered  in  succession 
the  principalities  of  Bari,  Salerno,  Amalfi,  Sorrento,  and  Bene* 
vento;  this  latter  city  he  surrendered  to  the  Pope. 

Such  is  the  origin  of  the  dutchies  of  Apulia  and  Calabria; 
which,  af\er  a  lapse  of  some  years,  were  formed  into  a  kingdom 
under  the  name  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

As  to  the  kingdoms  of  the  North,  the  light  of  history  scarcely 
began  to  dawn  there  until  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  which 
happened  about  the  end  of  the  tenth  or  beginning  of  the  eleventh 
century.^  The  promulgation  of  the  Gospel  opened  a  way  into 
the  North  for  the  diffusion  of  arts  and  letters.  The  Scandina- 
vian states,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  which  before  that 
time  were  parcelled  out  among  independent  chiefs,  began  then 
to  form  plans  of  civil  government,  and  to  combine  into  settled 
monarchies.  Their  new  religion,  however,  did  not  inspire  these 
nations  with  its  meek  and  peaceable  virtues,  nor  overcome  their 
invincible  propensity  to  wars  and  rapine.  Their  heroism  was 
a  wild  and  savage  bravery,  which  emboldened  them  to  face  all 
dangers,  to  undertake  desperate  adventures,  and  to  achieve  sud- 
den conquests,  which  were  lost  and  won  with  the  same  rapidity. 

Harold,  surnamed  Blaatand,  or  Blue  teeth,  was  the  first  sole 
monarch  of  the  Danes,  who  with  his  son  Sweyn  received  bap- 
tism,  after  being  vanquished  by  Otho  the  Great  (965.)  Sweyn 
relapsed  to  paganism ;  but  his  son  Canute  the  Great,  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne  (1014,)  made  Christianity  the  established 
religion  of  his  kingdom.     He  sent  for  monks  from  other  coun- 


I 


11  r 


v,  y  !? 


'  i  ■« 


i   1     J'  I 


II    ; 


* 


,,  ■•>'  ■    1'    < 


i  !'■ 


!?  I 


mm.L 


94 


CRAPTBR   IV. 


tries,  founded  churches,  nnd  divided  the  kingdom  into  dioresaei*. 
Ambitious  to  distinguish  himself  as  a  conqueror,  he  nf\erwarda 
subdued  England  and  Norway  (1038.)  To  these  he  added  a 
part  of  Scotland  and  Sweden  ;  and  conferred  in  his  own  life- 
time on  one  of  his  sons,  named  Sweyn,  the  kingdom  of  Nor- 
way, and  on  nnother,  named  Hardicanute,  that  of  Denmark. 
These  acquisitions,  however,  were  merely  temporary.  Sweyn 
was  driven  from  Norway  (1035;)  while  England  and  Scotland 
also  shook  off  the  Danish  yoke  (1042,)  on  the  death  of  Hardi- 
canute ;  and  Magnus  King  of  Norway,  even  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  Denmark,  which  did  not  recover  its  entire  independence 
until  the  death  of  that  prince  (1047.) 

The  ancient  dynasty  of  Kings  who  occupied  the  throne  ol 
Denmark  from  the  most  remote  ages,  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Skioldiings,  because,  according  to  a  fabulous  tradition,  they 
were  descended  from  Skiold,  a  pretended  son  of  the  famous 
Odin  who,  from  being  the  conqueror,  was  exalted  into  the  deity 
of  the  North.  The  kings  who  reigned  after  Sweyn  II.  were 
called  Estrithides,  from  that  monarch,  who  was  the  son  of  Ulf 
a  Danish  nobleman,  and  Estritk,  sister  to  Canute  the  Great.  It 
was  this  Sweyn  that  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  against  Mag- 
nus King  of  iSJorway  (1044,)  and  kept  prssession  of  the  throne 
until  his  death. 

In  Sweden,  the  kings  of  the  reigning  family,  descended,  as  is 
alleged,  from  Regner  Lodbrok,  took  the  title  of  Kings  of  Upsal, 
the  place  of  their  residence.  Olaus  Skotkonung  changed  this 
title  into  that  of  King  of  Sweden.  He  was  the  first  monarch  of 
his  nation  thai  embraced  Christianity,  and  exerted  himself  to 
propagate  it  in  his  kingdom.  Sigefroy,  Archbishop  of  York, 
who  was  sent  into  Sweden  by  Ethelred  King  of  England,  bap- 
tized Olaus  and  his  whole  family  (1001.)  The  conversion  of 
the  Swedes  would  have  been  more  expeditious,  had  not  the  zeal 
of  Olaus  been  restrained  by  the  Swedish  Diet  who  decided  for 
full  liberty  of  conscience.  Hence  the  strange  mixture,  both  of 
doctrine  and  worship,  that  long  prevailed  in  Sweden,  where  Je- 
sus Christ  was  profanely  associated  with  Odin,  and  the  Pagan 
goddess  Freya  confounded  with  the  Virgin.  Anund  Jacques, 
son  of  Olaus",  contributed  much  to  the  progress  of  Christianity ; 
and  his  zeal  procured  him  the  title  of  Most  Christian  King. 

In  Norway,  Olaus  I.,  surnamed  Tryggueson,  towards  the  end 
of  the  tenth  century,  constituted  himself  the  apostle  and  mis- 
sionary of  his  people,  and  undertook  to  convert  them  to  Chris- 
tianity by  torture  and  punishment.  Iceland  and  Greenland  * 
were  likewise  converted  by  his  efforts,  and  afterwards  became 
his  tributaries  (1029.)     One  of  his  successors,  Olaus  II.,  called 


iwfewnww""'"; 


dioreue!?. 
ifterwards 
e  added  a 
i  own  li fe- 
ll of  Nor- 
Denmark. 
.  Sweyn 
d  Scotland 
t  of  Hardi- 
mself  mas- 
lepcndence 

throne  oi 
le  name  of 
ition,  they 
the  famous 
to  the  deity 
rn  II.  were 
son  of  Ulf 
>  Great.  It 
gainst  Mag- 
f  the  throne 

ended,  as  is 
fs  of  Upsal, 
langed  this 
monarch  of 
himself  to 
)p  of  York, 
igland,  bap* 
[iversion  of 
not  the  zeal 
lecided  for 
uro,  both  of 
,  where  Je- 
the  Pagan 
id  Jacques, 
hristianity ; 
n  King. 
rds  the  end 
le  and  mis* 
to  Chris- 
reenland  ^ 
ds  became 
II.,  called 


PGBioD  III.     A.  o.  982 — 1074. 


95 


the  Fat,  and  also  the  Saint,  succeeded  in  extirpating  paganism 
from  Norway  (1020;)  but  ho  used  the  cloak  of  religion  to  es- 
tablish his  own  authority,  by  destroying  several  pcity  kings, 
who  before  this  time  possessed  each  thoir  own  dominions. 

Christianity  was  likewise  instrumental  in  throwing  some  rays 
of  light  on  the  history  of  the  Sclavonian  iiations,  by  imparting 
to  them  the  knowledge  of  letters,  and  raising  them  in  the  scale 
of  importance  among  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  The 
Sclavonians  who  were  settled  north  of  the  Elbe,  had  been  sub- 
dued by  the  Germans,  and  compelled  to  embrace  Christianity. 
The  haughtiness  and  rigour  of  Thierry,  Margrave  of  the  North, 
induced  them  to  shake  olT  the  yoke,  and  to  concert  a  general 
insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  the  reign  of  Otho  II.  (982., 
The  episcopal  palaces,  churches  and  convents,  were  destroyed; 
and  the  people  returned  once  more  to  the  superstitions  of  pagan- 
ism. Ihoso  tribes  that  inhitbited  Brandenburg,  part  of  Pome- 
rania  and  Mecklenburg,  known  formerly  under  the  name  of 
Wilzians  and  Welatabes,  formed  themselves  into  a  republican 
or  federal  body,  and  took  the  name  of  Lultizians,  The  Abo- 
trites,  on  the' contrary,  the  Polabes,  and  the  Wagrians,"  were 
decidedly  for  a  monarchical  government,  the  capital  of  which 
was  fixed  at  Mecklenburg.  Some  of  the  princes  or  sovereigns 
of  these  latter  people  were  styled  Kings  of  the  Ve?.edi.  The 
result  of  this  general  revolt  was  a  series  of  long  and  bloody  wars 
between  the  Germans  and  Sclavonians.  The  latter  defended 
their  civil  and  religious  liberties  with  a  remarkable  courage  and 
perseverance  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  twelfth  century,  that 
they  were  subdued  and  reduced  to  Christianity  by  the  continued 
efforts  of  the  Dukes  of  Saxony,  and  the  Margraves  of  the  North, 
and  by  means  of  the  crusades  and  colonies  which  the  Germans 
despatched  into  their  country.'" 

The  first  duke  of  Bohemia  that  received  baptism  from  the 
hands,  as  is  supposed,  of  Methodius,  bishop  of  Moravia  (894,) 
was  Borzivoy.  His  successors,  however,  returned  to  idolatry ; 
and  it  was  not  till  near  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  properly 
speaking,  and  in  the  reign  of  Boleslaus  II.,  surnamed  the  Pious, 
that  Christianity  became  the  e.stablished  religion  of  Bohemia 
(999.)  These  dukes  were  vassals  and  tributaries  of  the  German 
empire ;  and  their  tribute  consisted  of  500  silver  marks,  and  120 
oxen.  They  exercised,  however,  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty 
over  the  people  ;  their  reign  was  a  system  of  terror,  and  they 
seldom  took  the  opinion  or  advice  of  their  nobles  and  grandees. 
The  succession  was  hereditary  in  the  reigning  dynasty ;  and 
the  system  of  partition  was  in  use,  otherwise  the  order  of  suc- 
cession would  have  been  fixed  and  permanent.     Over  a  numbei 


if 


^!' 


m 


-ra^iJUiU^^*" 


is:i||t:'L 


96 


CnAPTER  IV. 


of  these  purtitionary  princes,  one  was  vested  willi  certain  riglits 
o'  superiority,  under  the  title  of  Grand  Prince,  according  to  a 
i-iiulotn  found  very  prevalent  arnon^  the  half  civilized  nations 
of  iiic  north  and  east  of  Europe."  The  greater  proportiuii  of 
the  inhabitants,  the  labouring  classes,  artisans,  and  domestics, 
wore  serfs,  and  oppressed  by  the  tyrannical  yoke  of  their  mas- 
ters. The  public  sale  of  men  was  even  practised  in  Bohemia; 
the  tithe,  or  tenth  part  of  which,  belonged  to  the  sovereign.  The 
descendants  of  Borzivoy  possessed  the  throne  of  Bohemia  until 
1306,  when  the  male  line  became  extinct. 

The  Poles  were  a  nation  whose  name  does  not  occur  in  his- 
tory before  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century ;  and  we  owe  to 
Christianity  the  first  intimations  that  we  have  regarding  this 
people.     Mieczislaus  I.,  the  first  duke  or  prince  of  the  Poles  of 
whom  we  posses*  any  authentic  accounts,  embraced  Christianity 
(966,)  at  the  solicitation  of  his  spouse  Dambrowka,  sister  ot 
Boleslaus  II.,  duke  of  Bohemia.     Shortly  after,  the  first  bish- 
opric in  Poland,  that  of  Posen,  was  founded  by  Otho  the  Great. 
Christianity  did  not,  however,  tame  the  ferocious  habits  of  the 
Poles,  wiio  remained  for  a  long  time  without  the  least  progress 
in  mental  cultivation.'-     Their  government,  as  wretched  as  that 
of  Bohemia,  subjected  the  great  body  of  the  nation  to  the  most 
deba:jing  servitude.     The  ancient  sovereigns  of  Poland  were 
hereditary.     They  ruled  most  despotically,  and  with  a  rod  ol 
iron ;  and,  although  they  acknowledged  themselves  vassals  and 
tributaries  of  the  German  emperors,  they  repeatedly  broke  out 
into  open  rebellion,  asserted  their  absolute  independence,  and 
waged  a  succcskIuI  war  against  their  masters.     Boleslaus,  son 
of  Alieczislaus  I.,  took  advantage  of  the  troubles  which  rose  in 
Germany  on  the  death  of  Otho  III.,  to  possess  himself  of  the 
Marches  of  Lusatia  and  Budissin,  or  Bautzen,  which  the  Em- 
peror Henry  II.  afterwards  granted  him  as  fiefs.     This  same 
prince,  in  despite  of  the  Germans,  on  the  death  of  Henry  II. 
(1025,)  assumed  the  royal  dignity.     Mieczislaus  II.,  son  of  Bo- 
leslaus, after  having  cruelly  ravaged  the  country  situate  between 
the  Oder,  the  Elbe,  and  the  Saal,  was  compelled  to  abdicate  the 
throne,  and  also  to  restore  those  provinces  which  his  father  had 
wrested  from  the  Empire.     The  male  descendants  of  Mieczis- 
laus I.  reigned  in  Poland  until  the  death  of  Casimir  the  Great 
(1370.)     This  dynasty  of  kings  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Piasts,  or  Piasses,  so  called  from  one  Piast,  alleged  to  have 
been  its  founder. 

Silesia,  which  was  then  a  province  of  Poland,  received  the 
light  of  the  Gospel  when  it  first  visited  that  kingdom ;  and  had 
for  its  apostle,  as  is  supposed,  a  Romish  priest  named  GeoflTry. 
who  is  reckoned  the  first  bishop  of  Smogra  (966.;j 


KWMW 


lin  riglUB 
ding  to  a 
d  nations 

[torlioii  of 
omestics, 
heir  mas- 
Bohemia; 
gn.  The 
emia  until 


ur  in  his- 
ve  owe  to 
Tiling  this 
le  Poles  of 
hristianity 
a,  sister  ot 
first  bish- 
the  Great, 
ibits  of  the 
St  progress 
hed  as  that 
to  the  most 
oland  were 
ih  a  rod  ot 
vassals  and 
r  broke  out 
idence,  and 
leslaus,  son 
[lich  rose  in 
iself  of  the 
h  the  Em- 
This  same 
Henry  II. 
son  of  Be- 
lle between 
ibdicate  the 
father  had 
f  Mietzis- 
the  Great 
lame  of  the 
[ed  to  have 

sceived  the 
|n ;  and  had 
Geoffry. 


\l    ' 


PERIOD  III.     A.  0.  962 — 1074. 


97 


In  Russia,  Vladimir  the  Great,  great-grandson  of  Ruric,  was 
the  first  grand  duke  tliat  embraced  Christianity,  (988.)  He  was 
baptized  at  Chcrson  in  Taurida,  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage 
with  Anna  Romanowna,  sister  of  Basil  II.  and  Constantine  VIII., 
Emperors  of  Constantinople.  It  was  this  prince  that  introduced 
the  Greek  ritual  into  Russia,  and  founded  several  schools  and 
convents.  The  alphabet  of  the  Greeks  was  imported  into  Rus- 
sia along  with  their  religion ;  and  from  the  reign  of  Vladimir, 
that  nation,  more  powerful  and  united  than  most  of  the  other 
European  states,  carried  on  a  lucrative  commerce  with  the  Greek 
empire,  of  which  it  became  at  length  a  formidable  rival. 

At  the  death  of  that  prince  (1015,)  Russia  comprehended 
those  vast  regions  which,  from  east  to  west,  extend  from  the  Icy 
Sea  and  the  mouth  of  the  Dwina,  to  the  Niemen,  the  Dniester, 
and  the  Bug  ;  and  southward  of  this  last  river,  to  the  Carpathian 
Mountains,  and  the  confines  of  Hungary  and  Moldavia.  The 
city  of  Kiow  on  the  Dnieper,  was  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and 
the  residence  of  the  Grand  Dukes.  This  period  also  gave  rise 
to  those  unfortunate  territorial  partitions  which,  by  dividing  the 
Russian  monarchy,  exposed  it  to  the  insults  and  ravages  of  the 
neighbouring  nations.  Jaroslaus,  one  of  the  sons  of  Vladimir, 
made  himself  famous  as  a  legislator,  and  supplied  the  Novogo- 
rodians  with  laws  to  regulate  their  courts  of  justice.  No  Ies."j 
the  friend  and  protector  of  letters,  he  employed  himself  in  trans- 
lating Greek  books  into  the  Solavonian  language.  He  founded 
a  public  school  at  Novogorod,  in  which  three  hundred  children 
were  educated  at  his  sole  expense.  His  daughter  Anna  married 
Henry  I.,  King  of  France ;  and  this  princess  was  the  common 
mother  of  all  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  Capetian  dynasty. 

Hungary  was  divided,  in  the  tenth  century,  among  several 
petty  princes,  who  acknowledged  a  common  chief,  styled  the 
Grand  Prince,  whose  limited  authority  was  reduced  to  a  simple 
pre-ei ;  ,:f -u-e  in  rank  and  dignity.  Each  of  these  princes  as- 
sembled i.rmies,  and  made  predatory  excursions,  plundering  and 
ravaging  the  neighbouring  countries  at  their  pleasure.  The 
East  and  the  West  sufTered  long  under  the  scourge  of  these  atro- 
cious pillagers.  Christianity,  which  was  introduced  among  them 
about  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  was  alone  capable  of  soft- 
ening the  manners,  and  tempering  the  ferocity  ot  this  nation^ 
Peregrine,  bishop  of  Passau,  encouraged  by  Otho  the  Great, 
and  patronized  by  the  Grand  Prince  Geisa,  sent  the  first  mis- 
sionaries into  Hungary  (973.)  St.  Adelbert,  bishop  of  Prague, 
had  the  honour  to  baptize  the  son  of  Geisa,  called  Waic  (994,) 
but  who  received  then  the  baptismal  name  of  Stephen. 

This  latter  prince,  having  succeeded  his  father  (997,)  changed 

7 


Hi! 


;i;^' 


i 

hi 

I 

r 


M  "'  '  •       i 


t     . 


til  'I  ^ 


—  ...., .MJHimiM^WIirr"^ 


i 


01  CIIAPTBR  IV. 

entirely  the  aspect  of  Hungary.  He  nssumed  the  royal  dignity, 
with  the  consent  of  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  who  sent  him  on  this 
occasion  the  Angelic  Crowi,,'^  as  it  is  cnlled  ;  the^snme,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  which  the  Hungarians  use  to  this  dny  in  the 
coronation  of  their  kings.  At  once  the  apostle  and  the  law- 
giver of  his  country,  Stephen  I.  combined  politics  vyith  justice, 
and  employed  both  severity  and  clemency  in  reforming  his  sub- 
iect«  He  founded  .several  bishoprics,  extirpated  idolatry,  banish- 
ed anarchy,  and  gave  to  the  authority  of  the  sovereign,  a  vigour 
and  efficiency  which  it  never  before  possessed,  lo  him  like- 
wise is  generally  ascribed  the  political  division  of  Hungary  into 
counties,  as  also  the  institution  of  palatines,  and  great  officers 
of  the  crown.  He  conquered  Transylvania,  about  10U2-J,  ac- 
cording  to  the  opinion  of  most  modern  Hungarian  authors,  and 
formed  it  into  a  distinct  government,  the  chiefs  of  which,  called 
Vaivodes,  held  immediately  of  his  crown. 

The  history  of  the  Greek  empire  presents,  at  this  time,  nothing 
but  a  tissue  of  corruption,  fanaticism  and  perfidy.  The  throne, 
as  insecure  a8  that  of  the  Western  empire  had  been,  was  filled 
alternately  by  a  succession  of  usurpers  ;  most  of  whom  rose 
from  the  lowest  conditions  of  life,  and  owed  their  elevation 
solely  to  the  perpetration  of  crime  and  parricide.  A  supersti- 
tion gross  in  its  nature,  bound  as  with  a  spell  the  minds  of  the 
Greeks,  and  paralyzed  their  courage.  It  was  carefully  cherished 
by  the  monks,  who  hud  found  means  to  possess  themselves  ol 
the  government,  by  procuring  the  exclusion  of  the  secular  clergy 
from  the  episcopate ;  and  directing  the  attention  of  princes  to 
those  theological  controversies,  often  exceedingly  frivolous, 
which  were  produced  and  re-produced  almost  without  inter- 
mission." Hence  originated  those  internal  commotions  and 
distractions,  those  schisms  and  sects,  which  more  than  once 
divided  the  empire,  and  shook  the  throne  itself. 

These  theological  disputes,  the  rivalry  between  the  two  pa- 
triarchs of  Rome  and  Constantinople,'' and  the  contests  respect- 
ing the  Bulgarian  converts,  kd  to  an  irreparable  schism  between 
the  churches  of  the  East  and  the  West.  This  controversy  was 
most  keenly  agitated  under  the  pontificate  of  .Tohn  Vlll.,  ami 
when  the  celebrated  Photius  was  patriarch  of  Constantinople ; 
and  in  spite  of  the  efforts  which  several  of  the  Greek  emperors 
and  patriarchs  afterwards  made  to  effect  a  union  with  the  Romish 
See,  the  animosity  of  both  only  grew  more  implacable,  and 
»nded  at  last  in  a  final  rupture  between  the  two  churches.  A 
'  govornment  so  weak  and  so  capricious  as  that  of  Constantinople, 
could  not  but  be  perpetually  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  foreign 
enemies.     The  Huns,  Ostrogoths,  Avars,  Bulgarians,  Russians. 


^J\ 


il  dignity, 
m  on  thii 
le,  accord- 
ny  in  ihe 
I  the  law- 
ih  justice, 
g  his  suh- 
ry,  hnnish- 
n,  n  vigour 
I  him  like- 
ingary  into 
■at  omccrs 
002-3,  nc- 
ilhors,  nnd 
[lich,  called 

ne,  nothing 
rhc  throne, 
,  was  filled 
whom  rose 
ir  elevation 
A  supersii- 
inds  of  the 
y  cherished 
emselves  of 
cular  clergy 
f  princes  to 
frivolous, 
thout  inter- 
notions  and 
»  than  once 

the  two  pa- 
pats  respect- 
ism  between 
iroversy  was 
n  VIII.,  and 
stantinople ; 
ek  emperors 
the  Romish 
Incable,  and 
lurches.  A 
nstantinople. 
R  of  foreign 
>s,  Russians, 


riRioD  lit.    A.  D.  962 — 1074. 


99 


Hungarians,  Chazars,  and  Patzinacites,  harassed  the  empire  on 
the  side  of  the  Danube  ;  while  the  Persians'"  were  incessantly 
e.xhiuisting  its  strengtii  in  the  East,  and  on  the  side  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. All  thpfo  nations,  however,  were  content  with  merely 
desolating  the  frontiers  of  the  empire,  and  imposing  frequent 
contributions  on  the  Greeks.  It  was  a  task  reserved  for  the 
Lombards,  the  Arabs,  the  Normans,  and  the  Turks,  to  detach 
from  it  whole  provinces,  and  by  degrees  to  hasten  its  downfall. 
The  Lombards  were  the  first  that  conquered  from  the  Greeks 
the  greater  part  of  Italy.  Palestine,  Syria,  and  the  whole  pos- 
sesiioiis  of  the  Empire  in  Greater  Asia,  as  well  as  Egypt,  Nor- 
I  them  Africa,  iind  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  were  seized  in  the  seventh 
j  century  by  the  Arabs,  who  made  themselves  masters  of  Sicily," 
and  three  times  laid  siege  to  Constantinople  (669,  717,  719.) 
They  would  have  even  succeeded  in  taking  this  Eastern  capital, 
and  annihilating  the  Greek  empire,  had  not  the  couraj^e  of  Leo 
the  Isuurian,  and  the  surprising  effects  of  the  Gregeois,  or  Greek 
Fire,"  rendered  their  efforts  useless.  At  length,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  the  Normans  conquered  all  that  remained  to  the  Greeks 
in  Italy  ;  while  the  SeljuU  Turks,  who  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  Ottoman  Turks,  deprived  them  of  the  greater  part  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Turk  is  the  generic  appellation  for  all  the  Tartar  nations, '" 
mentioned  by  the  ancients  under  the  name  of  Scythians.  Their 
original  country  was  in  those  vast  regions  situate  to  the  north 
of  Mount  Caucasus,  and  eastward  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  beyond 
the  Jihon,  or  Oxus  of  the  ancients,  especially  in  Charasm,  Tran- 
soxiana,  Turkestan,  ice.  About  the  eighth  century,  Ihe  Arabs 
had  passed  the  Oxus,  and  rendered  the  Turks  of  Charasm  and 
Transoxiana  their  tributaries.  They  instructed  them  in  the  re- 
ligion and  laws  of  Mahomet ;  but|  by  a  transition  rather  extra- 
ordinary, it  afterwards  happened,  that  the  vanquished  nnposed 
the  yoke  on  their  new  masters. 

The  empire  of  the  Arabs,  already  enfeebled  by  the  territorial 
losses  which  have  been  mentioned,  declined  more  and  more, 
from  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.  The  Caliphs  of 
Bagdad  had  committed  the  mistake  of  trusting  their  persons  tu 
a  military  guard  of  foreigners,'"  viz.  the  Turks,  who,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  effeminacy  of  these  princes,  soon  arrogated  to 
themselves  the  whole  authority,  and  abused  it  so  far,  as  to  leave 
the  Caliphs  entirely  dependent  on  their  will,  and  to  vest  in  them- 
selves the  hereditary  succession  of  the  government.  Thus,  in 
the  very  centre  of  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad,  there  rose  a  multi- 
tude 01  new  sovereignties  or  dynasties,  the  heads  of  which, 
under  the  title  of  Emir  or  Commander,  exercised  the  supreme 


L 


■  I'  ' 


100 


CHAPTER   IV. 


I 


power  ;  learinff  nothing  more  to  the  Caliph  than  a  pre-eminence 
of  dignity,  and  that  rHther  of  n  xpirittiiil  than  u  tt<nipornI  nature. 
Besides  the  cxl(>rnal  marks  of  hoiniijje  and  ri'.xpcrt  which  were 
paid  him,  his  name  cnntiniio<l  to  he  proclaiiiu'd  in  the  iiiosquca, 
and  inscribed  on  the  coined  money.  By  him  were  (rruiited  all 
letters-patent  of  inve.ttiture,  robcn,  swords,  und  slimdards,  accom- 
panied with  high-soundin^r  titles  ;  which  did  not,  however,  pre- 
vent these  usurpers  from  nmltreuting  th<'ir  uncient  masters, 
insulting  their  person,  or  oven  attemptinf^  their  lives,  whenever 
it  might  serve  to  promote  their  interest. 

A  general  revolution  broke  out  under  the  caliph  Ruhdi.  Thai 
prince,  wishing  to  arrest  the  progress  of  usurpation,  thought  of 
creating  a  new  minister,  whom  he  invested  with  the  title  of 
Emir-al-Omra^  or  Commander  of  Commanders  ;  and  conferred 
on  him  powers  much  more  ample  than  tho^e  of  his  vizier.  This 
minister,  whom  he  selected  from  the  Emirs,  officiated  even  in 
the  grand  mosque  of  Bagdad,  instead  of  the  caliph  ;  and  his 
name  was  pronounced  with  equal  honours  in  the  divine  service 
throughout  the  empire.  This  device,  which  the  caliph  employ- 
ed to  re-establish  his  authority,  only  tended  to  accelerate  its 
destruction.  The  Bowides,  the  most  powerful  dynasty  among 
•he  Emirs,  arrogated  to  themselves  the  dignity  of  Chief  Com- 
mander (945,)  and  seized  both  the  city  and  the  sovereignty  of 
Bagdad.  The  Caliph,  stripped  of  all  temporal  power,  was  then 
only  grand  Iman,  or  ."sovercign-poniilTof  the  Mussulman  religion, 
under  the  protection  of  the  Bowidian  prince,  who  kept  him  as 
his  prisoner  at  Bagdad. 

Such  was  the  sud  situation  of  the  Arabian  empire,  fallen 
from  its  ancient  glory,  when  n  numerous  Turkish  tribe,  from 
the  centre  of  Turkestan,  appeared  on  the  stage,  overthrew  the 
dominions  of  the  Bowides  ;  and,  after  imposing  new  fetters  on 
the  caliphs,  laid  the  foundation  of  «  powerful  empire,  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Seljukides.  This  roving  tribe,  which  took  its 
name  from  Seljuk  a  Mussulman  Turk,  after  having  wandered 
for  some  time  with  their  flocks  in  Transoxiana,  passed  the 
Jihon  to  seek  pasturage  in  the  province  of  Chorasan.  Rein- 
forced by  new  Turkish  colonies  from  Transoxiana,  this  coali- 
tion became  in  a  little  time  so  powerful,  tlin>  Togrul  Beg, 
grandson  of  Seljuk,  had  the  boldness  to  cause  himself  to  be 
proclaimed  Sultan  in  the  city  of  Niesabur,*"  the  capital  of  Cho- 
rasan, and  formally  announced  himself  as  a  conqueror  (1038.) 
This  prince,  and  the  sultans  his  successors,  subdued  by  de- 
grees most  of  the  provinces  in  Asia,  which  formed  the  caliphate 
of  Bagdad.^'  They  annihilated  the  power  of  the  Bowides 
reduced  the  Caliphs  to  the  condition  of  dependents,  and  al 
length  attacked  also  the  possessions  of  the  Greek 'empire 


-'i<fv''i'j'..jj.  ff^wr 


■-*s-?r-*rtte**t^ftJCS^^asMW 


^eminence 
rnl  nature, 
ihifh  were 
i\  iiio!i()Uca, 
^rruiiicil  all 
rtis,  accom- 
wever.pre- 
It  masters, 
,  whenever 

uhdi.  Thai 
thought  ol 
the  title  of 
d  conferred 
rizicr.  This 
ted  even  in 
h  ;  and  his 
/inu  service 
iph  employ- 
ceierate  its 
asty  among 
['hief  Com- 
veroignty  of 
r,  was  then 
lan  religion, 
cept  him  as 

pire,  fallen 
tribe,  from 
rthrew  the 
V  fetters  on 
I,  known  by 
ich  took  its 
f  wandered 
passed  the 
Isan.  Rein- 
this  coali- 
ogrul  Beg, 
mself  to  be 
ital  of  Cho- 
ror  (1038.) 
ued  by  de- 
le  caliphate 
Bowides 
nts,  and  at 
npiro 


PIRIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300. 


— — -.- ) 
101     I' 


Alp-Ari«lnn,  the  nephew  ond  immediate  successor  of  Togrul 
Beg,  {(iiitird  II  sii,'niil  victory  in  Armenia,  over  the  Emperor 
Roiniuiiis  Di<>!,'i'n<'s  (1071)  who  was  there  taken  prisoner. 
Tho  confusion  which  this  event  caused  in  the  Greek  empire, 
was  favourable  to  the  Turks,  who  seized  not  only  what  re- 
mained to  the  0 recks  in  Syria,  but  also  several  provinces  in 
Asia  Minor,  such  ns  Cilicia,  Isauria,  Pamphylia,  Lycia,  Pisidia, 
Lycnonia,  Cappadncia,  Galatia,  Ponlus,  and  Bythinia. 

The  empire  of  the  Seljukides  was  in  its  most  flourishing 
state  under  the  sultan  Maiek  Shah,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Alp-Arslan.  The  caliph  Cayem,  in  confirming  to  this  prince 
'he  title  of  Sultan  and  Chief  Commander,  added  also  that  of 
Commander  of  the  Faithful,  which  before  that  time  had  never 
been  conferred  but  on  the  caliphs  alone.  On  the  death  of  Ma- 
Ick  (1092,)  the  disputes  that  rose  among  his  sons  occasioned  a 
civil  war,  and  the  partition  of  the  empire.  These  vast  territories 
were  divided  among  three  principal  dynasties  descended  from 
Scljuk,  those  of  Iran,  Herman,  and  Ronm,  or  Rome.  This 
latter  branch,  which  ascribes  its  origin  t  >  Soliman,  great-grand- 
son of  Scljuk,  obtained  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  which 
the  Seljukides  had  conquered  from  the  Greeks.  The  princes 
of  this  dynasty  are  known  in  the  history  of  the  Crusades  by 
the  name  of  Sultans  of  Iconium  or  Cogni,  a  city  of  Lycaonia, 
where  the  sultans  established  their  residence  after  being  de- 
prived by  the  crusoders  of  the  city  of  Nice  in  Bythinia.  The 
most  powerful  of  the  three  dynasties  was  that  of  the  Seljukides 
of  Iran,  whose  sway  extended  over  the  greater  part  of*^  Upper 
Asia.  It  soon,  however,  fell  from  its  grandeur,  and  its  states 
were  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  sovereignties,  over  which 
the  Emirs  or  governors  of  cities  and  provinces  usurped  the 
supreme  power.^  These  divisions  prepared  the  way  for  the 
conquests  of  the  crusaders  in  Syria  and  Palestine ;  and  fur- 
nished >i1so  to  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  the  means  of  shaking  ofT 
the  yoke  of  the  Seljukides  (1162,)  and  recovering  the  sove- 
reignty of  Irak- Arabia,  or  Bagdad. 


CHAPTER   V. 

PERIOD   IV. 


From  Pope  Gregory  VII.  to  Boniface  VIII.     a.  d.  1074—1300. 
A  NEW  and  powerful  monarchy  rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  that  of  the  Roman  PontifTs;  which  monopolized 
both  spiritual  and  temporal  dominion,  and  extended  its  influ- 


,1-i 


'sit . 


^■|j 


■».p|#i 


;^': 


If 


fit  B-^ 


Ip- 


102 


CHAPTER  ▼. 


ence  over  all  the  kingdoms  of  Christendom.  This  supremacy, 
whose  artful  and  complicated  mechanism  is  still  an  object  of 
astonishment  to  the  most  subtle  politicians,  was  the  work  of 
Pope  Gregory  VII.,  a  man  born  for  great  undertakings,  as  re- 
markable for  his  genius,  which  raised  him  above  his  times,  as 
for  the  austerity  of  his  manners  and  the  boundless  reach  of  his 
ambition.  Indignant  at  the  depravity  of  the  age,  which  was 
immersed  in  ignorance  and  vice,  and  at  the  gross  immorality 
which  pervaded  all  classes  of  society,  both  laymen  and  ecclesi- 
astics, Gregory  resolved  to  become  the  reformer  of  morals,  and 
the  restorer  of  religion.  To  succeed  in  this  project,  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  replace  the  government  of  kings,  which  had  totally 
lost  its  power  and  efficiency,  by  a  new  authority,  whose  salutary 
restraints,  imposed  alike  on  the  high  and  the  low,  might  restore 
vigour  to  the  laws,  put  a  stop  to  licentiousness,  and  impose  a 
reverence  on  all  by  the  sanctity  of  its  origin.  This  authority 
was  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  of  which  Gregory  was 
at  once  the  creator  and  inventor. 

This  extraordinary  person,  who  was  the  son  of  a  carpenter 
at  Saona  in  Tuscany,  named  Bonisone,  or  according  to  others, 
descended  of  a  Roman  family,  had  paved  the  way  to  his  future 
greatness  under  the  preceding  pontiffs,  whose  counsels  he  had 
directed  under  the  title  of  Cardinal  Hildebrand.  While  Cardi- 
nal, he  engaged  Pope  Nicolas  II.  to  enter  into  a  treaty  with 
Robert  Guiscard  (1059,)  for  procuring  that  brave  Norman  as  an 
ally  and  a  vassal  of  the  Holy  See.  Tiiking  advantage,  like- 
wise of  the  minority  of  Henry  IV.,  he  caused,  this  same  year, 
in  a  council  held  at  Rome,  the  famous  decree  to  be  passed, 
which,  by  reserving  the  election  of  the  pontiffs  principally  to 
the  cardinals,  converted  the  elective  privileges  which  the  em- 
'perors  formerly  enjoyed  in  virtue  of  their  crown  rights,  into  a 
personal  favour  granted  by  the  Pope,  and  emanating  from  the 
court  of  Rome. 

On  the  death  of  Pope  Nicolas  II.,  Cardinal  Hildebrand  pro- 
cured the  election  of  Alexander  II.,  without  waiting  for  the  or- 
der or  concurrence  of  the  Imperial  court ;  and  he  succeeded  in 
maintaining  him  in  the  apostolical  chair  against  Pope  Honorius 
II.,  whom  the  reigning  empress  had  destined  for  that  honour. 
At  length,  being  raised  himself  to  the  pontifical  throne,  scarce- 
ly had  he  obtained  the  Imptirial  confirmation,  when  ho  put  in 
execution  the  project  which  he  had  so  long  been  concerting  and 
preparing,  viz.  the  erecting  of  a  spiritual  despotism,'  extend- 
ing to  priests  as  well  as  kings ;  making  the  supreme  pontiff'the 
arbiter  in  all  affairs,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical — the  bestower 
of  favours,  and  the  dispenser  of  crowns.     The  basis  of  this 


I     I 


f  iniiiiiMrTii     •- 


iprenincy, 
object  of 
work  of 
rs,  as  re- 
times, as 
ch  of  his 
hich  was 
nmoralily 
d  eccles'- 
orals,  and 
it  was  ne- 
ad  totally 
e salutary 
ht  restore 
impose  a 
authority 
Bgory  was 

carpenter 
to  others, 
his  future 
Is  he  had 
ile  Cardi- 
rcaty  with 
nan  as  an 
age,  like- 
ame  year, 
le  passed, 
cipally  to 

the  em- 
Its,  into  a 

rom  the 

)rand  pro- 

or  the  or- 
eeded  in 
^onorius 

t  honour. 

e,  scarce- 
ic  put  in 
rting  and 
extend- 

jontiffthe 
bestower 

is  of  this 


PBBlOii  IV.     A.  D.  1074— 130U. 


103 


dominion  was,  that  the  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ  ought  to  be  su- 
perior to  all  human  power.  The  better  to  attain  his  object,  he 
began  by  withdrawing  himself  and  his  clergy  from  the  autho- 
rity of  the  secular  princes. 

At  that  time  the  city  of  Rome,  and  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
states,  as  well  aa  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  were  subject  to  the 
kings  of  Germany,  who,  iu  virtue  of  their  being  kings  of  Italy 
and  Roman  emperors,  nominated  or  confirmed  the  popes,  and 
installed  the  prefects  of  Rome,  who  there  received  the  power  of 
the  sword  in  their  name.  They  sent  also  every  year  commis- 
sioners to  Rome,  to  levy  the  money  due  to  the  royal  treasury. 
The  popes  used  to  date  their  acts  from  the  years  of  the  empe- 
ror's reign,  and  to  stamp  their  coin  with  his  name ;  and  all  the 
higher  clergy  were  virtually  bound  and  subject  to  the  secular 
power,  by  tlie  solemn  investiture  of  the  ring  and  the  crosier. 
This  investiture  gave  to  the  emperors  and  the  other  sovereigns 
the  right  of  nominating  and  conflrming  bishops,  and  even  of  de- 
posing them  if  they  saw  cause.  It  gave  them,  moreover,  the 
right  of  conferring,  at  their  pleasure,  those  fiefs  and  royal  pre- 
rogatives which  the  munificence  of  princes  had  vested  in  the 
Church.  The  emperors,  in  putting  bishops  and  prelates  in 
possession  of  these  iiefs,  used  the  symbols  of  the  ring  and  the 
crosier,  which  were  badges  of  honour  belonging  to  bishops  and 
abbots.  They  made  them,  at  the  same  time,  take  the  oath  of 
fidelity  and  allegiance  ;  and  this  was  the  origin  of  their  depen- 
dence, and  their  obligation  to  furnish  their  princes  with  troops, 
and  to  perform  military  service. 

Gregory  VII.  prohibited,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  all 
sovereigns  to  exercise  the  rights  of  investiture,  by  a  formal  de- 
cree which  he  published  in  a  council  assembled  at  Rome  in  1074. 
There  was  more  than  the  simple  ceremony  of  the  ring  and  the 
crosier  implied  in  this  interdict.  He  aimed  at  depriving  princes  of 
the  right  of  nominating,  confirming,  or  deposing  prelates,  as  well 
as  of  receiving  their  fealty  and  homage,  and  exacting  military 
service.  He  thus  broke  all  those  ties  by  which  the  bishops 
were  held  in  allegiance  and  subordination  to  princes ;  making 
them,  in  this  respect,  entirely  independent.  In  suppressing  in> 
veslitures,  the  ponlifT  had  yet  a  more  important  object  in  view. 
It  was  his  policy  to  withdraw  both  himself  and  his  successors, 
as  well  as  the  whole  ecclesiastical  state,  from  the  power  of  the 
G  man  kings;  especially  by  abolishing  the  right  which  these 
princes  had  so  long  exercised  of  nominating  and  confirming  the 
ropes.  He  saw,  in  fact,  that  if  he  could  succeed  in  rendering 
the  clergy  independent  of  the  secular  power,  it  would  follow,  by 
a  natural  consequence,  that  the  Pope,  as  being  supreme  head  of 


.-:.J1 


h 


,■1 


t     w 


n 


104 


CHAPTER   ▼. 


the  clergy,  would  no  longer  be  dependent  on  the  emperors ; 
while  the  emperor,  excluded  from  the  nomination  and  investi* 
ture  of  bishops,  would  have  still  less  right  to  interfere  in  the 
election  of  pontifls. 

This  affair,  equally  interestmg  to  all  sovereigns,  was  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  kings  of  Germany,  who  had  committed 
the  unfortunate  error  of  putting  the  greater  part  of  their  domains 
into  the  hands  of  ecclesiastics  ;  so  that  to  divest  those  princes 
of  the  right  to  dispose  of  ecclesiastical  fiefs,  was  in  fact  to  de- 
prive them  of  nearly  the  half  of  their  empire.  The  bishops, 
vainly  flattering  themselves  with  the  prospect  of  an  imaginary 
liberty,  forgot  the  valuable  gifts  with  which  the  emperors  had 
loaded  them,  and  enlisted  under  the  banners  of  the  Pope.  They 
turned  against  the  secular  princes  those  arms  which  the  latter 
had  imprudently  trusted  in  their  hands. 

There  yet  subsisted  another  bond  of  union  which  connected 
the  clergy  with  the  civil  and  political  orders  of  society,  and 
gave  them  an  interest  in  the  protection  of  the  secular  authority, 
and  that  was,  the  marriages  of  the  priests ;  a  custom  in  use  at 
that  time  over  a  great  part  of  the  West,  as  it  still  is  in  the  Greek 
and  Eastern  Churches.  It  is  true,  that  the  law  of  celibacy,  al- 
ready recommended  strongly  by  St.  Augustine,  had  been  adopted 
by  the  Romish  Church,  which  neglected  no  means  of  introducing 
it  by  degrees  into  all  the  churches  of  the  Catholic  communion. 
It  had  met  with  better  success  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  Europe 
than  in  the  northern  countries ;  and  the  priests  continued  to 
marrv,  noi  only  in  Germany,  England,  and  the  kingdoms  of  the 
North,  but  even  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  notwithstanding 
the  law  of  celibacy,  which  had  been  sanctioned  in  vain  by  a 
multitude  of  councils. 

Gregory  VII.,  perceiving  that,  to  render  the  clergy  completely 
dependent  on  the  Pope,  it  would  be  necessary  to  break  this 

Eowerful  connexion,  renewed  the  law  of  celibacy,  in  a  council 
eld  at  Rome  (1074;)  enjoining  the  married  priests  either  to 
quit  their  wives,  or  renounce  the  sacerdotal  order.  The  whole 
clergy  murmured  against  ihe  unfeeling  rigour  of  this  decree, 
which  even  excited  tumult  and  insurrection  in  several  countries 
of  Germany ;  and  it  required  all  the  firmness  of  Gregory  and 
his  successors  to  abolish  clerical  marriages,  and  establish  the 
law  of  celibacy  throughout  the  Western  churches.*^  In  thus 
dissolving  the  secular  ties  of  the  clergy,  it  was  far  from  the  in- 
tention of  Gregory  VII.  to  render  them  independent.  His  designs 
were  more  politic,  and  more  suitable  to  his  ambition.  He  wished 
to  make  the  clergy  entirely  subservient  to  his  own  elevation,  and 
even  to  employ  them  as  an  instrument  to  humble  and  subded 
the  power  of  the  princes. 


ItUJHHL 


•mperoM ; 

id  invest!- 
ere  in  the 

as  of  the 
:ommitted 
r  domains 
le  princes 
fact  to  de- 
!  bishopa, 
imaginary 
erors  had 
pe.  They 
the  latter 

connected 
ciety,  and 
authority, 

in  use  at 
the  Greek 
libacy,  al- 
m  adopted 
Producing 
inmunion. 
of  Europe 
itinued  to 
>ms  of  the 

islanding 
vain  by  a 

omplelely 

)reak  this 

a  council 

either  to 

he  whole 

is  decree, 

countries 

egory  and 

iblish  the 

In  thus 

>m  the  in- 

is  designs 

e  wished 

ation,  and 

id  subded 


•  PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300. 

The  path  had  already  been  opened  up  to  him  by  the  False 
Decretals,  as  they  were  culled,  fnrtred  about  the  beginning  of  the 
ninth  coniury,  by  the  famous  iin|)()sior  Isidore,  who,  with  the 
view  of  diminishing  the  authority  of  the  metropolitans,  advanced 
in  these  lotlers,  which  he  attributed  to  the  early  bishops  of 
Rome,  a  principle  whose  main  object  was  to  extend  the  rights 
of  the  Romish  See,  and  to  vest  in  the  popes  a  jurisdiction  till 
then  unknown  in  the  church.  Several  Popes  before  Gregory 
VII.  had  already  availed  themselves  of  these  False  Decretals ;  ' 
and  they  had  even  been  admitted  as  true  into  different  collec- 
tions of  canons.  Gregory  did  not  content  himself  with  rigidly 
enforcing  the  principles  of  the  impostor  Isidore.  He  went  even 
farther ;  he  pretended  to  unite,  in  himself,  the  plenary  exercise 
both  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  episcopal  power  ;  leaving  nothing 
to  the  archbishops  and  bishops  but  the  simple  title  of  his  lieu- 
tenants or  vicars.  He  completely  undermined  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  metropolitans  and  bishops,  by  authorizing  in  all  cases  an 
appeal  to  the  Court  of  Rome  ;  reserving  to  himself  exclusively 
the  cognizance  of  all  causes  termed  major — including  more  es- 

fiecially  the  privilege  of  judging  and  deposing  of  bishops.  This 
ntter  privilege  had  always  been  vested  in  the  provincial  councils, 
who  exercised  it  under  the  authority,  and  with  the  consent  of 
the  secular  powers.  Gregory  abolished  this  usage ;  and  claimed 
for  himself  the  power  of  judging  the  bishops,  either  in  person 
or  by  his  legates,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Synodal  Assemblies. 
He  made  himself  master  of  these  assemblies,  and  even  arroga- 
ted the  exclusive  right  of  convocating  Genera/  Councils. 

This  pontiff,  in  a  council  which  he  held  at  Rome  (1079,)  at 
length  prescribed  a  new  oath,  which  the  bishops  were  obliged 
to  take ;  the  main  object  of  which  was  not  merely  canonical 
obedience,  but  even  fealty  and  homage,  such  as  the  prelates,  as 
lieges,  vowed  to  their  sovereigns ;  and  which  the  pontiff  claimed 
for  himself  alone,  bearing  that  they  should  aid  and  defend, 
against  the  whole  world,  his  new  supremacy,  and  what  he  called 
the  royal  rights  of  St.  Peter.  Although  various  sovereigns 
maintained  possession  of  the  homage  they  received  from  their 
bishops,  the  oath  imposed  by  Gregory  nevertheless  retained  its 
full  force ;  it  was  even  augmented  by  his  successors,  and  ex- 
tended to  all  bishops  without  distinction,  in  spite  of  its  incon- 
sistency with  that  which  the  bishops  swore  to  their  princes. 

Another  very  effectual  means  which  Gregory  VII.  made  use 
of  to  confirm  his  new  authority,  was  to  send,  more  frequently 
than  his  predecessors  had  done,  legates  into  the  different  states 
and  kingdoms  of  Christendom.  He  made  them  a  kind  of  gov- 
ernors of  provinces,  and  invested  them  with  the  most  ample 


it' 

II 

1 

1 

■             '•^i     , 

:            p.? 

r-    i' 

|.     ,,          ' 

^      \>' 

1-* 

n^ 


106 


CHAPTFIl   V. 


powers  These  legates  soon  obtained  a  knowledge  of  all  the 
afTairs  of  t]\e  provinces  delegated  to  their  care  ;  which  greatly 
impaircd  the  authority  of  the  metropolitans  and  provincial  coun- 
cils, as  well  as  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops.  A  clause  was 
also  inserted,  in  the  form  of  the  oath  imposed  on  the  bishops, 
which  obliged  them  to  furnish  maintenance  and  support  for 
these  legates ;  a  practice  which  subsequently  gave  place  to  fre- 
quent exactions  and  impositions  on  their  part. 

While  occupied  with  the  means  of  extending  his  power  over 
the  clergy,  Gregory  did  not  let  slip  any  opportunity  of  making 
encroachments  on  the  authority  of  princes  and  sovereigns,  which 
he  represented  as  subordinate  to  that  of  the  Church  and  the 
Pope.  As  supreme  head  of  the  Church,  he  claimed  a  right  of 
inspection  over  all  kings  and  their  governments.  He  deemed 
himself  authorized  to  address  admonitions  to  them,  as  to  the 
method  of  ruling  their  kingdoms;  and  to  demand  of  them  an 
account  of  their  conduct.  By  and  by,  he  presumed  to  listen  to 
the  complaints  of  subjects  against  their  princes,  and  claimed  the 
right  of  being  a  judge  or  arbiter  between  them.  In  this  capacity 
he  acted  towards  Henry  IV.,  emperor  of  Germany,  who  en- 
joyed the  rights  of  sovereignty  over  Rome  and  the  Pope.  He 
summoned  him  to  Rome  (1076,)  for  the  purpose  of  answering 
before  the  synod  to  the  principal  accusations  which  the  nobles 
of  Saxony,  engaged  in  disputes  with  that  prince,  had  referred  to 
the  Pope.  The  emperor,  burning  with  indignation,  and  hurried 
on  by  the  impetuosity  of  youth,  instantly  convoked  an  assembly 
of  bishops  at  Worms,  and  there  caused  the  pontiff  to  be  deposed. 
No  sooner  was  this  sentence  conveyed  to  Rome,  and  read  in 
presence  of  the  Pope  in  a  council  which  he  had  assembled,  than 
Gregory  ventured  on  a  step  till  then  quite  unheard  of.  He  im- 
mediately thundered  a  sentence  of  excommunication  and  depo- 
sition against  the  Emperor,  which  was  addressed  to  St.  Peter, 
and  couched  in  the  following  terms  : — 

"  In  the  name  of  Almighty  God,  I  suspend  and  interdict  from 
governing  the  kingdom  of  Germany  and  Italy,  Henry,  son  of 
the  emperor  Henry,  who,  with  a  haughtiness  unexanipied,  has 
dared  to  rebel  against  thy  church.  I  absolve  all  Christians 
whatever  from  the  oath  which  they  have  taken,  or  shall  here- 
after take,  to  him ;  and  henceforth  none  shall  be  permitted  to  do 
him  homage  or  service  as  king ;  for  he  who  would  disobey  the 
authority  of  thy  Church,  deserves  to  lose  the  dignity  with  which 
he  is  invested.  And  seeing  this  prince  has  re''ubed  to  submit 
as  a  Christian,  and  has  not  returned  to  the  Lord  whom  he  hath 
forsaken,  holding  communion  with  the  excommunicated,  and 
despising  the  advice  which  I  tendered  him  for  the  safety  of  bis 


tl 
s 
li 
ti 

fi 
P 

0 

p 


wwiw'-— — —•  ■ 


memmmm 


if  all  the 
h  greatly 
;ial  coun- 
luse  was 
bishops, 
pport  for 
ce  to  fre- 

mer  over 
f  making 
ns,  which 
I  and  the 
1  right  of 
i  deemed 
as  to  the 
them  an 
)  listen  to 
aimed  the 
s  capacity 
,  who  en- 
'ope.  He 
mswering 
he  nobles 
eferred  to 
id  hurried 
assembly 
: deposed. 
I  read  in 
bled,  than 
He  im- 
md  depo- 
St.  Peter, 

rdict  from 
y,  son  of 
ipled,  has 
Christians 
mil  here- 
tted  to  do 
obey  the 
ith  which 
to  submit 
m  he  hath 
ated,  and 
ety  of  hi3 


n^ 


PBBIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300. 

soul,  I  load  him  with  curses  in  thy  name,  to  the  end  that  peo- 
ple may  know,  even  by  experience,  that  thou  art  Peter,  and  that 
on  this  rock  the  Son  of  the  living  God  has  built  his  church ; 
and  that  the  gates  of  hell  shall  never  prevail  against  it." 

This  measure,  which  seemed  at  first  to  have  been  merely  the 
effect  of  the  pontiff's  impetuosity,  soon  discovered  of  what  im- 
portance it  was  for  him  to  persevere,  and  what  advantage  he 
might  derive  from  it.  In  humbling  the  emperor,  the  most  pow- 
erful monarch  in  Europe,  he  might  hope  that  all  the  other 
sovereigns  would  bend  before  him.  He  omitted  nothing,  there- 
fore, that  might  serve  to  justify  his  conduct,  and  endeavoured 
to  prove,  by  sophistries,  that  if  he  had  authority  to  excommuni- 
cate the  emperor,  he  might  likewise  deprive  him  of  his  dignity; 
and  that  the  right  to  release  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegi- 
ance was  an  emanation  and  a  natural  consequence  of  the  power 
of  the  Keys.  The  same  equivocal  interpretation  he  afterwards 
made  use  of  in  a  sentence  which  he  published  against  the  same 
prince  (1080,)  and  which  he  addressed  to  the  Apostles  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  in  these  terms  :  "  You,  fathers  and  princes  of  the 
apostles,  hereby  make  known  to  the  whole  world,  that  if  you 
can  bind  and  unbind  in  heaven,  you  can  much  more,  on  earth, 
take  from  all  men  empires,  kingdoms,  principalities,  dutchies, 
marquisates,  counties,  and  possessions,  of  whatsoever  nature 
they  may  be.  You  have  often  deprived  the  unworthy  of  patri- 
archates, primacies,  archbishoprics,  and  bishoprics,  to  give  them 
to  persons  truly  religious.  Hence,  if  you  preside  over  spiritual 
affairs,  does  not  your  jurisdiction  extend  a  fortiori  to  temporal 
and  secular  dignities  ?  and  if  you  judge  the  angels  who  rule 
over  princes  and  potentates,  even  the  haughtiest,  will  you  not 
also  judge  their  slaves  ?  Let  then  the  kings  and  princes  of  the 
earth  learn  how  great  and  irresistible  is  your  power !  Let  them 
tremble  to  contemn  the  commands  of  your  church !  And  do  you, 
blessed  Peter,  and  blessed  Paul,  exercise,  from  this  time  forward, 
your  judgment  on  Henry,  that  the  whole  earth  may  know  that 
he  has  been  humbled,  not  by  any  human  contingencies,  but  solely 
by  your  power."  Until  that  time,  the  emperors  had  exercised 
the  right  of  confirming  the  Popes,  and  even  of  deposing  them, 
should  there  be  occasion  ;  but,  by  a  strange  reverse  of  preroga- 
tives, the  popes  now  arrogated  to  themselves  the  confirmation  oi 
the  emperors,  and  even  usurped  the  right  of  dethroning  them. 

However  irregular  this  step  of  the  pontiff  might  be,  it  did  not 
fail  to  produce  the  intended  effect.  In  an  assembly  of  the  Im- 
perial States,  held  at  Tribur  (1076,)  the  emperor  could  only 
obtain  their  consent  to  postpone  their  proceeding  to  a  new 
election,  and  that  on  the  express  condition  of  his  submitting 


It   w  r  ■ 


108 


CHAPTER  V. 


himself  to  the  judgment  of  the  Pope,  and  being  absolrnd  immr- 
dinlcly  from  tno  excommunication  he  had  incurred.  Inconse- 
quence of  this  decision  of  the  States,  Henry  crossed  the  Alps 
in  the  middle  of  winter,  to  obtain  reconciliation  with  the  Pope, 
who  then  resided  with  the  famous  Coantess  Matilda,  at  her 
Casllo  of  Canossa,  in  the  Modenese  territory.  Absolution  was 
not  granted  him,  however,  except  under  conditions  the  most  hu- 
miliating. He  was  compelled  to  do  penance  in  an  outer  court 
of  the  castle,  in  a  woollen  shirt  and  barefooted,  for  three  suc- 
cessive days,  and  afterwards  to  sign  whatever  terms  the  pontiff 
chose  to  prescribe.  This  extraordinary  spectacle  must  have 
spread  consternation  among  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and 
made  them  tremble  at  the  censures  of  the  Church. 

After  this,  Gregory  VII.  exerted  his  utmost  influence  to  en- 
gage all  sovereigns,  without  distinction,  to  acknowledge  them- 
selves his  vassals  and  tributaries.  "  Let  not  the  emperor 
imagine,"  says  he,  in  a  letter  which  he  wrote  to  the  German 
nation,  "  that  the  church  is  subject  to  him  as  a  slave,  but  let  him 
know  that  she  is  set  over  him  as  a  sovereign."  Fiom  that  time 
the  pontiff"  regarded  the  empire  as  a  fief  of  his  church  ;  and 
afterwards  when  setting  up  a  rival  emperor  to  Henry  IV.,  in 
the  person  of  Hermann  of  Luxemburg,  he  exacted  from  him  a 
formal  oath  of  vassalage.  Gregory  pursued  the  same  conduct 
in  regard  to  the  other  sovereigns  of  Europe.  Boleslaus  II., 
King  of  Poland,  having  killed  Stanislaus  Bishop  of  Cracow, 
who  had  ventured  to  excommunicate  him,  the  pontiff"  took  oc- 
casion from  this  to  depose  that  prince ;  releasing  all  his  sub- 
jects from  their  oath  of  fidelity,  and  even  prohibiting  the  Polish 
bishops  henceforth  to  crown  any  king  without  the  express  con- 
sent of  the  Pope. 

This  aspiring  pontiflT  stuck  at  nothing  ;  he  regarded  nothing, 
provided  he  could  obtain  his  object.  However  contrary  the 
customs  of  former  times  were  to  his  pretensions,  he  quoted 
them  as  examples  of  authority,  and  with  a  boldness  capable  of 
imposing  any  thing  on  weak  and  ignorant  minds.  It  was  thus 
that,  in  order  to  oblige  the  French  nation  to  pay  him  the  tax  of 
one  penny  each  nouse,  he  alleged  the  example  of  Charlemagne, 
and  pretended  that  that  prince  had  not  merely  paid  this  tribute, 
but  even  granted  Saxony  as  a  fief  to  St.  Peter;  as  he  had  con- 
quered it  with  the  assistance  of  that  apostle.  In  writing  to 
Philip  I.  of  France,  he  expressed  himself  in  these  terms: 
"  Strive  to  please  St.  Peter,  who  has  thy  kingdom  as  well  as 
thy  soul  in  his  power;  and  who  can  bind  thee,  and  absolve  in 
heaven  as  well  as  on  earth."  And  in  a  letter  which  he  addressed 
to  the  Princes  of  Spain,  he  attempted  to  persuade  them,  that  the 


1 1 


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idimmr-  I 
[n  conse-  j 
the  Alps 
he  Pope, 
1,  at  her 
ition  WH8 
most  hu- 
ter  court 
iree  sue- 
le  pontifl 
ust  have 
ope,  and 

:e  to  en- 
ge  them- 
emperor 
German 
ut  let  him 
that  time 
irch  ;  and 
ry  IV.,  in 
sm  him  a 
e  conduct 
slaus  II., 
Cracow, 
took  oc- 
his  sub- 
he  Polish 
)ress  con- 
nothing, 
jtrary  the 
quoted 
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was  thus 
the  tax  of 
emagne, 
is  tribute, 
had  con- 
irriting  to 
terms : 
well  as 
)solve  in 
ddresaed 
.  that  the 


le 


;e 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300 


109 


kingdom  of  Spain,  being  originally  the  property  of  the  Holy 
See,  they  could  not  exonerate  ihcinsclves  from  payinij  him  a 
lax  on  all  the  lands  they  haO  con(|uerpil  frwii  the  Infidels. 

He  affirmed  to  Solomon,  King  of  Hungary,  that  Stephen  I,, 
on  receiving  his  crown  at  the  hands  of  Pope  Silvester  II.,  had 
surrendered  his  kingdom  as  free  property  to  the  Holy  Sen  ;  and 
that,  in  virtue  of  this  donation,  his  kingdom  was  to  be  considered 
as  a  part  of  the  domain  of  the  church.  He  wrote  in  exactly  the 
same  style  to  Geysa  his  immediate  successor.  In  one  of  his 
letters  to  Sueno,  King  of  Denmark,  he  enjoins  him  to  deliver 
up  his  kingdom  to  the  power  of  the  Romish  See.  He  refused 
(1076,)  to  grant  the  royal  dignity  to  Demetrius  Swiiiimir,  Duke 
of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia,  except  on  the  express  condixion,  that 
he  should  do  him  homage  for  his  kingdom,  and  engage  to  pay 
the  Pope  an  annual  tribute  of  two  hundred  golden  pieces  of  By- 
zantium. This  poniifThad  the  art  of  disguising  his  ambition  so 
dexterously,  under  the  mask  of  justice  and  piety,  that  he  pre- 
vailed with  various  other  sovereigns  to  acknowledge  themselves 
his  vassals,  Bertrand,  Count  of  Provence,  transferred  to  him 
his  fealty  and  homage,  to  the  prejudice  of  those  feudal  obliga- 
tions he  owed  to  the  Empire.  Several  princes  of  Italy  and  Ger 
many,  influenced  by  artifice  or  intimidation,  abandoned  the 
emperor,  and  put  themselves  under  submission  to  the  Pope. 
His  eflbrts  were  not  equally  successful  with  William  the  Con- 
queror, King  of  England,  whom  he  had  politely  invited  by  letter, 
to  do  him  homage  for  his  kingdom,  after  the  manner  of  his  royal 
predecessors.  That  prince,  too  wise  to  be  duped  by  papal  im- 
position, replied,  that  he  was  not  in  a  humour  to  perform  homage 
which  he  had  never  promised,  and  which  he  was  not  aware  had 
ever  been  performed  by  any  of  his  predecessors. 

The  successors  of  Gregory  VII.,  followed  in  the  path  he  had 
opened  up ;  giving  their  utmost  support  to  all  his  maxims  and  pre- 
tensions. In  consequence,  a  very  great  number  of  the  princes 
of  Christendom,  some  intimidated  by  the  thunders  of  ecclesias- 
tical anathemas,  others  with  a  view  to  secure  for  themselves 
the  protection  of  the  Holy  See,  acknowledged  tllC'^■e  usurped 
powers  of  the  Popes.  The  Kings  of  Portugal,  Arragon,  England, 
Scotland,  Sardinia,  the  two  Sicilies,  and  several  others,  became, 
in  course  of  time,  vassals  and  tributaries  to  the  Papal  Sec ;  and 
there  is  not  a  doubt,  that  the  universal  monarchy,  the  scheme 
of  which  Gregory  VII.  had  conceived,  would  have  been  com- 
pletely established,  if  some  of  his  successors  had  been  endowed 
with  his  vast  ambition,  and  his  superior  genius. 

In  every  other  respect,  circumstances  were  such  as  to  hasten 
and  facilitate  the  progress  of  this  new  pontifical  supremacy.    It 


J; 


M'-iiiJ 


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no 


CHAPTER  V. 


hnd  commenced  in  a  barbarous  age,  when  the  whole  of  tho 
Wostorri  world  was  covered  wilh  the  darkness  of  ignorance ; 
and  when  mankind  knew  neither  the  just  rights  of  sovereignty, 
nor  the  bounds  which  reason  and  equity  should  have  set  to  the 
authority  of  the  priesthood.  The  court  of  Rome  was  then  the 
only  school  where  politics  were  studied,  and  the  Popes  the  only 
monarchs  that  put  them  in  practice.  An  extravagant  supersti- 
tion, the  inseparable  companion  of  ignorance,  held  all  Europe 
in  subjection ;  the  Popes  were  reverenced  with  a  veneration 
resembling  that  which  belongs  only  to  the  Deity ;  and  the  whole 
world  trembled  at  the  utterance  of  the  single  word  Excommu- 
nication. Kings  were  not  sufficiently  powerful  to  oppose  any 
successful  resistance  to  the  encroachments  of  Rome  ;  their  au- 
thority was  curtailed  and  counteracted  by  that  of  their  vassals, 
who  seized  with  eagerness  every  occasion  which  the  Popes 
ofTered  them,  to  aggrandize  their  own  prerogatives  at  the  expense 
of  the  sovereign  authority. 

The  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  was  alone  able  to  countervail 
this  new  spiritual  tyranny,  was  at  open  war  with  his  grand  vas- 
sals, whose  usurpations  ho  was  anxious  to  repress ;  while  they, 
disrespecting  the  majesty  of  the  throne,  and  consulting  only 
their  own  animosity  against  the  emperor,  blindly  seconded  the 
pretensions  of  the  pontifT.  The  emperor,  however,  did  all  in 
his  power  to  oppose  a  barrier  to  this  torrent  of  ecclesiastical 
despotism  ;  but  the  insolence  of  Gregory  became  so  extrava- 
gant, that,  not  content  to  attack  him  with  spiritual  weapons,  he 
set  up  rival  emperors,  and  excited  intestine  wars  against  him ; 
and  his  successors  even  went  so  far  as  to  arm  the  sons  against 
their  own  father.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  contests  which 
arose  between  the  Empire  and  the  Papacy,  under  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  and  which  agitated  both  Germany  and  Italy  for  a 
period  of  several  centuries.  They  gave  birth,  also,  to  the  two 
factions  of  the  Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines,  the  former  Imperial, 
and  the  other  Papal,  who  for  a  long  course  of  time  tore  each 
other  to  pieces  with  inct  .ceivable  fury. 

Henry  V.,  son  and  successor  of  Henry  IV.,  terminated  the 
grand  dispute  about  the  investitures  of  the  ring  and  the  crosier. 
By  the  Concordat  which  he  concluded  at  Worms  (1122)  with 
Pope  Calixtus  II.,  he  renounced  the  ceremony  of  the  ring  and 
the  cross  ;  and  granting  to  the  churches  free  liberty  of  election, 
he  reserved  nothing  to  himself,  except  the  privilege  of  sending 
commissioners  to  the  elections,  and  giving  to  the  newly  elected 
prelates,  after  consecration,  the  investiture  of  the  regalian  rights, 
by  means  of  the  sceptre,  instead  of  the  ring  and  crosier.  The 
ties  of  vassalage  which  connected  the  bishops  with  the  empc- 


.rt»*itHip»riilWJi|iipal"!Mll»»!ljl>J  »«l|IWii,Lll[W 


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e  of  the     ' 

norancc ; 

ereignty,     j 

•ict  to  the 
then  the     i 
the  only     j 
supersti-     1 

I  Europe     i 

eneraiion 

the  whole 

ipose  any 
their  au- 
ir  vassals, 
he  Popes 
le  expense 

ountervail 
jrand  vas- 
'hilc  they, 
Iting  only 
onded  the 
did  all  in 
lesiastical 
I  extrava- 
apons,  he 
linst  him ; 
ns  against 
•sts  which 
e  reign  of 
taly  for  a 
the  two 
Imperial, 
tore  eaih 

nated  the 
le  crosier. 
122)  with 
ring  and 
election, 
■  sending 
y  elected 
lan  rights, 
ier.  The 
the  eropc- 


PRRIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300. 


Ill 


tors,  were  still  preserved  by  thi"  trnnsnction,  rontrnry  to  the  in- 
tentions of  Gregory  VII.;  but  tho  onipcrors  bcintf  ril)liged  to 
approvo  of  tho  persons  whom  ihr  Church  should  bcTciirior  pre- 
sent, lost  their  chief  influence  in  tho  eloctions,  and  wore  no 
longer  entitled,  ns  formerly,  to  ijrnnt  or  refuse  invostituro. 

These  broils  with  tho  court  of  Komo,  tho  check  which  they 
gave  to  the  Imporinl  nulhority,  joined  to  the  incrousitig  .jbiises 
of  the  feudal  sy.xlem,  nflforded  tho  princes  !\nd  states  of  tho  Em- 
pire tho  means  of  usurping  the  heritable  succession  of  their 
dutchies,  counties,  and  fiefs  ;  and  of  laying  the  foundations  of  a 
new  power,  which  they  afterwards  exercised  nndor  tho  name  of 
territorial  superiority.  Frederic  II.,  compelled  by  the  pressure 
of  events,  was  the  first  emperor  that  sanctioned  the  territorial 
rights  of  the  states  by  charters,  which  he  delivered  to  several 
princes,  secular  and  ecclesiastic,  in  the  years  1220  and  1232. 
The  Imperial  dignity  thu.i  lost  its  splendour  with  the  power  of 
the  emperors  ;  and  the  constitution  of  the  Empire  was  totally 
changed.  That  vast  monarchy  degenerated  by  degrees  into  a 
kind  of  federal  system  ;  and  the  Emperor,  in  course  of  time, 
became  only  the  common  chief,  and  superior  over  the  numerous 
vassals  of  which  that  association  was  composed.  The  extra- 
ordinary efforts  made  by  the  Emperors  Frederic  I.  and  II.  of  the 
house  of  Hohenstaufen,*  to  re-establish  tho  tottering  throne  of 
the  empire,  ended  in  nothing;  and  that  House,  one  of  the  most 
powerful  in  Europe,  was  deprived  of  all  its  crowns,  and  perse- 
cuted even  to  the  scaffold. 

The  empire  thus  fell  into  gradual  decay,  while  the  pontifical 
power,  rising  on  its  ruins,  gained,  day  by  day,  new  accessions 
of  strength.  The  successors  of  Gregory  VII.  omitted  nothing 
that  policy  could  suggest  to  them,  in  order  to  humble  more  and 
more  the  dignity  of  the  Emperors,  and  to  bring  them  into  a  state 
of  absolute  dependence,  by  arrogating  to  themselves  the  express 
right  of  confirming,  and  even  of  deposing  them  ;*  and  com- 
pelling them  to  acknowledge  their  feudal  superiority.  Being 
thus  no  longer  obliged  to  submit  their  election  to  the  arbitration 
of  the  Imperial  court,  the  ambitious  pontiffs  soon  aspired  to 
absolute  sovereignty. 

The  custom  of  dating  their  acts,  .ind  coining  their  money 
with  the  stamp  and  name  of  the  emperor,  disappeared  after 
the  time  of  Gregory  VII. ;  and  the  authority  which  the  empe- 
rors had  exercised  at  Kome,  ceased  entirely  with  the  loss  of  the 
prefecture  or  government  of  that  city ;  which  Pope  Innocent  III. 
look  into  his  own  hands  (1198,)  obliging  the  prefect  of  Rome 
to  swear  the  usual  oath  of  homage  to  the  Apostolic  See,  which 
that  magistrate  owed  to  the  emperor,  from  whom  he  received 


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119  CHAPTBR    V. 

the  prcfciture.  Hence  it  imppened,  thnt  the  chiefs  of  the  Em- 
pire. olilii,'iil  lo  (  ornproinisf  with  a  pinver  which  liiey  had  learned 
lo  ilrcad,  had  no  longer  any  difliculty  in  recoijnisinj^  the  entire 
iii(ie|K'iu!t'iue  of  the  I'opes  ;  even  formally  renouncing  the 
riijlits  of  hii;li  sovereignly  whidi  their  predecessors  had  enjeyed, 
not  only  over  Konie,  hut  over  llie  Ecclesiastical  Slates.  The 
domains  of  the  church  were  likewise  considerably  increased 
by  the  .icquisitions  which  Iimocenl  III.  made  of  ihe  March 
of  Ancona,  and  the  dulcliy  of  Spoleio;  as  well  as  by  the  per- 
Mnial  property  or  Pat ri mini i/  of  tlie  Countess  Matilda''  which 
the  Emperor"  Frederic  11.  ceded  to  Honorius  III.  (1220,)  and 
which  his  successors  in  the  Apostolic  chair  formed  into  the  pro- 
vince Iniown  by  the  name  of  the  Patrimnny  of  St.  Peter. 

One  of  the  gimul  means  which  the  Popes  employed  for  the 
advancement  of  their  new  authority,  was  the  multiplication  o( 
Religious  (.)rders,  and  the  way  in  which  they  took  care  lo  man- 
ape  these  corporations.  Before  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.,  the 
only  order  known  in  the  West  was  thnt  of  the  Benedictines, 
divided  into  several  families  or  congregations.  The  rule  of  St 
Benedict,  pre.-cribed  at  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (817)  to 
all  monks  within  the  empire  of  llie  Franks,  was  the  only  one 
allowed  by  the  Romish  Church  ;  just,  as  that  of  St.  Basil  was, 
and  still  is,  the  only  one  practised  in  the  East  by  the  Greek 
Church.  The  first  of  tliese  newly  invented  orders  was  thnt  oi 
Grammont  in  Limosin  (1073.)  authorized  by  Pope  Gregory  VII. 
This  was  followed,  in  the  same  century,  by  the  order  of  Char- 
treu.\,  and  that  of  St.  Antony.'  The  Mendicant  orders  took 
their  rise  under  Innocent  III.,  near  the  end  of  the  twelfth,  and 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Their  number  increased 
in  a  short  time  so  prodigiously,  that,  in  1274,  they  could  reckon 
twenty-three  orders.  The  complaints  which  were  raised  on  this 
subject  from  all  parts  of  Christendom,  obliged  Pope  Gregory  to 
reduce  them,  at  the  Council  of  Lyons,  to  four  orders,  viz.  the 
Hermits  of  St.  William  or  Augusiines,  Carmelites,  the  Minor 
or  Franciscan  friars,  and  the  Preaching  or  Dominican  friars. 
The  Popes,  perceiving  that  they  might  convert  the  monastic 
orders,  and  more  particularly  the  mendicants,  into  a  powerful 
engine  for  strengthening  their  own  authority,  and  keeping  the 
secular  clergy  in  subjection,  granted  by  degrees  to  these  frater- 
nities, immunities  and  exemptions  tending  to  withdraw  them 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  and  to  emancipate  them 
from  every  other  authority,  except  that  of  their  Heads,  and  the 
Popes.  They  even  conferred  on  them  various  privileges,  such 
as  those  of  preaching,  confession,  and  instructing  the  young; 
33  being  the  most  likely  means  to  augment  their  credit  and  their 


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inflnonce.  The  conHcquoncc  vvn«,  that  tho  iiionkii  were  fre- 
(jiieiitly  employed  by  the  Pnpex  in  (juiility  of  leh'utes  nrul  inirc 
sjonnricst ;  thiy  were  feared  and  rettpeciud  by  soverei^nM,  nin- 
gularly  revered  by  the  people,  and  lef  slip  no  occasion  of  exulting 
a  power  to  which  alone  they  owed  their  promotion,  their  re- 
spectability, and  ail  the  advantages  they  enjoyed 

Of  all  the  Mucccssnrs  of  Orcgory  Vn.,he  who  fB»*irMWed  him 
most  in  the  superiority  of  his  genius,  und  the  extent  of  his 
knowledge,  vint  Innocent  III.,  who  was  of  tho  family  uf  the 
Count.s  of  Segni,  and  elevated  to  the  pontificate  at  the  age  of 
37.  He  was  as  ambitious  as  thot  pontifT,  and  equally  fertile 
in  resources  ;  und  he  even  surpassed  him  in  the  boldness  of 
his  plans,  and  the  success  of  his  enterprises.  Innocent  an- 
nounced himself  as  the  iucce$tor  of  St.  Peter,  Met  up  by  God 
to  govern  not  only  the  Church,  but  the  whole  world.  It  was 
this  Pope  who  first  made  use  of  the  famous  euinpnrison  about 
the  sun  and  the  moon  :  Ai  God,  says  )\e,  has  placed  two  great 
luminaries  in  the  firmament,  the  one  to  rule  the  day,  and  the 
other  to  give  light  by  night,  to  hat  he  established  two  grand 
powers,  t)u  pontifical  and  the  royal ;  and  at  the  vtoon  receives 
her  light  from  the  tun,  so  does  royalty  borrow  itt  splendour 
from  the  Papal  authority. 

Not  content  to  exercise  the  legislative  power  as  he  pleased, 
by  means  of  the  numerous  decretals  which  he  dispersed  over 
all  Christendom,  this  pontiff  was  the  first  that  arrogated  to  him- 
self the  prerogative  of  dispensing  with  the  laws  themselves, 
in  vJrtu^of  what  he  termed  the  plenitude  of  his  power.  It  is 
to  him  also  that  the  origin  of  the  Inquisition  is  ascribed,  that 
terrible  tribunal  which  afterwards  became  the  firmest  prop  of 
sacerdotal  despotism ;  but  what  is  of  more  importance  to  re- 
mark, is,  that  he  laid  the  foundations  of  that  exorbitant  power, 
which  his  successors  have  since  exercised  in  collating  or  pre- 
senting to  ecclesiastical  dignities  and  benefices. 

The  secular  princes  having  been  deprived  of  their  rights  of 
nomination  and  confirmation,  by  the  decrees  of  Gregory  VII. 
and  his  successors,  the  privilege  of  electing  bishops  was  re- 
stored to  the  clergy  and  congregation  of  each  church,  and  to 
the  chapters  of  convents  ;  the  confirmation  of  the  elected  pre- 
lates belonged  to  their  immediate  superiors ;  and  collation  to 
the  other  ecclesiastical  benefices  was  reserved  for  the  bishops 
and  ordinaries.  All  these  regulations  were  changed  towards 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  canons  of  cathedral 
churches,  authorized  by  the  Court  of  Rome,  claimed  to  them- 
selves the  right  of  election,  to  the  exclusion  uf  the  clergy  and 
the  pe  pie ;  while  the  Popes,  gradually  interfering  wiu  elec- 

8 


n  ii     ■ 


114 


CHAPTER   V. 


'(( 


f 


if: 

r 


t\ 


tions  and  collations,  found  means  o  usurp  the  nominMion  a^^^ 
collation  to  almost  all  ecclesiastical  benefices  The  pr  nciple  J 
these  usurpations  was  founded  on  the  false  decreals ;  accord- 
ing  to  which  all  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  emanates  from  he 
court  of  Rome,  as  a  river  flows  from  its  source.  It  "s  from  the 
Pope  that  archbishops  and  bishops  hold  that  portion  of  authon- 
tv  with  which  they  are  endowed ;  and  of  which  he  does  not 
/ivest  himself,  by  the  act  of  communicating  it  to  them;  but  is 
rather  the  more  entitled  to  co-operate  with  them  in  the  exercise  - 
of  that  jurisdiction  as  often  as  he  may  m«yi°Vf- 

This  principle  of  a  conjunct  authority,  furnished  a  very  plau- 
sible  pretext  for  the  Popes  to  interfere  in  collation  to  benefices. 
This  collation,  according  to  the  canon  law,  ^f '"g  «f  ««"»;j'° 
the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  it  seemed  natural  that  the  Pope, 
who  concurred  in  the  jurisdiction,  should  also  concur  in  the 
privileges  derived  from  it,  namely,  induction  or  collation  to  be- 
Sefices  From  the  right  of  concurrence,  »«l"efore  Innocent  III. 
proceeded  to  that  o{  preventionM^og  the  firs  pontiff  that  made 
use  of  it.  He  exercised  that  right,  especially  with  regaM  to 
benefices  which  had  newly  become  vacant  by  the  death  of  the  r 
incumbents,  when  at  the  Court  of  Rome;  in  which  cases  it 
was  easy  to  anticipate  or  get  the  start  of  the  bishops  In  the 
same  manner,  this  right  was  exercised  m  remote  d'O^e  «s,  by 
means  of  legates  a  latere,  which  he  dispersed  over  the  different 

^TIorthlrSroTpm-^ntion  were  deriyni  the  provmonal 
jnandates,  and  the  GrOces  Expectatives,  ("/^.'•^'"""LP"  '  " 
Bulls)  letters  granting  promise  of  church  livings  before  they 
became  vacant.^   The  Popes  not  bavmg  legates  eve^r  where 
and  wishing,  besides,  to  treat  the  bishops  with  some  respect, 
beean  by  addressing  to  them  letters  of  recommendation  in  fa- 
vou'  of  those  persons  for  whom  they  were  anxious  to  procure 
benefices.     These  letters  becoming  too  frequent  and  importu- 
nate, the  bishops  ventured  to  refuse  their  compliance  ;  on  which 
the  Popes  began  to  change  their  recommendations  into  orders 
i     or  mandates ;  and  appointed  commissioners  to  enforce  their 
!     execTon  by  means  of  ecclesiastical  censures.     These  man- 
i     dates  were  succeeded  by  the  GrAces  Expectattres,  which    pro- 
i     perlv  speaking,  were  nothing  else  than  mandates  issued  for  be- 
Telke^^whose  titulars  or  incumbents  were  yet  alive.     Lastly 
appeared  the  Reservation,,  which  were  distinguished  into  ge- 
nSal  and  special.     The  first  general  reservation  was  that  o 
benefices  becoming  vacant  by  the  incumbents  dying  at  'he  Court 
of  Rome.     This    was   introduced  by   Pope  Clement  IV     m 
1266,  in  order  to  exclude  for  ever  the  bishops  from  the  right  o! 
concurrence  and  prevention  in  benefices  of  thnt  kind. 


Im 


IV' 


nination  and 
e  principle  ol 
tals;  accord- 
tes  from  the 
[t  is  from  the 
tn  of  authori* 
he  does  not 
them;  but  is 
1  the  exercise » 
ler. 

!  a  very  plau- 
I  to  benefices. 
I  essential  to 
at  the  Pope, 
;oncur  in  the 
ollation  to  be- 
,  Innocent  III. 
itiff  that  made 
rith  regard  to 
death  of  their      > 
hich  cases  it 
hops.     In  the    p 
!  dioceses,  by    j 
jr  the  different 

he  provisional  \ 
lary  grants  or  ! 
Ts  before  they  j 
i  every  where,    } 

some  respect, 
iindation  in  fa*    i 
)U8  to  procure    j 
t  and  importu- 
ince  ;  on  which     j 
ins  into  orders     | 
I  enforce  their 
These  man- 
's, which,  pro- 
5  issued  for  be- 

alive.  Lastly 
iiished  into  ge- 
on  was  that  of 
ing  at  the  Court 
!lement  IV.  in  ; 
•om  the  right  of 
kind. 


P8KI0D  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300. 


116 


This  first  reservation  was  the  forerunner  of  several  others, 
such  as  the  reservation  of  all  cathedral  churches,  abbeys,  and 
priories  ;  as  also  of  the  highest  dignities  in  cathedral  and  colle- 
giate churches ;  and  of  all  collective  benefices,  becoming  vacant 
during  eight  months  in  the  year,  called  the  Pope's  months,  so 
that  only  four  months  remained  for  the  ordinary  collators ;  and 
these  too,  encroached  upon  by  mandates,  expectatives,  and  re- 
servations. The  Popes  having  thus  seized  the  nomination  to 
episcopal  dignities,  it  followed,  by  a  simple  and  natural  process, 
that  the  con/irmation  of  all  prelates,  without  distinction,  was  in 
like  manner  reserved  for  them.  It  would  have  even  been  reck- 
oned a  breach  of  decorum  to  aJJr'-  ?  an  archbishop,  demanding 
from  him  the  confirmation  of  a  bishop  nominated  by  the  Pope  ; 
so  that  this  point  of  common  right,  which  vested  the  confirma- 
tion of  every  prelate  in  his  immediate  superior,  was  also  anni- 
hilated  ;  and  the  Romish  See  was  at  length  acknowledged  ovei 
the  whole  Western  world,  as  the  only  source  of  all  jurisdiction, 
end  all  ecclesiastical  power. 

An  extraordinary  event,  the  offspring  of  that  superstitious  age, 
served  still  more  to  increase  the  power  of  the  Popes ;  and  that 
was  the  Crusades,  which  the  nations  of  Europe  undertook,  at 
their  request  and  by  their  orders,  for  the  conquest  of  Palestine 
or  the  Holy  Land.     These  expeditions,  known  by  the  name  of 
Holy  Wars,  because  religion  was  made  the  pretext  or  occasion 
of  them,  require  a  somewhat  particular  detail,  not  merely  of  the 
circumstances  that  accompanied  them,  but  also  of  the  changes 
which  they  introduced  into  the  moral  and  political  condition  of 
society.     Pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  which  were  in  use  from 
the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity,  had  become  very  frequent  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.     The  opinion  which  then 
very  generally  prevailed,  that  the  end  of  the  world  was  at  hand, 
induced  vast  numbers  of  Christians  to  sell  their  possessions  in 
Europe,  in  order  that  they  might  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land, 
there  to  await  the  coming  of  the  Lord.     So  long  as  the  Arabs 
were  masters  of  Palestine,  they  protected  these  pilgrimages, 
from  which  they  derived  no  small  emoluments.     But  when  the 
Seljukian  Turks,  a  barbarous  and  ferocious  people,  had  con- 
quered that  country  (1075)  under  the  Caliphs  of  Egypt,  the  pil- 
grims saw  themselves  exposed  to  every  kind  of  insult  and  op- 
pression.*    The  lamentable  accounts  which  they  gave  of  these 
outrages  on  their  return  to  Europe,  excited  the  general  indigna- 
tion, and  gave  birth  to  the  romantic  notion  of  expelling  these 
Infidels  from  the  Holy  Land. 

Gregory  VII.  was  the  projector  of  this  grand  scheme.     He 
addressed  circular  letters  to  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and 


.'ir 


,  1 


■ 

1 

1;! 

■ 

i  1^  ■■'     I 


I 


«■! 


fV 


3^ 


r 


116 


CHAPTEK    V. 


\!': 


ft 


invited  them  to  make  a  general  crusade  against  the  Turks. 
Meantime,  however,  more  nressing  inlerest>«,  and  his  quarrels 
with  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  obliged  him  to  defer  the  projected 
enterprise  ;  but  his  attention  was  soon  recalled  to  it  by  the  re- 
presentation of  a  pilgrim,  called  Peter  the  Hermit  a  native  of 
Amiens  in  Picardy.     Furnished  with  letters  from  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem  to  the  Pope  and  the  princes  of  the  We^t,  this 
ardent  fanatic  traversed  the  whole  of  Italy,  France,  and  yerma. 
ny  •  preaching  every  where,  and  representing,  m  the  liveliest 
colours,  the  profanation  of  the  sacred  places,  and  the  miserable 
condition  of  the  Christians  and  poor  pilgrims  in  the  holy  Land. 
It  proved  no  difficult  task  for  him  to  impart  to  others  the  fanati- 
cism with  which  he  was  himself  animated.     His  zeal  was  pow- 
erfully seconded  by  Pope  Urban  II.,  who  repaired  "»  person  to 
France,  where  he  convoked  the  council  of  Clermont  (1096,)  and 
pronounced,  in  full  assembly,  a  pathetic  harangue,  at  the  close 
of  which  they  unanimously  resolved  on  the  Holy  War.     It  was 
decreed,  that  all  who  should  enrol  their  names  in  this  sacred 
militia,  should  wear  a  red  cross  on  their  right  shoulder :  that 
they  should  enjoy  plenary  indulgence,  and  obtain  remission  of 

all  their  sins.  , 

From  that  time  the  pulpits  of  Europe  resounded  writh  exhor- 
tations to  the  crusades.  People  of  every  rank  and  condition 
were  seen  flocking  in  crowds  to  assume  the  signal  of  the  cross ; 
and,  in  the  following  year,  innumerable  bands  of  crusaders,  from 
the  diflerent  countries  of  Europe,  set  out,  one  after  another  on 
this  expedition  to  the  East.'  The  only  exception  was  the  Ger- 
mans, who  partook  but  feebly  of  this  universal  enthusiasm,  on 
account  of  the  disputes  which  then  subsisted  between  the  Em- 
peror and  the  court  of  Rome.'*  The  three  or  four  first  divisions 
of  the  crusaders,  under  the  conduct  oi  chiefs,  who  had  neither 
name  nor  experience,  marched  without  order  and  without  disci- 
pline ;  pillaging,  burning,  and  wasting  the  countries  through 
which  they  passed.  Most  of  them  perished  from  fatigue,  hun- 
ger, or  sickness,  or  by  the  sword  of  the  exasperated  nations, 
whose  territories  they  had  laid  desolate." 

To  these  unwarlike  and  undisciplined  troops  succeeded  regu- 
.ar  armies,  commanded  by  experienced  officers,  and  powerful 
princes.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (1096,)  Duke  of  Lorrain,  accom- 
panied by  his  brother  Baldwin,  and  hi.  cousin  Baldwin  ofBoutg, 
with  a  vast  retinue  of  noblemen,  put  himself  at  the  head  ofthe 
first  body  of  crusaders.  He  directed  his  march  through  Ger- 
;  many,  Hungary,  and  Bulgaria,  towards  Constantinople,  and 
I  was  soon  followed  by  several  French  princes,  such  as  "ilugh  the 
Great,  brother  of  Philip  I.  King  of  France.;  Robert  Duke  of 


mmmHmllm 


Ij 


it  the  TiiAs. 
1  his  quarrels 
the  projected 
n  it  hy  the  re- 
it,  a  native  of    , 
the  Patriarch    , 
the  West,  this    , 
B,  and  Germa- 
1  the  liveliest 
the  miserable 
he  Holy  Land, 
lers  the  fanati- 
zeal  was  pow- 
■d  in  person  to 
)nt  (1096,)  and 
ue,  at  the  close 
^  War.    It  was 
I  in  this  sacred 
shoulder :  that 
in  remission  of 

led  with  exhor- 

and  condition 
of  the  cross ; 

rusaders,  from 
fter  another,  on 
on  was  the  Ger- 

enthusiasm,  on 
'tween  the  Em- 
ar  first  divisions 
vho  had  neither 
without  disci- 
untries  through 
)m  fatigue,  hun- 

)erated  nations, 

succeeded  regu- 

fl,  and  powerful 

jorrain,  accom- 

IdwinofBourg, 

V  the  head  of  the 

ch  through  Ger- 

istantinople,  and 

uch  as  Hugh  the 

Robert  Duke  of 


W! 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074 — 1300. 


117 


Normandy,  son  of  William  the  Conqueror  ;  Stephen  VI.,  Count 
of  Blois  ;  Eustace  of  Boulosrne,  brolner  to  Godfrey  de  Bouillon, 
and  Robert  Count  of  Flanders,  who  all  preferred  the  route  by 
Italy.  They  passed  the  winter  in  the  environs  of  Bari,  Brin- 
disi,  and  Otranto  ;  and  did  not  embark  for  Greece  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Boemond,  Prince  of  Tarentum,  son  to  Roger, 
Earl  of  Sicily,  at  the  instigation  of  the  French  grandees,  took 
the  cross,  after  their  example,  and  carried  with  him  into  the 
East  the  flower  of  the  Normans,  and  the  noblesse  uf  Sicily, 
Apulia,  and  Calabria.  Lastly,  Raymond  IV.,  Count  of  Tou- 
louse, accompanied  by  the  Bishop  of  Puy,  traversed  Lombardy, 
Friuli,  and  Dalmatia,  on  his  passage  to  the  Holy  Land. 

The  general  rendezvous  of  the  crusaders  was  at  Chalcedon 
in  Bythinia.  It  is  supposed  that  their  forces  united,  amounted 
to  six  hundred  thousand  combatants.  They  commenced  their 
exploits  with  the  siege  of  Nice,  capital  of  the  empire  of  Roum, 
,of  which  thev  made  themselves  master,  after  having  repulsed  the 
Turks  who  had  advanced  under  the  command  of  the  Sultan 
Kili-Arslan,  the  son  of  Soliman,  premier  sultan  of  Roum.  Ano- 
ther victory  gained  over  the  same  sultan  (1097)  in  the  Gorgo- 
nian  valley  in  Bythinia,  opened  for  the  crusaders  a  passage  into 
Syria.  There  they  undertook  the  siege  of  the  strong  city  of 
Antioch,  which  they  carried  after  an  immense  loss  of  lives  (1098.) 
Having  at  length  arrived  in  Palestine,  they  planned  the  attack 
of  Jerusalem,  which  the  Caliph  of  Egypt  had  just  recovered 
from  the  Turks  ;  and  which  the  crusaders,  in  their  turn,  carried 
by  assault  from  the  Egyptians  (1099.)  This  city  was  declared 
the  capital  of  a  new  kingdom,  the  sovereignty  of"^ which  was  be- 
stowed on  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  though  he  refused  to  take  the 
title  of  king.  This  famous  prince  extended  his  conquests  by  a 
splendid  victory,  which  lit  gained  that  same  year  near  Ascalon, 
over  the  Caliph  of  Egypt.  On  his  death,  his  brother  Baldwin 
succeeded  him,  and  transmitted  the  throne  to  his  cousin  Bald- 
win of  Bourg,  whose  posterity  reigned  in  Jerusalem  until  the 
destruction  of  that  kingdom  by  Saladin  (1187.) 

Besides  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  which  comprehended  Pa- 
lestine, with  the  cities  of  Sidon,  Tyre,  and  Ptolemais,  the  cri* 
saders  founded  several  other  states  in  the  East.  The  earldom 
of  Edessa,  first  conquered  by  Baldwin,  brother  of  Godfrey, 
passed  to  several  French  princes  in  succession  until  the  year 
1144,  when  it  was  subdued  by  Atabek-Zenghi  commonly  called 
Sanguin.  The  principality  of  Antioch  fell  to  the  share  of  Boe- 
mond, prince  of  Tarentum,  whose  heirs  and  descendants  added 
to  it,  in  1188,  the  County  of  Tripoli,  which  had  been  founded 
(1110)  by  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  one  of  the  crusaders. 


!l 


B'' 


;* 


;s 


[? 


1 1 

I 


lla  CHAPTBR  V. 

But  they  were  deprived  both  of  the  one  and  the  other  of  these 
sovereignties  by  the  Mamelukes  in  1268,  w  ho  afterwards  (1289) 
conquered  Antioch  and  Tripoli.  Lastly,  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus 
which  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion,  King  of  England,  took  from  the 
Greeks  (1191,)  was  surrendered  by  that  prince  to  Guy  de  Lu- 
signan,  whose  posterity  reigned  in  Cyprus  till  the  year  1487, 
when  that  island  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  republic  of 

V  6niC6 

The  transient  duration  of  these  diflPerent  states,  presents  no- 
thin|  suprising.  The  Christians  of  the  East,  disunited  among 
themselves,  surrounded  on  all  hands,  and  incessantly  attacked 
by  powerful  nations,  found  themselves  too  remote  from  Europe 
to  obtain  from  that  quarter  any  prompt  or  eflfective  succour.  It 
was,  therefore,  impossible  for  them  long  to  withstand  the  efTorts 
of  the  Mahometans,  who  were  animated  as  well  as  the  Chris- 
tians by  a  sectarian  zeal,  which  led  them  to  conibine  their  forces 
against  the  enemies  of  their  religion  and  their  prophet.  The 
enthusiasm  of  religious  wars  did  not  however  become  extinct 
until  nearly  two  centuries.  It  was  encouraged  and  supported 
by  the  numerous  privileges  which  popes  and  sovereigns  con- 
ferred on  the  invaders,  and  by  the  rich  endowments  that  were 
made  in  their  favour.  All  Europe  continued  to  be  in  motion, 
and  all  its  principal  sovereigns  marched  in  their  turn  to  the 
East,  either  to  attempt  new  conquests,  or  maintain  those  which 
the  first  crusaders  had  achieved. 

Six  grand  crusades  succeeded  to  the  first ;  all  of  which  were 
either  fruitless,  or  at  least  without  any  important  and  durable 
success.     Conrad  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  Louis  VII., 
King  of  France,  undertook  the  second  (1147,)  on  account  of  the 
conquests  of  Atabek-Zenghi,  who,  three  years  before,  had  made 
himlelf  master  of  Edessa.     The  third  (1189)  was  headed  by 
the  Emperor  Frederic  I.,  surnamed  Barbarossa ;  Philip  Augus- 
tus King  of  France;  and  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion  of  England; 
and  the  occasion  of  it,  was  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  the  fa- 
mous Saladin  (1187.)     The  fourth  was  undertaken  (1202,)  at 
the  pressing  instigation  of  Innocent  III.    Several  of  the  French 
and  German  nobility  uniting  with  the  Venetians,  assumed  the 
cross  under  the  command  of  Boniface,  Marquis  of  Montferrat ; 
but  instead  of  marching  to  Palestine,  they  ended  their  expedi- 
tion by  taking  Constantinople  from  the  Greeks.     The  fifth  cru- 
sade (1217)  was  conducted  by  Andrew,  King  of  Hungary,  at- 
tended by  many  of  the  princes  and  nobility  of  Germany,  who 
had  enlisted  under  the  banner  of  the  Cross  in  consequence  of 
the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Lateran  (1215.)     The  Emperor 
Frederic  II.  undertook  the  sixth  (1228.)     By  a  treaty  which  he 


I     c 

e 

(( 

i 


mmm 


•WM 


jther  of  these 
rwards  (1289) 
om  of  Cyprus 
took  from  the 

0  Guy  de  Lu- 
18  year  1487, 
«  republic  of 

I,  presents  no- 
lunited  amone    , 
antly  attacked    | ' 
>  from  Europe    , 
e  succour.     It    | 
and  the  efforts    { 

1  as  the  Chris- 
ne  their  forces 
prophet.  The 
}ecome  extinct 
and  supported 
lovereigns  con- 
lents  that  were  \ 
p  be  in  motion,  | 
eir  turn  to  the  i 
in  those  which    , 

of  which  were  j 
nt  and  durable 
nd  Louis  VII., 
.  account  of  the 
)fore,  had  made 
was  headed  by 
;  Philip  Augus- 
n  of  England; 
ilem  by  the  fa- 

aken  (1202,)  at 
il  of  the  French 

8,  assumed  the 

of  Montfenat ; 

id  their  expedi- 
The  fifth  cru- 
■  Hungary,  at- 

Germany,  who 

consequence  of 
The  Emperof 

treaty  which  ha 


PKRiOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300. 


119 


concluded  with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  he  obtained  the  restoration 
of  Jerusalem  and  several  other  cities  of  Palestine ;  although 
they  did  not  long  continue  iti  his  possession.  The  Carizniian 
Turks,  oppressed  by  the  Moguls,  seized  on  the  Holy  Land 
(1244,)  and  pillaged  and  burnt  Jerusalem.  That  famous  city, 
together  with  the  greater  part  of  Palestine,  fell  afterwards  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Sultans  of  Egypt. 

The  seventh  and  last  grand  crusade,  was  undertaken  by  Louis 
IX.  King  of  France  (1248.)  He  conceived  it  necessary  to  be- 
gin his  conquests  by  that  of  Egypt;  but  his  design  completely 
miscarried.  Being  made  prisoner  with  his  army  after  the  action 
at  Mansoura  (1250,)  he  only  obtained  his  liberty  by  restoring 
Damietta,  and  paying  a  large  ransom  to  the  Sultan  of  Egypt. 
The  unfortunate  issue  of  this  last  expedition,  slackened  the  zeal 
of  the  Europeans  for  crusading.  Still,  however,  they  retained 
two  important  places  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  the  cities  of  Tyre 
and  Ptolemais.  But  these  places  having  been  conquered  by  the 
Mamelukes  (1291,)  there  was  no  longer  any  talk  about  crusades 
to  the  East ;  and  all  the  attempts  of  the  Court  of  Kome  to  revive 
them  proved  ineffectual. 

It  now  remains  for  us  briefly  to  notice  the  effects  which  re- 
sulted from  the  crusades,  with  regard  to  the  social  and  political 
state  of  the  nations  in  Western  Europe.  One  consequence  of 
these,  was  the  aggrandizement  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs,  who, 
during  the  whole  period  of  the  crusades,  played  the  part  of  su- 
preme chiefs  and  sovereign  masters  of  Christendom.  It  was  at 
their  request,  as  we  have  seen,  that  those  religious  wars  were 
undertaken ;  it  was  they  who  directed  them  by  means  of  their 
legates, — who  compelled  emperors  and  kings,  by  the  terror  of 
their  spiritual  arms,  to  march  under  the  banner  of  the  Crosb — 
who  taxed  the  clergy  at  their  pleasure,  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  these  distant  expeditions, — who  took  under  their  immediate 
protection  the  persons  and  effects  of  the  Crusaders,  and  eman- 
cipated them,  by  means  of  special  privileges,  from  all  depend- 
ence on  any  power,  civil  or  judiciary.  The  wealth  of  the  clergy 
was  considerably  increased  during  the  time  of  which  we  spe^, 
both  by  the  numerous  endowments  which  took  place,  and  by 
the  acquisition  which  the  Church  made  of  the  immense  landed 
property  which  the  pious  owners  sold  them  on  assuming  the 
badge  of  the  Cross. 

These  advantages  which  the  See  of  Rome  drew  from  the 
crusades  in  the  East,  were  inducements  to  undertake  similar 
expeditions  in  the  West  and  North  of  Europe.  In  these  quar- 
ters we  find  that  the  wars  of  the  cross  were  carried  on,  1. 
Against  the  Mahometans  of  Spain  and  Africa.    2   Against  the 


ir 


(  ,    I- 


■«. 


I!|il'^. 


'I 


'  !    - 

'  i 

ii 

h 


130 


CHAPTER   v. 


Emperors  and  King!)  who  refused  obedience  to  the  orders  of  the 
Popes. ''^  3.  Against  heretical  or  schismatic  princes,  such  as  the 
Greeks  and  Russinns.  4.  Against  the  Slavonians  and  other 
Pagan  nations,  on  the  coasts  of  the  Bahic.  6.  Against  the 
Waldenses,  Aibigenses,  and  Hussites,  who  were  regarded  as 
heretics.     6.  Against  the  Turks. 

If  the  result  of  the  crusades  was  advantageous  to  the  hier- 
archy, if  it  served  to  aggrandize  the  power  of  the  Roman  Pon- 
tiffs, it  must,  on  the  contrary,  have  proved  obviously  prejudicial 
to  the  authority  of  the  secular  princes.  It  was  in  fact  during 
this  period  that  the  power  of  the  emperors,  both  in  Germany 
and  Italy,  was  sapped  to  the  very  foundation ;  that  the  royal 
house  of  Hohenstaufen  sunk  under  the  determined  efforts  of  the 
Court  of  Rome ;  and  that  the  federal  system  of  the  Empire  gained 
gradual  accessions  of  strength.  In  England  and  Hungary,  we 
observe  how  the  grandees  seized  on  the  opportunity  to  increase 
their  own  power.  The  former  took  advantage  of  their  sove- 
reign's absence  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  the  latter  of  the  protec- 
tion which  they  received  from  the  Popes,  to  claim  new  privi- 
leges and  extort  charters,  such  as  they  did  from  John  of  England, 
and  Andrew  II.  of  Hungary,  tending  to  cripple  and  circumscribe 
the  royal  authority. 

In  France,  however,  the  result  was  different.  There,  the 
kings  Vieing  freed,  by  means  of  the  crusades,  from  a  crowd  of 
restless  and  turbulent  vassals  who  often  threw  the  kingdom  into 
a  state  of  faction  and  discord,  were  left  at  liberty  to  extend  their 
prerogatives,  and  turn  the  scale  of  power  in  their  own  favour. 
They  even  considerably  augmented  their  royal  and  territorial 
revenues,  either  by  purchasing  lands  and  fiefs  from  the  proprie- 
tors who  had  armed  in  the  cause  of  the  cross ;  or  by  annexing 
to  the  crown  the  estates  of  those  who  died  in  the  Holy  Land, 
without  leaving  feudal  heirs  ;  or  by  seizing  the  forfeitures  oi 
others  who  were  persecuted  by  religious  fanaticism,  as  heretics 
or  abettors  of  heresy.  Finally,  the  Christian  kings  of  Spain, 
the  sovereigns  of  the  North,  the  Knights  of  the  Teutonic  order, 
and  of  Livonia,  joined  the  crusades  recommended  by  the  Popes, 
itom  the  desire  of  conquest;  the' former,  to  subdue  the  Ma- 
hometans in  Spain,  and  the  others  to  vanquish  the  Pagan 
nations  of  the  North,  the  Slavonians,  Finns,  Livonians,  Prus- 
sians, Lithuanians,  and  Courlanders. 

It  is  to  the  crusades,  in  like  manner,  that  Europe  owes  the 
use  of  surnames,  as  well  as  of  armorial  bearings,  and  heraldry.  " 
It  is  easy  to  perceive,  that  among  these  innumerable  armies  of 
crusaders,  composed  of  different  nations  and  languages,  some 
mark  or  symbol  was  necessary,  in  order  to  distinguish  particular 


orders  of  the 

;,  such  as  the 

IS  and  other 

Against  the 

regarded  as 

s  to  the  hier- 
Roman  Pon- 
ly  prejudicial 
n  fact  during 
I  in  Germany 
liat  the  royal 
eflforts  of  the 
Empire  gained 
Hungary,  we 
ty  to  increase 
)f  their  sove- 
a(  the  protec- 
im  new  privi- 
n  of  England, 
1  circumscribe 

There,  the 

)m  a  crowd  of 

kingdom  into 

o  extend  their 

ir  own  favour. 

ind  territorial 

n  the  proprie- 

r  by  annexing 

le  Holy  Land, 

forfeitures  oi 

m,  as  heretics 

ngs  of  Spain, 

eutonic  order, 

by  the  Popes, 

)due  the  Ma- 

the  Pagan 

onians,  Prus- 

rope  owes  the 
nd  heraldry.  " 
ible  armies  of 
jguages,  some 
uish  particulu 


FIRIOD  IV,     A.  D.  1074—1300. 


121 


iiiitinnH,  or  signalize  their  commanders.  Surnames  nnd  coins 
of  arms  were  employed  as  these  distinctive  badges;  the  latter 
especially  were  invented  to  serve  as  rallying  points,  for  the  vas- 
sals and  troops  of  the  crusading  chiefs.  Necessity  first  intro- 
duced them,  and  vanity  afterwards  caused  them  to  be  retained. 
These  coats  of  nrms  were  hoisted  on  their  standards,  the  knights 
got  them  emblazoned  on  their  shields,  and  appeared  with  them 
at  tournaments.  Even  those  who  had  never  been  at  the  cru- 
sades, became  ambitious  of  these  distinctions  ;  which  may  be 
considered  as  permanently  established  in  families,  from  about 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  same  enthusiasm  that  inspired  the  Europeans  for  the 
crusades,  contributed  in  like  manner  to  bring  tournaments  into 
vogue.  In  these  solemn  and  military  sports,  the  young  noblesse 
wore  trained  to  violent  exercises,  and  to  the  management  of 
heavy  arms  ;  so  as  to  gain  them  some  reputation  for  valour,  and 
to  insure  their  superiority  in  war.  In  order  to  be  admitted  to 
these  tournaments  it  was  necessary  to  be  of  noble  blood,  nnd  to 
show  proofs  of  their  nobility.  The  origin  of  these  feats  is  ge- 
nerally traced  back  to  the  end  of  the  tenth,  or  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  century.  Geoffrey  of  Preuilly,  whotn  the  writers 
of  the  middle  ages  cite  as  being  the  inventor  of  them,  did  no 
more,  properly  speaking,  than  draw  up  their  code  of  regula- 
tions. France  was  the  country  from  which  the  practice  o 
tournaments  diffused  itself  over  ail  other  nations  of  Europe. 
They  were  very  frequent,  during  all  the  time  that  the  crusading 
mania  lasted. 

To  this  same  epoch  belongs  the  institution  of  Religious  and 
Military  Orders.  These  were  originally  established  for  the 
purpose  of  defending  the  new  Christian  States  in  the  East,  for 
protecting  pilgrims  on  their  journey,  taking  care  of  them  when 
sick,  &c.;  and  the  vast  wealth  which  they  acquired  in  most  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Europe,  preserved  their  existence  long  after  the 
loss  of  the  Holy  Land  ;  and  some  of  these  orders  even  made 
a  conspicuous  figure  in  the  political  history  of  the  Western 
nations. 

Of  all  these,  the  first  and  most  distinguished  was  the  Ordet 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  called  afterwards  the  Order  of  Mal- 
ta. Prior  to  the  first  crusade,  there  had  existed  at  Jerusalem  a 
church  of  the  Latin  or  Romish  liturgy,  dedicated  to  St.  Mary, 
and  founded  by  some  merchants  of  Amalfi  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  There  was  also  a  monastery  of  the  Order  of  St.  Be- 
nedict, and  n  hospital  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  or  afflicted  pil 
grims.  This  hospital,  the  directors  of  which  were  appointed 
by  the  Abbot  of  St.  Mary's,  having  in  a  very  short  time  become 


iM 


132 


CMAPTBR   V. 


)■ 


ft* 


immensely  rich  by  numerous  donations  of  lands  and  B«>ignoric8, 
both  in  Europe  and  Palestine,  one  of  its  governors  named  Ge- 
rard, a  native  of  Martigues  in  Provence,  as  is  alleged,  took  the 
regular  habit  (1100,)  and  formed  with  his  brethren  a  distinct 
congregation,  under  the  name  and  protection  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist.  Pope  Pascal  II.,  by  u  bull  issued  in  1114,  approved 
of  this  new  establishment,  and  ordained,  that  after  the  death  of 
Gerard,  the  Hospitallers  alone  should  have  the  election  of  their 
superintendent.  Raymond  du  Puy,  a  gentleman  from  Dau- 
phin*!, and  successor  to  Gerard,  was  the  first  that  took  the  title 
of  Grand  Master,  .ie  prescribed  a  rule  for  the  Hospitallers  ; 
and  Pope  Culixtus  li.,  in  approving  of  this  rule  (1120,)  divided 
the  members  of  the  order  into  three  classes.  The  nobles,  called 
Knights  of  Justice,  were  destined  for  the  profession  of  arms, 
making  war  on  the  Infidels,  and  protecting  pilgrims.  The 
priests  and  chaplains,  selected  from  the  respectable  citizens, 
were  intrusted  with  functions  purely  ecclesiastical ;  while  the 
serving  brethren,  who  formed  the  third  class,  were  charged  with 
the  care  of  sick  pilgrims,  and  likewise  to  act  in  the  capacity  of 
soldiers.  These  new  knights  were  known  by  the  name  of 
Knights  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  and  were  dis- 
tinguished by  wearing  a  white  octagon  cross  on  a  black  habit. 

After  the  final  loss  of  the  Holy  Land,  this  order  established 
themselves  in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus.  From  this  they  passed  into 
Rhodes,  which  they  had  conquered  from  the  Infidels  (1310.) 
This  latter  island  they  kept  possession  of  till  1322 ;  and  being 
then  expelled  by  Soliman  the  Great,  they  obtained  (1530)  from 
Charles  V.,  the  munificent  grant  of  the  Isle  of  Malta,  under  the 
express  terms  of  making  war  against  the  Infidels.  Of  this  place 
they  were  at  length  deprived  by  Buonaparte  in  1798. 

The  order  of  Templars  followed  nearly  that  of  St.  John.  Its 
first  founders  (1119)  were  some  French  gentlemen;  the  chief 
of  whom  were  Hugo  de  Payens,  and  Geoflrey  de  St.  Omer. 
Having  made  a  declaration  of  their  vows  before  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  they  took  upon  themselves  the  special  charge  of 
maintaining  free  passage  and  safe  conduct  for  the  pilgrims  to 
the  Holy  Land.  Baldwin,  king  of  Jerusalem,  assigned  them 
an  apartment  in  hia  palace,  near  the  temple,  whence  they  took 
the  name  of  Knights  of  the  Temple,  and  Templars.  They  ob- 
tained from  Pope  Honorius  II.  (1120)  a  rule,  with  a  white  habit; 
to  which  Eugene  III.  added  a  red  cross  octagon.  This  order, 
af^er  accumulating  vast  wealth  and  riches,  especially  in  France, 
and  distinguishing  themselves  by  their  military  exploiu  for 
nearly  two  centuries,  were  at  length  suppressed  by  the  CounciJ 
of  Vienna  (1312.) 


i 


.initmiuBMitji 


ind  seignoriet,    | 
)rs  named  Ge- 
eged,  took  the 
hrcn  a  distinct 
r  St.  John  the 
[114,  approved 
>r  the  death  of 
lection  of  their 
an  frnm  Dau> 
t  took  the  tide 
>  Flospitallers ; 
[1120,)  divided 
e  nobles,  called 
ssion  of  arms, 
ilgrims.     The 
ctable  citizens, 
cal ;  while  the 
'e  charged  with 
the  capacity  of 
!  ihe  name  of 
1,  and  were  dis- 
\  black  habit, 
der  established 
lev  passed  into 
Infidels  (1310.) 
122 ;  and  being 
ed  (1530)  from 
alta,  under  the 
Of  this  place 
798. 

St.  John.   Its 

nen;  the  chief 

de  St.  Omer. 

the  Patriarch 

scial  charge  of 

the  pilgrims  to 

assigned  them 

snce  they  took 

irs.    They  ob- 

a  white  habit ; 

This  order, 

ally  in  France, 

■y  exploits  for 

by  the  Council 


r 


PKBIOO  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300. 


U8 


The  Teutonic  order,  according  to  the  most  probable  opinion, 
took  its  origin  in  the  camp  before  Acre,  or  Ptolemais.  The 
honour  of  it  is  ascribed  to  some  charitable  citizens  of  Bremen 
and  Lubec,  who  erected  a  hospital  or  tent  with  the  sails  of  their 
vessels,  for  the  relief  of  the  numerous  sick  and  wounded  of  their 
nation.  Several  German  gentlemen  having  joined  in  this  esta- 
blishment, they  devoted  themselves  by  a  vow  to  the  service  of 
the  sick ;  as  also  to  the  defence  of  the  Holy  Land  against  the 
Infidels.  This  order,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights  of  St.  Mary  of  Jerusalem,  received  confirmation  from 
Pope  Celestin  III.  (1192,)  who  prescribed  for  them  the  rule  of 
the  Hospital  of  St.  John,  with  regard  to  their  attendance  on  the 
sick;  and  with  regard  to  chivalry  or  knighthood,  that  of  the 
order  of  Templars.  Henry  Walpott  de  Passcnheim  was  the 
first  grand  naster  of  the  order;  and  the  new  knights  assumed 
the  white  habit,  with  ablack  cross, to  distinguish  them  from  the 
other  orders.  It  was  under  their  fourth  grand  master,  Hermann 
de  Saltza  (1230,)  that  they  passed  into  Prussia,  which  they 
conquered  (1309.)  They  fixed  their  chief  residence  at  Marien- 
burg;  but  having  lost  Prussia  in  consequence  of  a  change  in 
the  religious  sentiments  of  their  grand  master,  Albert  de  Bran- 
denburg  (1^8,)  they  transferred  their  capital  to  Mergentheim 
in  Franconia. 

A  fourth  order  of  Hospitallers  founded  in  the  Holy  Land,  was 
(hat  of  St.  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem,  who  had  for  their  principal 
object  the  treatment  of  lepers  ;'*  and  who,  in  process  of  time, 
from  a  medical,  became  a  military  order.  After  having  long 
resided  in  the  East,  where  they  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
Holy  wars,  they  followed  St.  Louis  into  France  (1254,)  and 
fixed  their  chief  seat  at  Boigny,  near  Orleans.  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  united  them  with  the  order  of  St.  Maurice,  in  Savoy; 
and  Henry  IV.  with  that  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel,  in 
France.  On  the  model,  and  al\er  the  example  of  these  four 
military  orders,  several  others  were  founded  in  succession,  in 
various  kingdoms  of  Europe.'-''  All  these  institutions  contri- 
buted greatly  to  the  renown  of  chivalry,  so  famous  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  origin  of  this  latter  institution  is  earlier  than  the 
times  of  which  we  now  speak,  and  seems  to  belong  to  the  tenth, 
or  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  anarchy  of  feu- 
dalism being  then  at  its  height,  and  robberies  and  private  quar^ 
rels  every  where  prevailing,  several  noble  and  distinguished 
individuals,  devoted  themselves,  by  a  solemn  vow,  according  to 
the  genius  of  the  times,  to  the  defence  of  religion  and  its  minis- 
ters ;  as  also  of  the  fair  sex,  and  of  every  person  sufTering  from 
distress  or  oppression     From  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 


»       \ 


',  If  i 


H 


i, 

V       > 

*. 

.f**- 

Mi 


i 


*)it 


I) 


1 1 


124 


CMAPTSR    V. 


to  tho  timo  when  the  crufincles  begnn,  wr  find  chivalry,  with  itn 
pomp  and  its  ceremonies,  tstnbli^hed  in  nil  the  principal  ntates 
of  Europe.  This  9alutury  institution,  by  in!<pirin((  the  mindn 
of  men  with  new  enerijy,  gave  birth  to  many  illu^triouii  chn- 
nicterB.  It  tended  to  repress  the  disorders  of  anarchy,  to  revive 
order  and  law,  and  establish  a  new  relationship  among  the  na- 
tions of  Eiiroi)e. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said,  that  these  ultra-marine  expeditions, 
prosecuted  with  obstinacy  for  nearly  two  hundred  years,  hasten- 
ed the  progress  of  arts  and  civilization  in  Europe.  The  cru- 
saders, journeying  through  kingdoms  better  organized  than 
their  own,  and  observing  greater  refinement  in  their  laws  and 
manners,  were  necessarily  led  to  form  new  ideas,  and  acquire 
new  information  with  regard  to  science  and  politics.  Some 
vestiges  of  learning  and  good  taste  had  been  preserved  in  Greece, 
and  even  in  the  extremities  of  Asia,  where  letters  had  been 
encouraged  by  the  patronage  of  the  Caliphs.  The  city  of  Con- 
stantinople, which  had  not  yet  suffered  from  the  ravages  of  the 
barbarians,  abounded  in  the  finest  monuments  of  art.  It  pre- 
sented to  the  eyes  of  the  crusaders,  a  spectacle  of  grandeur  and 
Tiiagnificcnce  that  could  not  but  excite  their  admiration,  and  call 
forth  a  strong  desire  to  imitate  those  models,  the  sight  of  which 
ut  once  pleased  and  astonished  them.  To  the  Italians  especially, 
it  must  have  proved  of  great  advantage.  The  continued  inter- 
course which  they  maintained  with  the  East  and  the  city  oi 
Constantinople,  afforded  them  the  means  of  becoming  familiar 
with  the  language  and  literature  of  the  Greeks,  of  communica- 
ting the  same  taste  to  their  own  countrymen,  and  in  this  way 
advancing  the  glorious  epoch  of  the  revival  of  letters. 

About  the  same  time,  commerce  and  navigation  were  making 
considerable  progress.  The  cities  of  Italy,  such  as  Venice, 
Genoa,  Pisa,  and  others,  in  assisting  the  Crusaders  in  their  ope- 
rations, by  means  of  the  transports,  provisions,  and  warlike  stores 
with  which  they  furnished  them,  continued  to  secure  for  them- 
selves important  privileges  and  establishments  in  the  seaports 
of  the  Levant,  and  other  ports  in  the  Greek  empire.  Tbvir 
example  excited  the  industry  of  several  maritime  towns  in 
France,  and  taught  them  the  advantage  of  applying  their  atten- 
tion to  Eastern  commerce.  In  the  North,  the  cities  of  Ham- 
burgh and  Lubec,  formed,  about  the  year  1241,  as  is  generally 
supposed,  their  first  commercial  association,  which  afterwards 
became  so  formidable  under  the  name  of  the  Harueatic  League.^ 
The  staple  articles  of  these  latter  cities,  consisted  in  marine 
stores,  and  other  productions  of  the  North,  which  they  exchanged 
for  the  spicerics  of  the  Eaut,  and  the  manufactures  of  Italy  and 
the  Low  Countries. 


wmmmmmmmmmmm 


ilry,  with  it« 
ncipal  fltatcs 
g  ihc  mindR 
i<*triou8  cha- 
;hy,  to  revive 
long  the  na- 

>  expeditions) 
^ears,  hasten- 
e.     The  cru- 
|[anized   than 
leir  laws  and 
,  and  acquire 
litics.     Some 
ved  in  Greece, 
era  had  been 
e  city  of  Con- 
avages  of  the 
'  art.     It  pre- 
grandeur  and 
ation,  and  call 
light  of  which 
tns  especially, 
ntinued  inter- 
id  the  city  ol 
tning  familiar 
if  communica* 
in  this  way 
liters, 
were  making 
;h  as  VenicOi 
[s  in  their  ope* 
rarlike  stores 
:ure  for  them* 
the  seaports 
tpire.    Their 
towns  in 
ig  their  atten* 
s  of  Ham- 
IS  is  generally 
fch  afterwards 
tatic  Leagut.* 
led  in  marine 
ley  exchanged 
s  of  Italy  and 


PRRIOD  IV.      A.  0.  10T4 — 1306. 


13d 


"II 


The  projprpss  of  inJu.«iry,  iln-  proinciion  which  ."'ovprcignn 
exlondeu  to  it,  und  ihc  puins  ihcy  took  lo  chrck  ilio  di^ordiTs  of 
foudaliNiTi,  contributed  lo  the  pro:4pority  of  lowii^,  by  linily  aug- 
menting their  pnpulutioii  anil  llieir  wealth.  This  produced, 
about  the  liniPM  we  arc  spenkinj^  of,  an  ndvantn^eou)*  cban^fc  in 
the  civil  nnd  .social  coiulitioti  of  the  pensile,  'riirou^lutut  the 
principal  stales  of  Europe,  cities  bei,'ari,  after  the  Iwelflh  centu- 
ry, lo  erect  themselves  into  political  bodie.s,  and  lo  form,  by  de- 
grees, a  third  order,  di.^tinct  from  that  of  the  clergy  und  nobilily. 
Before  this  period,  the  inhabitants  of  town^  enjoyed  iieillier  civil 
nor  political  liberty.  Their  condition  was  very  little  better  than 
that  of  the  peasantry,  who  were  all  ^erfs,  attucheii  lo  the  soil. 
The  rights  of  cilizen.ship,  and  the  privileges  derived  from  it, 
were  reserved  for  the  clergy  and  the  noblesse.  The  Counts,  ni 
governorsi  of  cities,  by  rendering  their  power  hereditary,  had 
approurialed  to  themselves  the  rights  that  were  originally  oi- 
tachea  to  their  functions.  They  used  them  in  the  most  arbi- 
trary way,  and  loaded  the  inhabitants  with  every  kind  of  oppres- 
sion that  avarice  or  caprice  could  .suggest. 

At  length,  the  cities  which  were  either  the  most  oppressed, 
or  the  most  powerful,  rose  in  rebellion  against  this  intolerable 
yoke.  The  inhabitants  formed  themselves  into  confederations, 
to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Comiiiunes  or  Free  Corpora- 
tions.  Either  of  their  own  accord,  or  by  charters,  obtained  very 
often  on  burdensome  terms,  they  procured  for  themselves  a  free 
government,  which,  by  relieving  them  from  .servitude,  and  all 
impositions  and  arbitrary  exactions,  secured  them  personal  liberty 
and  the  possession  of  their  elTecls,  under  the  protection  of  their 
own  magistrates,  and  the  institution  of  a  militia,  or  city  guard. 
This  revolution,  one  of  the  most  important  in  Europe,  first  took 
place  in  Italy,  where  it  was  occasioned  by  the  frequent  inter- 
regnums that  occurred  in  Germany,  as  well  as  by  the  distur- 
bances that  rose  between  the  Empire  and  the  priesthood,  in  the 
eleventh  century.  The  anathemas  thundered  ^t^inst  Henry 
IV.,  by  absolving  the  subjects  from  the  obedience  they  owed 
their  sovereign,  served  as  a  pretext  to  the  cities  of  Italy  for 
shaking  ofT  the  authority  of  the  Imperial  viceroys,  or  bailifls. 
who  had  become  tyrants  instead  of  rulers,  and  for  establishin:; 
free  and  republican  governments.  In  this,  they  were  encoura- 
ged and  supported  by  the  protection  of  the  Roman  pontifls, 
whose  sole  aim  and  policy  was  the  abasement  of  the  Imperial 
authority. 

Before  this  period,  several  maritime  cities  of  Italy,  such  of 
Naples,  Amain,  Venice,  Pisa,  and  Genoa,  emboldened  by  the 
advantages  of  their  situation,  by  the  increase  of  their  populalior 


Z  «i 

i 

<»'.■. 


"4  '  ^ 


Il 


ifi 


f 


% 

I 


u 


1M 


CHAPriil   V. 


and  (neir  commerce,  hail  nirendy  qu.  'nripiited  themselves  fVom 
llio  Imp'.'rinI  yoke,  nnd  erected  tlternstlvcit  into  republicM,  Their 
nxiimpU'  WHS  followed  by  the  ciiies  oi  Lombnrdy  nnd  the  V'ene* 
tiitti  territory,  especiiilly  Milmi,  Pnvin,  Ajti,  Cremona,  Lodi, 
Cnino,  Furinn,  PIncf  ntin,  Veronii.  Pndun,  Sec.  All  thesn  citiei. 
atiiinutcd  with  the  cnthu!«ia!im  of  liberty,  adopted,  about  the  be* 
ginnin^^  of  the  twelfth  century,  consuls  nnd  popular  forms  of 
Uoverninent.  They  formed  a  kind  of  military  force,  or  city 
guord,  and  vested  m  themselvcoi  the  ri/fhts  of  royally,  and  the 
power  of  umkinj^,  in  their  own  name  and  authority,  alliances, 
wars,  and  treaties  of  pence.  From  Italy,  this  revolution  ex» 
tended  to  France  and  Uerrnnny,  tlie  Low  Countries,  and  Eng* 
land.  In  all  these  different  states,  the  use  of  Communes,  or 
boroughs,  was  established,  and  protected  by  the  sovereigns,  who 
f-mploycd  these  new  institutions  as  a  powerful  check  against 
the  encronchinents  and  tyranny  of  the  feudal  lords, 

III  Frniife,  Louis  the  Vat,  who  began  his  reign  in  1108,  was 
the  first  king  that  granted  rights,  or  constitutional  charters,  to 
certain  cities  within  his  domain,  cither  from  political  niotivei, 
or  the  allurement  of  money.  The  nobility,  after  his  example, 
eagerly  sold  liberty  to  their  subjects.  The  revolution  became 
general ;  the  cry  tor  liberty  was  raised  every  where,  and  into* 
rested  every  mind.  Throughout  all  the  provinces,  the  iiihabi* 
bants  of  cities  solicited  charters,  and  sometimes  without  waiting 
for  them,  they  formed  themselves  voluntarily  into  communities, 
electing  magistrates  of  their  own  choice,  establishing  companiek 
of  niiliiia,  and  taking  charge  themselves  of  the  fortiflcations  and 
wardenship  of  their  cities.  The  magistrates  of  free  cities  in 
northern  France,  were  usually  called  mayors,  sheriffs,  and  liv- 
erymen ;  while,  in  the  wouth  of  France,  they  were  called  syndics 
and  consuls.  It  soon  became  an  established  principle,  that  kings 
alone  had  the  power  to  authorize  the  erection  of  corporate  towns. 
Louis  VIII.  declared  that  he  regarded  all  cities  in  which  these 
corporations  were  established,  as  belonging  to  his  domain.  They 
owed  military  service  directly  and  personally  to  the  king  ;  while 
such  cities  as  had  not  these  rights  or  charters,  were  obliged  to 
follow  their  chiefs  to  the  war. 

In  Germany,  we  find  the  emperors  adopting  the  same  policy 
as  the  kings  of  France.  The  resources  which  the  progress  of 
commerce  and  manufactures  opened  to  the  indnstry  of  the  in- 
habitants of  cities,  nnd  the  important  succours  which  the  empe- 
rors, Henry  IV.  and  V.,  had  received  from  them  in  their  quar- 
rels with  the  Pope  and  the  princes  of  the  Empire,  induced  them 
to  take  these  cities  under  their  protection,  to  augment  their  num- 
ber, and  multiply  their  privileges.     Henry  V.  was  the  first  em- 


nselvcft  flfom 
iblicH.  Thrir 
nd  the  V'ene* 
einona,  Lodi, 
I  thcsn  cities 
nbout  the  be* 
iilar  furrns  of 
force,  or  city 
nity,  and  the 
ity,  alliances, 
evolution  ex* 
ea,  and  Eng* 
ommuncs,  or 
rcreigns,  who 
heck  against 
I, 

in  llOS,  was 

I  charters,  to 

tical  motives, 

his  example, 

jtion  became 

•re,  and  into- 

9,  the  inhabi* 

thout  waiting 

communities, 

n^  companies 

fications  and 

ree  cities  in 

rifls,  and  litr> 

nlled  syndics 

)ie,  that  kings 

porate  towns. 

which  these 

imain.  They 

king  ;  while 

re  obliged  to 

same  policy 
e  progress  of 
try  of  the  in- 
ch the  cmpe- 
n  their  quar- 
nduced  them 
nt  their  num- 

the  first  em< 


rr.HioD  IV.     A.  D.  1074 — 1300. 


127 


1 


peror  that  adopted  thin  lino  of' policy.  He  grnnti-d  freedom  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Movcrai  cities  even  to  artixiinx  and  triidesriion  ; 
whose  condition,  at  that  time,  was  nn  dn^rriKlcd  aiiil  (Icbascd  os 
that  of  Mi'rfi*.  H<?  extended  to  thorn  tho  rank  and  privilege  of 
citizens,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the  divixion  of  citios  into  classes 
and  corporations  of  trades.  This  same  prince  set  about  repair- 
ing the  fault  which  the  emperors  of  the  house  of  Snxony  had 
committed,  of  giving  up  to  tho  biMhopN  the  tecnporni  jurisdiction 
in  all  the  cities  wherein  they  rosideJ.  He  gradually  superse- 
ded thej-e  rights,  by  the  new  privileges  which  he  granted  to  the 
inhabitants  of  cities.  The  emperors,  his  successors,  followed 
his  example ;  in  a  little  time,  several  of  these  cities  threw  ofl 
the  yoke  of  their  bishops,  while  others  cxlriciited  themselves 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  their  superiors,  or  provosts,  whether 
imperial  or  feudal,  and  adopted,  in  imitation  of  the  cities  in  Italy 
and  France,  magistrates  of  their  own  choosing,  a  republican 
form  of  government,  and  a  municipal  polity. 

Th<8  liberty  in  cities,  gave  new  vigour  to  industry,  multiplied 
the  sources  of  labour,  and  created  means  of  onulence  and  power, 
till  then  unknown  in  Europe.  The  populutmn  of  these  cities 
increased  with  their  wealth.  Communities  rose  into  political 
consequence ;  and  we  find  them  successively  admitted  to  the 
diets  and  national  assemblies,  in  all  the  principal  states  of  Eu- 
rope. England  set  an  example  of  this ;  and  though  English 
authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  precise  time  when  the  Commons 
of  that  kingdom  were  called  into  Parliament,  it  is  at  least  cer- 
tain that  their  first  admission  belongs  to  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
(about  1266  or  1266,)  and  that  the  formal  division  of  the  Par- 
liament into  two  houses,  is  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Edward  III.''' 
France  followed  the  example  of  England ;  the  convocation  of 
the  states,  by  Philip  the  Fair  (1303,)  on  the  subject  of  his  dis- 

Eutes  with  rope  Boniface  VIII.,  is  considered  as  the  first  assem- 
ly  of  the  States-general,  composed  of  the  three  orders  of  the 
kingdom.  As  to  Germany,  the  first  diet  in  which  the  cities  of 
tho  Empire  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  third  order,  was  that  of 
Spire  (1309,)  convoked  by  the  Emperor  Henry  VII.,  of  the 
house  of  Luxembourg.  Afterwards,  we  find  these  cities  exer- 
cising a  decisive  or  deliberative  voice  at  the  diet  of  Frankfort 
(1344,)  under  Louis  the  Bavarian. 

In  all  these  states,  we  find  tho  sovereigns  protectmg  more  es- 
pecially those  free  cities  which  aided  them  in  checking  the  de- 
vastations, and  putting  a  stop  to  the  fury  of  private  or  intestine 
wars.  The  most  powerful  of  the  feudal  chiefs,  finding  every 
where  cities  in  a  capacity  to  defend  themselves,  became  less  en- 
terprising in  their  ambition ;  and  even  the  nobles  of  inferior 


if; 


1 4f  !^ 


m, 


^ 


'mm. 


j^iiifc 


I 


I2S 


CHAPTER  \. 


rank  learned  to  respect  the  po'ver  of  these  communities.  The 
royal  authority  was  thereby  strengthened ;  and  the  cities,  natu- 
rally inclining  to  the  sovereigns  that  protected  them,  served  as 
a  counterpoise  in  the  general  assemblies,  to  the  power  of  the 
clergy  and  the  noblesse,  and  were  the  means  of  obtaining  those 
subsidiary  supplies  necessary  for  the  exigencies  of  the  state. 

The  liberty  which  the  inhabitants  of  cities  had  thus  procured 
by  the  establishment  of  these  communities,  or  corporate  bodies, 
extended  itself  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  by  way  of  en- 
franchisements. Various  circumstances  concurred  to  render 
the  use  of  these  more  frequent,  after  the  twelfth  century.  The 
fiovereigns,  guided  by  the  maxims  of  sound  policy,  set  the  first 
example  of  this  within  their  own  demesnes ;  and  they  were 
speedily  imitated  by  the  feudal  lords  and  nobles,  who,  either  out 
of  courtesy  to  their  sovereigns,  or  to  prevent  the  dcs<-rtion  of 
their  vassals,  or  acquire  new  dependents,  were  compelled  to 
grant  liberty  to  the  one,  and  mitigate  the  servitude  of  the  other. 
The  communities,  or  chartered  cities,  likewise  seconded  and 
promoted  these  enfranchisements,  by  the  protection  which  they 
granted  to  the  serfs  against  their  feudal  superiors. 

In  Italy,  we  perceive  these  enfranchisements  following  as 
an  immediate  consequence  of  the  institution  of  communities. 
The  continual  feuds  that  arose  among  the  numerous  republics 
which  had  lately  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  authority,  made  the 
liberty  of  the  serfs  a  measure  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to 
augment  the  numberofcitizcnsqualified  to  bear  arms,  and  hold 
places  of  trust.  Bonacurso,  Captain  of  Bologna  (1256,)  pro- 
posed to  his  fellow-citizens,  and  carried  the  law  of  enfranchise- 
ment. All  those  who  had  serfs  were  obliged  to  present  them 
before  the  Podcsta,  or  Captain  of  the  people,  who  alTranchiscd 
them  for  a  certain  sum  or  tax,  which  the  republic  paid  to  the 
owner.  The  feudal  superiors,  finding  that  these  enfranchise- 
ments had  a  powerful  support  in  the  liberty  of  the  free  cities, 
were  obliged  either  to  meliorate  the  condition  of  their  serfs,  or 
grant  them  liberty. 

In  France,  after  the  twelfth  century,  and  the  reign  of  Louis 
the  F.it,  these  enfranchisements  began  to  be  frequent.  The  son 
and  succfssor  of  that  prince,  Louis  VII.,  by  royal  letter  (1180,) 
affranchised  all  the  serfs  which  the  crown  posses-scd  at  Orleans, 
and  within  five  leagues  of  i\.  Loais  X.  passed  a  general  law 
(1315,)  for  the  enfranchisement  of  all  serfs  belonging  to  the 
crown.  He  there  made  a  positive  declaration,  that  slavery  vxu 
contrary  to  iiature,  which  intended  that  all  men  by  birth  should 
be  free  and  equal;  that,  since  his  Aiw^dowi  was  devominated 
the  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  or  Freemen,  tt  appeared  just  and 


''smmmtm mnn  r  ir<mm 


unities.  The 
le  cities,  nalu- 
tein,  served  as 
power  of  the 
btaining  those 
)r  the  state, 
thus  procured 
rporate  bodies, 
by  way  of  en- 
red  to  render 
century.  The 
;y,  set  the  first 
nd  they  were 
vho,  either  out 
dcs'-rtion  of 
compelled  to 
e  of  the  other, 
seconded  and 
m  which  they 

following  as 
communities, 
rous  republics 
rity,  made  the 
ry,  in  order  to 
irms,  and  hold 
la  (13S6,)  pro- 
)f  enfranchise- 
>  present  them 
10  affranchised 
ic  paid  to  the 
e  enfranchise- 
he  free  citie 
their  serfs 


.**• 


reign  of  Louis 
lent.  The  son 
1  letter  (1180,) 
.scd  at  Orleans, 
a  general  law 
longing  to  the 
lat  slavery  was 
by  birth  thould 
s  denominated 
'.and  jtitt  and 


■•^k 


rll 


.'I*  i 


111  ;.?  ''     ■ 


PBRIUD  IV.     A.  o.  1074 — 1300. 


129 


right  that  the  fact  should  correspond  with  the  name.  He  invited, 
at  the  Riime  time,  all  the  nobility  to  imitate  his  example,  by 
granting  lilwrty  to  their  serfs.  That  prince  would  have  en- 
nobled the  homage  he  paid  to  nature,  if  the  gift  of  liberty  had 
been  gratuitous  on  his  part ;  but  he  made  it  a  mere  object  of 
finance,  and  to  gratify  those  only  who  could  afford  to  pay  for  it ; 
whence  it  happened,  that  enfranchisements  advanced  but  very 
slowly  ;  and  examples  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  history,  so  late  an 
the  reign  of  Francis  I. 

In  Germany,  the  number  of  serfs  diminished  in  like  manner, 
after  the  twelfth  century.  The  crusades,  and  the  destructive 
wars  which  the  Dukes  of  Saxony  and  the  Margraves  of  the 
North  carried  on  with  the  Slavian  tribes  on  the  Elbe  and  the 
Baltic,  having  depopulated  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of 
Germany,  numerous  colonies  from  Brabant,  the  Netherlands, 
Holland  and  Friesland,  were  .'ntroduced  into  these  countries, 
where  they  formed  themselves  into  establishments  or  associa- 
tions of  free  cultivators  of  the  soil.  From  Lower  Germany  the 
custom  of  enfranchisements  extended  to  the  Upper  provinces, 
and  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  This  was  encouraged  by 
the  free  cities,  which  not  only  gave  a  welcome  reception  to  the 
serfs  who  had  fled  to  shelter  themselves  from  oppression  within 
their  walls,  but  they  even  granted  protection,  and  th«>  .ights  of 
citizenship,  to  those  who  had  settled  within  the  precincts  or 
liberties  of  the  town ;'"  or  who  continued,  without  changing 
their  habitation,  to  reside  on  the  lands  of  their  feudal  superiors. 
This  spirited  conduct  of  the  free  cities  put  the  nobles  of  Ger- 
many to  the  necessity  of  aiding  and  abetting,  by  degrees,  either 
the  suppression  or  the  mitigation  of  slavery.  They  reimbursed 
themselves  for  the  loss  of  the  fine  or  tax  which  they  had  been 
in  the  habit  of  levying,  on  the  death  of  their  serfs,  by  an  aug- 
mentation of  the  quit-rent,  or  annual  cess  which  they  exacted 
from  them  on  their  being  afTranchised. 

In  the  Low  Countries,  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Brabant  (1218,) 
in  his  Inst  will,  granted  liberty  to  all  cultivators  of  the  soil ; — 
he  afTranchised  them  on  the  right  of  mortmain,  and  ordained, 
that,  like  the  inhabitants  of  free  cities,  they  should  be  judged  by 
no  other  than  their  own  magistrates.  In  this  manner,  liberty 
by  degrees  recovered  its  proper  rights.  It  assisted  in  dispelling 
the  clouds  of  ignorance  and  superstition,  and  spread  a  new 
lustre  over  Europe.  One  event  which  contributed  essentially 
to  give  men  more  exact  notions  on  government  and  jurispru- 
dence, was  the  revival  of  the  Roman  law,  which  happened 
about  the  time  we  now  speak  of.  The  German  tribes  that  de- 
stroyed the  Western  Empire  in  the  fifth  century,  would  natu- 


wfti'm 


■t"-  !'n]  aawhu 


I 


I* 


H 


130 


CHAFTER  V. 


rally  despise  a  system  of  legislation,  such  as  that  of  the  Romans, 
which  neither  acrorded  with  the  ferocity  of  their  manners,  nor 
the  rudeness  of  their  ideas.  In  consequence,  the  revulmjun 
which  occasioned  the  downfall  of  that  empire,  brought  at  the 
same  lime  the  Roman  jurisprudence  into  desuetude  over  ail 
ihe  Western  world.'^ 

A  lapse  of  several  centuries,  however,  was  requ':ed,  to  rec- 
tify men's  ideas  on  the  nature  of  society,  and  to  prepare  them 
for  receiving  the  laws  and  institutions  of  a  civilized  and  re- 
fined government.  Such  was  the  general  state  and  condition 
of  political  knowledge,  when  the  fame  of  a  celebrated  civilian, 
called  Irnerius,  who  taught  the  law  of  Justinian  publicly  at 
Bologna,  about  the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  century,  at- 
tracted to  that  academy  the  youth  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 
There  they  devoted  themselves  with  ardour  to  the  study  of  this 
new  science.  The  pupils,  instructed  by  Irnerius  and  his  suc- 
cessors, on  returning  home,  and  being  employed  in  the  tribunals 
and  public  ofRces  of  their  native  country,  gradually  carried  into 
practice  the  principles  which  they  had  imbibed  in  the  school  oi 
Bologna.  Hence,  in  a  short  time,  and  without  the  direct  inter- 
ference of  the  legislative  authority,  the  law  of  Justinian  was 
adopted  by  degrees,  as  a  subsidiary  law  in  all  the  principal 
states  of  Europe.  Various  circumstances  contributed  to  acce- 
lerate the  progress  of  this  revolution.  People  had  felt  for  a 
long  time  the  necessity  of  a  new  legislature,  and  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  their  national  laws.  The  novelty  of  the  Roman 
laws,  as  well  as  their  equity  and  precision,  arrested  the  atten- 
tion of  all  Europe ;  and  sovereigns  found  it  their  interest  to 
protect  a  jurisprudence,  whose  maxims  were  so  favourable  to 
royalty  and  monarchical  power,  and  which  served  at  once  to 
strengthen  and  extend  their  authority. 

The  introduction  of  the  Roman  jurisprudence  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  the  Canon  law.  The  Popes,  perceiving  the 
rapid  propagation  of  this  new  science,  and  eager  to  arrest  its 
progress,  immediately  set  themselves  to  the  work  of  raising  that 
vast  and  astonishing  edifice  the  Canon  law,  as  an  engine  to  pro- 
mote the  accomplishment  of  their  own  greatness.  Gratian,  a 
monk  of  Bologna,  encouraged  by  Pope  Eugenius  III.,  compiled 
a  collection  of  Canons,  under  the  title  of  the  Decret,  which  he 
arranged  in  systematic  order,  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  that  law.  This  compilation,  extracted  from  different 
authors  who  had  preceded  him,  recommended  itself  to  the  world 
by  its  popular  method,  which  was  adapted  to  the  genius  of  the 
times,  rope  Eugenius  III.  gave  it  his  approval  in  1152, 
and  ordained  that  it  should  be  read  and  explained  in  the  schools* 


Ig'MliMlf'wjii.'l  Kmiii  »ji!ir.'tn'Hi-  ,4a)<j"WWjliy«*Ml<yi>|jll^^ 


■  iU»-7»JiitadlL 


the  Romans, 
nanners,  nor 
e  revuluiiun 
ought  at  the 
tudc  over  ali 

r:ed,  to  rec- 
prepare  them 
lized  and  re- 
ind  condition 
ated  civilian, 
1  publicly  at 

century,  at- 
irt  of  Europe. 
I  study  of  this 

and  his  suc- 
1  the  tribunals 
y  carried  into 
the  school  ot 
e  direct  inter- 
lustinian  was 

the  principal 
>uted  to  acce- 
lad  felt  for  a 
i  the  insuffi- 
r  the  Roman 
ted  the  atten- 

r  interest  to 

avourable  to 
red  at  once  to 

was  soon  fol- 
)erceiving  the 
to  arrest  its 
of  raising  that 
engine  to  pro- 
Gralian,  a 
III.,  compiled 
ret,  which  he 
duction  to  the 
from  different 
If  to  the  world 
genius  of  the 
ovnl  in  1152i 
in  the  schools. 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D    1074 — 1300. 


131 


This  collection  of  Gratian  soon  obtained  a  wide  and  most  sue- 
cesitful  reception  ;  from  the  schools  it  passed  to  the  public  tri- 
bunals, both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  ^t  length,  Pope  Gregory 
IX.,  in  imitation  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  who  had  caused  a 
collection  of  his  own  statutes,  and  those  of  his  predecessors,  to 
be  made  by  Tribonian,  ordered  his  chaplain  Raymond  de  Pen- 
nnfort  to  compile  and  digest,  in  their  proper  order,  all  the  deci- 
sions of  his  predecessors,  as  well  as  his  own ;  thus  extending  to 
common  practice,  what  had  been  originally  established  but  for 
one  place,  and  for  particular  cases.  He  published  his  collection 
(1235)  under  the  name  of  Decretals,  with  an  injunction,  that  it 
should  be  employed  both  in  the  tribunals  and  in  the  schools. 

If  this  new  system  of  jurisprudence  served  to  extend  the  juris- 
diction, and  strengthen  the  temporal  power  of  the  Popes,  it  did 
not  fail  at  the  same  time  to  produce  salutary  eflects  on  the 
governments  and  manners  of  Europe.  The  peace,  or  truce  of 
God,  which  some  bishops  of  France,  in  the  eleventh  century, 
had  instituted  as  a  check  on  the  unbridled  fury  of  private  quar- 
rels and  civil  discord,  was  established,  by  the  Decretals,  into  a 
general  law  of  the  church.*"  Tke  judgments  of  God,  till  then 
used  in  the  tribunals  of  justice,  trial  by  single  combat,  by  hot 
iron,  hot  and  cold  water,  the  cross,  &c.  were  gradually  abolished. 
The  restraints  of  the  Canon  law,  added  to  the  new  information 
which  had  diffused  its  light  over  the  human  mind,  were  instru- 
mental in  rooting  out  practices  which  served  only  to  cherish 
and  protract  the  ancient  ferocity  of  manners.  The  spirit  of 
order  and  method  which  prevailed  in  the  new  jurisprudence, 
soon  communicated  itself  to  every  branch  of  legislation  among 
the  nations  of  Europe.  The  feudal  law  was  reduced  to  syste- 
matic order ;  and  the  usages  and  customs  of  the  provinces,  till 
then  local  and  uncertain,  were  collected  and  organized  into  a 
regular  form.*" 

Jurisprudence,  having  now  become  a  complicated  science, 
demanded  a  long  and  laborious  course  of  study,  which  could  no 
longer  be  associated  with  the  profession  of  arms.  The  sword 
was  then  obliged  by  degrees  to  abandon  the  courts  of  justice, 
and  give  place  to  the  gown.  A  new  class  of  men  hus  arose, 
that  of  the  law,  who  contributed  by  their  influence  to  repress 
the  overgrown  power  of  the  nobility. 

The  rapid  progress  which  the  new  jurisprudence  made,  must 
be  ascribed  to  the  recent  foundation  of  universities,  and  the  en 
couragements  which  sovereigns  granted  these  literary  corpora- 
tions. Before  their  establishment,  the  principal  public  schools 
were  those  which  were  attached  either  to  monasteries,  or  cathe- 
dral and  collegiate  churches.     There  were,  however,  only  a  few 


J-  «  !•■     ; 


irt' 


J32 


CHAPTER    V. 


colleges  instituted  ;  and  these  in  large  cities,  such  as  Rome, 
Paris,  Angers,  Oxford,  Salamanca,  &c.  The  sciences  therr 
taught  were  comprised  under  the  seven  liberal  arts,  viz.  Gram- 
mar, Rhetoric,  Dialectics  or  Logic,  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  Music, 
and  Astronomy.  The  first  three  were  known  by  the  name  of 
Trivium  ;  and  the  other  four,  which  make  part  of  mathematics, 
by  that  of  Qnadrivium.  As  for  Theology  and  Jurisprudence, 
they  did  not  as  yet  figure  among  the  academic  sciences ;  and 
there  was  no  school  of  medicine  prior  to  that  of  Salerno — the 
only  one  of  which  any  traces  are  discovered,  towards  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century. 

These  schools  and  academies  cannot,  by  any  means,  be  put 
in  comparison  with  modern  universities  ;  which  diflfer  from  them 
essentially,  both  as  to  the  variety  of  sciences  which  are  pro- 
fessed, and  by  their  institutions  as  privileged  bodies,  enjoying  a 
system  of  government  and  jurisdiction  peculiarly  their  own. 
The  origin  of  these  Universities  is  coeval  with  the  revival  of 
the  Roman  law  in  Italy,  and  the  invention  of  academic  degrees. 
The  same  Irnerius  who  is  generally  acknowledged  as  the  re- 
storer of  the  Roman  law  at  Bologna,  was  also  the  first  that 
conceived  the  idea  of  conferring,  with  certain  solemnities,  doc- 
torial  degrees  ;  and  granting  license  or  diplomas  to  those  who 
excelled  in  the  study  of  jurisprudence.  Pope  Eugenius  111. 
(1153,)  when  he  introduced  the  code  of  Graiian  into  Hj^e  aca- 
demy of  Bologna,  gave  permission  to  confer  the  same  degrees 
in  the  Canon  law,  as  had  been  customary  in  the  Civil  law. 
These  degrees  were  much  coveted  and  esteemed  on  account  of 
the  honours,  immunities,  and  prerogatives  which  the  sovereign 
had  attached  to  them.  Nothing  however  contributed  more  to 
bring  universities  into  favour,  than  the  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties which  the  Emperor  Frederic  Barbarossa  conferred  on  them 
(1158,)  by  his  Authentic,  (or  rescript,  called  Hahita.)  The  ex- 
ample of  this  prince  was  speedily  followed  by  the  other  so- 
vereigns of  Europe. 

The  teaching  of  juri.«prudence  passed  from  the  school  of 
Bologna  to  the  different  academies  of  Europe.  Theology  also 
was  soon  admitted,  as  well  as  medicine ;  and  these  completed 
the  four  faculties,  as  they  were  called,  of  which  the  univer- 
sities were  composed.  That  of  Paris  was  the  first  which  com- 
bined all  the  faculties.  It  was  completed  under  the  reign  of 
Philip  Augustus,  from  whc  i  it  obtained  its  earliest  charter, 
about  the  year  1200.  Except  itself  there  are  only  the  univer- 
sities of  Bologna,  Padua,  Naples,  Toulouse,  Salamanca,  Coimbra, 
Cambridge,  and  Oxford,  that  date  their  origin  in  the  thirteentli 
century.** 


■•«!ii>>«M<>«^ 


'.W"WW-" 


■MM 


h  as  Rome, 
iences  therf 
,  viz.  Grain- 
letry,  Music, 
the  name  of 
nathematics, 
irisprudence, 
'iences ;  and 
Jaierno— the 
ds  the  end  of 

leans,  be  put 
er  from  them 
lich  are  pro- 
s,  enjoying  a     ^ 
y  their  own.     i 
lie  revival  of    . 
jmic  degrees, 
ed  as  the  re-     i 
the  first  that    ! 
!mnities,  doc- 
to  those  who 
Hugenius  111. 
into  t4»e  aca- 
lame  degrees 
he  Civil  law. 
nn  account  of 
he  sovereign 
uted  more  to 
and  immuni- 
;rred  on  them 
a.)     The  ex- 
ihe  other  so- 

the  school  of 
leology  also 
e  completed 
1  the  univer- 

st  which  com- 
the  reign  of 

rliest  charter, 
r  the  univcr- 
nca.Coimbra, 

the  tbirleentl) 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300. 


va 


The  downfall  of  the  Imperial  authority,  end  of  the  house  of 
Hohonstaufcn,  and  the  new  power  usurped  by  the  princes  and 
States  of  the  Empire,  occasioned  a  long  series  of  troubles  in 
Germany,  and  that  frightful  state  of  anarchy,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Grand  Interregftum.  Strength  then  triumphed 
over  law  and  right ;  the  government  was  altered  from  its  basis ; 
and  no  other  means  were  found  to  remedy  this  want  of  public 
security,  than  by  forming  alliancies  and  confederations,  such  as 
that  of  the  Rhine,*^*  and  the  Flanseatic  League,  which  began 
to  appear  about  this  time  (1253.)  The  election  of  the  Empe- 
rors, in  which  all  the  princes  and  states  of  the  empire  had  for- 
merly concurred,  became  then  the  privilege  solely  of  the  great 
officers  of  the  crown,  who,  towardts  tlic  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  claimed  for  themselves  exclu.sively  the  right  of  elect- 
ing, and  the  title  of  Electors.^  The  princes  and  slates  of  the 
Empire,  anxious  to  confirm  their  growing  power,  sought  to  pro- 
mote only  the  feeblest  emperors,  who  were  incapable  of  sup- 
porting the  rights  and  prerogatives  of  the  crown.  The  electors, 
m  particular,  had  no  other  object  in  view,  than  to  derive  a  lucra- 
tive traffic  from  elections  ;  bargaining  every  time  with  the  can- 
didates for  large  sums,  and  obtaining  grunts  or  mortgages  of 
such  portions  of  the  Imperial  demesnes  as  suited  their  con- 
venience. One  only  of  these  weak  emperors,  Rodolph,  Count 
of  Hapsburg  in  Switzerland,  (1273)  disappointed  the  expecta- 
tions of  his  electors.  He  repressed  by  force  of  arms,  the  dis- 
orders of  anarchy,  restored  the  laws  and  tribunals  to  their 
pristine  vigour,  and  reconquered  several  of  the  Imperial  domains 
from  the  usurpers  who  had  seized  them. 

Inconsequence  of  the  revolutions  which  we  have  now  detailed, 
we  find  very  important  and  memorable  changes  accomplished  in 
the  different  provinces  of  the  Empire.  The  princes  and  States 
of  the  Germanic  body,  regarding  as  their  own  patrimony  the 
provinces  and  fiefs  with  which  they  were  invested,  thought 
themselves  further  authorized  to  portion  them  out  among  their 
sons.  The  usage  of  these  partitions  became  general  after  the 
thirteenth  century  ;  and  this  wrought  the  downfall  of  some  of 
the  most  powerful  families,  and  tended  to  multiply  almost  to 
infinity  the  dutchies,  principalities,  and  earldoms  of  the  Empire. 
The  EmperoH,  far  from  condemning  this  practice,  which  by  no 
means  accorded  with  the  maxims  of  the  feudal  law,  on  the  con- 
trary gave  it  their  countenance,  as  appearing  to  them  a  proper 
instrument  for  humbling  the  power  of  the  grandees,  and  acqui- 
ring for  themselves  a  preponderatmg  authority  in  the  Empire. 

The  ancient  dutchies  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony  experienced  a 
new  revolution   on  the    fall  of  the   powerful   house   of  the 


I  1 


'if 


;» 


li    if 


^r" 


Ml 


M: 


t94 


CIIAITEn  V 


Ouelphs,  which  wns  deprived  of  both  these  diitchies  by  the  sen- 
tence of  proscription  which  the  Emperor  Frederic  1.  pronounced 
against  Henry  the  Lion  (IISO,)  Duke  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony. 
The  first  of  these  dulchies,  which  hud  formerly  been  dismembered 
from  the  Margravatc  of  Austria  by  Frederic  I.  (1156,)  and 
erected  into  n  dulchy  and  fief  holding  immediately  of  the  Em- 
pire, was  exposed  to  new  partitions  at  the  time  of  which  we 
now  speak.  The  bishoprics  of  Bavaria,  Stiria,  Carinthia,  Cur- 
niola,  and  the  Tyrol,  broke  their  alliance  with  Bavaria;  and  the 
city  of  Ratisbonne,  which  had  been  the  residence  of  the  ancient 
dukes,  was  declared  immedia/e,  or  holding  of  the  crown.  It 
was  when  contracted  within  these  new  limits  that  Bavaria  was 
conferred,  by  Frederic  I.  (1180,)  on  Olho,  Count  of  Wittelsbach, 
a  scion  of  the  original  house  uf  Bavaria.  This  house  afterwards 
acquired  by  marriage  (1215)  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine.  It 
was  subsc(|uently  divided  into  various  branches,  of  which  the 
two  principal  were  the  Palatine  and  the  Bavarian. 

As  to  the  dutchy  of  Saxony,  which  embraced,  under  the 
Guelphs,  the  greater  part  of  Lower  Germany,  it  completely 
changed  its  circumstances  on  the  decline  of  that  house.  Ber- 
nard of  Aschersleben,  younger  son  of  Albert  named  the  Bear, 
first  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  a  descendant  of  the  Ascanian 
line,  had  been  invested  in  the  dutchy  of  Saxony  by  Frederic  I. 
(llSO.)  but  was  found  much  too  feeble  to  support  the  high  rank 
to  which  he  had  been  elevated.  In  conse(|uence,  the  title,  or 
qualification  to  the  dutchy  of  Saxony  and  the  Electorate,  was 
restricted,  under  the  successors  and  descendants  of  that  prince, 
to  an  inconsiderable  district,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Elbe  ; 
called  since  the  Electoral  Circle,  of  which  Wittenberg  was  the 
capital.  The  princes  of  Pomeruniaand  Mecklenburg,  the  Counts 
of  Holstein  and  Westphalia,  and  the  city  of  Lubeck,  took  advan- 
tage of  this  circumstance  to  revolt  from  the  authority  of  the  Duke 
of  Saxony,  ond  render  themselves  immediate.  A  part  of  West- 
phalia was  erected  into  a  distinct  dutchy,  in  favour  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne  who  had  seconded  the  Emperor  in  his  schemes 
of  vengeance  against  the  Guelphic  princes.  This  latter  house, 
whosp  vast  possessions  had  extended  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the 
Baltic  and  the  Northern  Ocean,  retained  nothing  more  of  its 
ancient  splendour  than  the  free  lands  which  it  possessed  in  Lower 
Saxony,  and  which  the  emperor  Frederic  II.  (1235)  converted 
into  a  dutchy,  and  immediate  fief  of  the  empire,  in  favour  of 
Otho  the  Infant,  grandson  of  Henry  the  Lion,  and  the  new 
founder  of  the  House  of  Brunswick. 

The  extinction  of  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen  having  occa- 
sioned a  vacancy  in  the  dutchics  of  Suabia  and  Francnnia,  the 


•'^:'gig:a^^6MMjjawiasW:Wi»i^^ 


ft , 


PiRioD  IV.    A.  P.  1074— ]900. 


188 


s  by  the  sen- 
pronounced 
and  Saxony, 
lismembered 
(1156,)  and 
r  of  the  Em- 
of  which  we 
irinthia,  Cur- 
trin ;  and  the 
if  the  ancient 
B  crown.  It 
Buvaria  was 
Wittelsbach, 
se  afterwards 
e  Rhine.  It 
of  which  the 

d,  under  the 
it  completely 
house.     Ber* 
ted  the  Bear, 
the  Ascanian 
y  Frederic  I. 
the  high  rank 
I  the  title,  or 
ectorate,  was 
f  that  prince, 
of  the  Elbe ; 
jberg  was  the 
■g,  ine  Counts 
i,  took  advan- 
y  of  the  Duke 
jfirt  of  West- 
of  the  Arch- 
n  his  schemes 
latter  house, 
itic  Sea  to  the 
more  of  its 
ssed  in  Lower 
J5)  converted 
in  favour  oi 
and  the  new 

having  occa> 
'runronia,  the 


diflerent  states  of  these  provinces,  both  secular  and  ecclfisiasti- 
cui,  found  means  to  render  themselves  also  immediate,  (1368.) 
A  nuinbiT  of  cities  which  had  belonged  to  the  domains  of  the 
aiirieiit  dukes,  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  free  and  imperial 
cities  ;  und  the  Houses  of  Bnden,  Wurtemberg,  Hohen-Zollern, 
and  FurstenbiTg,  dale  their  celebrity  from  this  period.  The 
death  of  the  anti-emperor,  Henry  le  Raspon  (1247,)  last  land- 
grave of  Thuringia,  gave  rise  to  a  long  war  between  the  Mar- 
graves of  Misnia  and  the  Dukes  of  Brabant,  who  mutually 
contested  that  succession.  The  former  advanced  an  Expecta- 
tive,  or  defd  of  Reversion  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  as  well 
ns  the  claims  of  Jutta,  sister  of  the  last  landgrave  ;  and  the  others 
maintained  those  of  Sophia,  daughter  of  the  langrave  Louis, 
elder  brother  and  predecessor  of  Henry  le  Raspon.  At  length, 
by  u  partition  which  took  place  (1264,)  Thuringia,  properly  so 
called,  was  made  over  to  the  house  of  Misnia;  and  Henry  of 
Brabunt,  surnumed  the  Infant,  son  of  Henry  II.  Duke  of  Bra- 
bunt,  and  Sophia  of  Thuringia,  was  secured  in  the  possession  of 
Hesse,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty  of  landgraves — 
those  of  the  House  of  Hesse. 

The  ancient  dukes  of  Austria,  of  the  House  of  Bamberg,  hav- 
ing become  extinct  with  Frederic  the  Valiant  (1246,)  the  suc- 
cession of  that  dutchy  was  keenly  contested  between  the  niece 
and  the  sisters  of  the  last  duke;  who,  though  females,  could  lay 
claim  to  it,  in  virtue  of  the  privilege  granted  by  the  emperor 
Frederic  Barbarossa.  Ottocar  II.,  son  of  Wenceslaus,  king  of 
Bohemia,  took  advantage  of  these  troubles  in  Austria,  to  possess 
himself  of  that  province  (1251.)  He  obtained  the  investiture  of 
it  (1262)  from  Richard,  son  of  John  king  of  England,  who  had 
purchased  the  title  of  Emperor  at  a  vast  expense ;  but  Rodolph 
of  Hapsbourg,  treating  him  as  a  usurper,  made  war  upon  him, 
defeated  and  slew  him  in  a  battle  which  was  fought  (1378)  at 
Marchfeld,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Vienna.  The  dutchies  of 
Austria,  Stiria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola,  being  then  detached 
from  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  were  declared  vacant,  and  de- 
volved to  the  Empire.  The  investiture  of  these  the  Emperor 
conferred  (1282)  on  Albert  and  Rodolph,  his  own  sons.  Al- 
bert, the  eldest  of  these  princes,  who  was  afterwards  Emperor, 
became  the  founder  of  the  Hapsbourg  dynasty  of  Austria. 

In  Italy,  a  great  number  of  republics  arose  about  the  end  of 
the  eleventh,  or  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  These  re- 
publics, though  they  had  cast  off  the  Imperial  authority,  and 
cb'nied  to  themselves  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  protested,  never- 
theless, their  fealty  to  the  Emperor,  whom  they  agreed  to  recog- 
nise as  their  supreme  head.     The  Emperors,  Henry  V.,  Lo- 


1  |N  4 


m 


^ 


iV',\ 


i<*l* 


196 


craptbh  v. 


thaire  the  Saxon,  and  Conrad  III.,  saw  themselves  compelled  to 
tolerate  an  usurpatitin  which  they  were  too  feeble  to  represR. 
But  Frederic  Barbarossa  being  determined  to  restore  the  royalty 
of  Italy  to  its  ancient  splendour,  led  a  powerful  army  into  that 
kingdom  (115S;)  and  in  a  diet  which  he  assembled  on  the  plains 
Df  Ronc&glia,  in  the  territory  of  Placentia,  he  caused  a  strict  in- 
vestigation to  be  made  by  the  lawyers  of  Bologna,  into  the  rights 
on  which  he  founded  his  pretensions  to  the  title  of  King  of  Italy. 
The  opposition  which  the  execution  of  the  decrees  of  that  diet 
met  with  on  the  part  of  the  Milanese,  induced  the  Emperor  to 
undertake  the  siege  of  their  city.  He  made  himself  master  of  it 
in  1162,  razed  it  to  the  foundation,  and  dispersed  the  inhabitants. 
This  chastisement  of  the  Milanese  astonished  the  Italians, 
but  without  abating  their  courage.  They  afterwards  took  ad» 
vantage  of  the  reverses  of  the  Emperor,  and  the  schism  which 
had  arisen  in  the  Romish  Church,  to  form  a  league  with  the 

Erincipal  cities  of  Lombardy  (1167,)  into  which  they  drew  the 
[ing' of  the  Two  Sicilies,  as  well  as  Pope  Alexander  III.,  whom 
the  Emperor  treated  as  a  schismatic.  The  city  of  Milan  was 
rebuilt  in  consequence  of  this  league;  as  also  that  of  Alexan* 
dria,  called  della  Paglia.  The  war  was  long  protracted ;  but 
the  Emperor  being  abandoned  by  Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia and  Saxony,  the  most  jowerful  of  his  vassals,  received  a 
defeat  at  Lignano,  which  obliged  him  to  make  an  accommoda- 
tion with  Pope  Alexander  III.,  and  to  sign,  at  Venice,  a  treaty 
of  six  years  with  the  confederate  cities  (1177.)  This  treaty  was 
afterwards  converted,  at  Constance,  into  a  definitive  peace 
(1183;)  by  virtue  of  which,  the  cities  of  Italy  were  guaranteed 
in  the  forms  of  government  they  had  adopted,  as  well  as  in  the 
exercise  of  the  regalian  rights  which  they  had  acquired,  whether 
by  usage  or  prescription.  The  Emperor  reserved  for  himself 
the  investiture  of  the  consuls,  the  oath  of  allegiance,'  which  was 
to  be  renewed  every  ten  years,  and  all  appeals,  in  civil  cases, 
where  the  sum  exceeded  the  value  of  twenty-five  imperial  livres, 
(about  1500  francs.) 

The  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  grandson  of  Frederic  I.,  and  heir, 
in  right  of  his  mother,  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  made 
new  efforts  to  restore  the  prerogatives  of  the  Empire  in  Italy. 
But  the  cities  of  Lombardy  renewed  their  league,  into  which 
they  drew  Pope  Gregory  I  A.  (1226,)  whose  dignity  and  power 
would  be  endangered  if  the  Emperor,  being  possessor  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  should  succeed  in  conquering  the  cities  of  Lom- 
bardy. The  war  which  ensued  (1236,)  was  long  and  bloody. 
The  Popes  Gregory  IX.  and  Innocent  IV.,  went  so  far  as  to 
preach  up  a  crusade  against  the  Emperor,  as  if  he  had  been  an 


ij!gfi^i^a^f!ajiaMaMife-ja^^^^^j^;i^^^ 


1 1 


compelled  to 
•  lo  repre»». 
e  the  roynlty 
my  into  that 
on  tlie  plains 
;d  a  strict  in- 
nto  the  rights 
[in(;  of  Italy. 
i  of  that  diet 
Emperor  to 
f  master  of  it 
e  inhabitants, 
the  Italians, 
irds  took  ad* 
chism  which 
gue  with  the 
ley  drew  the 
er  III.,  whom 
)f  Milan  was 
tt  of  Alexan- 
otrncted ;  but 
Duke  of  Ba- 
s,  received  a 
accommoda- 
nice,  a  treaty 
lis  treaty  was 
nilive  peace 
e  guaranteed 
veil  as  in  the 
lired,  whether 
d  for  himself 
e,'  which  was 
in  civil  cases, 
nperial  livres, 

c  I.,  and  heir, 
Sicilies,  made 
)ire  in  Italy, 
e,  into  which 
ty  and  power 
isessor  of  the 
ities  of  Lom- 
ond bloody. 
t  so  far  as  to 
had  been  nn 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074 — 1300. 


tat 


infidel ;  whilo  ihnt  unfortunulo  prince,  nftprthe  most  courageous 
and  indofiiliu'iiblc  ftrorts,  linii  tlic  mortilicuiion  trt  sec  his  troops 
"nrt"  more  di>r()infilf'(l  Ity  the  forcrs  of  ihe  Lonuuf. 

The  citit's  (if  Itiily  wvn;  no  i-moriiT  (h-liviTcd  from  the  terror 
of  the  Emperors,  than  they  Ift  loosf  their  fury  u>,'i\inst  each 
other;  impelled  by  the  rii|cre  (if  confiui'si,  mid  lorn  by  the  inter- 
nal factions  of  the  Guclphs  and  the  frbibcllines,  as  well  as  by 
the  contests  which  hud  arisen  between  the  noblesse  and  the  free 
cities.  The  partisans  of  the  nobles  in  these  cities,  were  strenjjth- 
cned  by  the  very  measures  which  had  been  taken  to  humble 
them.  The  chartered  towns  by  destrovinir  that  multitude  of 
seignuries,  earldoms,  and  mar({iiisates  witn  which  Lombardy 
swarmed  before  the  twelfth  century,  and  by  incorporating  them 
with  their  own  territories,  obliged  the  deserted  nobles  and  gran- 
dees to  seek  an  establishment  within  their  walla.  These  latter, 
finding  their  partisans  united  and  powerful,  soon  attempted  to 
seize  the  government;  and  hence  orose  on  interminable  source 
of  civil  discord,  which  ended  with  the  loss  of  liberty  in  the  greater 
part  of  these  communities. 

To  arrest  these  evils,  and  put  a  check  to  the  ambition  of  the 
powerful  citizens,  they  adopted  the  plan  of  intrusting  the  gov- 
ernment to  a  single  magistrate,  to  be  called  the  Podesla,  who 
should  be  chosen  in  the  neighbouring  cities.  This  .scheme  was 
but  a  palliative  rather  than  a  remedy  ;  and  in  order  to  guarantee 
themselves  from  the  oppression  of  the  nobles,  the  corporations 
of  several  cities  gradually  adopted  the  plan  of  conferring  a  sort 
of  dictatorship  on  one  of  the  powerful  citizens,  or  on  some  prince 
or  noblemon,  even  though  he  were  a  stronger,  under  the  title  of 
Captain ;  hoping,  in  this  way,  to  succeed  in  re-establishing 
peace  and  order.  These  chiefs  or  captains  contrived,  in  process 
of  time,  to  render  absolute  and  perpetual,  nn  authority  which  at 
first  was  temporary,  and  only  granted  on  certain  conditions. 
Hence  the  origin  of  several  new  independent  sovereignties  which 
were  formed  in  Italy  during  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  century, 

Venice  and  Genoa  at  that  time  eclipsed  nil  the  republics  of 
Italy,  by  the  flourishing  state  of  their  navigation  and  commerce. 
The  origm  of  the  farmer  of  these  cities  is  generally  dated  as  far 
back  as  the  invasion  of  the  Huns  under  Attila  (452.)  The  cru- 
elty of  these  barbarians  having  spread  terror  and  flight  over  the 
whole  country,  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  ancient  Venetia,  took 
refuge  in  the  isles  and  lagoons  on  the  borders  of  the  Adriatic 
Gulf;  and  there  laid  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Venice,  which, 
whether  we  regard  the  singularity  of  its  construction,  or  the 
splendour  to  which  it  rose,  deserves  to  be  numbered  omong  the 
wonders  of  the  world.     At  first  its  government  was  popular,  and 


■1. 

I  (If       I 


^ 


n 


X 


'i     )( 


»  . 


ill: 


m  im>^~m 


198 


OHAFTKB   T. 


|i 


administered  by  a  bench  of  tribuneii  whose  power  was  annual. 
The  divisions  which  nrose  amoiij,'  these  yearly  administrators, 
ih'cnsioruMl  the  ehjclion  of  n  chief  (697,)  who  took  the  title  of 
Duke  or  Dofje.  This  dignity  was  for  life,  and  depended  on  the 
suflriiKOM  of  the  community  ;  but  he  exercised  nevertheless  the 
rights  of  sovereiffnty,  and  it  was  not  till  after  a  lonjf  course  ot 
lime  that  his  authority  was  gradually  abridged  ;  and  the  govern* 
ment,  which  had  been  monarchical,  became  again  democratical. 

Venice,  which  from  il.s  birth  was  a  commercial  city,  enjoyed 
in  the  middle  a(;e8  nearly  the  same  renown  which  Tyro  had 
among  the  trading  cities  of  antiquity.  The  commencement  of 
its  grandeur  may  be  dated  from  the  end  of  the  tenth  century, 
and  under  the  magistracy  of  the  Uoge  Peter  Urseolo  II.,  whom 
the  Venetians  regard  as  the  true  founder  of  their  state  (992.) 
From  the  Greek  emperors  he  obtained  for  them  an  entire  liberty 
and  immunity  of  commerce,  in  all  the  ports  of  that  empire  ;  and 
he  procured  them  at  the  same  time  several  very  important  ad« 
vantages,  by  the  treaties  which  he  concluded  with  the  emperor 
Olliii  III.  ami  with  the  Caliphs  of  Egypt.  The  vast  increase  of 
their  (ommerce,  inspired  these  republicans  with  a  desire  to  ex* 
tend  the  contracted  bounds  of  their  territory.  One  of  their  (irst 
conquests  was  the  maritime  cities  of  Istria,  os  well  as  those  of 
Dalmatia;  both  of  which  occurred  under  the  magistracy  of  Peter 
Urseolo  JI.,  and  in  the  year  997.  They  were  obliged  to  make 
a  surrender  of  the  cities  of  Dalmatia,  by  the  emperors  of  the 
East,  who  regarded  these  cities  as  dependencies  of  their  empire ; 
while  the  kings  of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia  also  laid  claim  to  them. 
Croatia  having  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Kings  of  Hungary, 
about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  these  same  cities  became 
a  perpetual  source  of  troubles  and  wars  between  the  Kings  ol 
Hungary  and  the  Republic  of  Venice  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
fifteenth  century  that  the  Republic  found  means  to  confirm  its 
authority  in  Dalmatia. 

The  Venetians  having  become  parties  in  the  famous  League 
of  Lombardy,  in  the  eleventh  century,  contributed  by  their  ef- 
forts, to  render  abortive  the  vast  projects  of  the  Emperor  Frede- 
ric I.  Pope  Alexander  III.,  as  a  testimony  of  his  gratitude, 
granted  them  the  sovereignty  of  the  Hadriatic  (1177,)*"  and  this 
circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  singular  ceremony  of  annually 
marrying  this  sea  to  the  Doge  of  Venice.  The  aggrandizement 
of  this  republic  was  greatly  accelerated  by  the  crusades,  espe- 
cially the  fourth  (1204,)  which  was  followed  by  the  dismem- 
berment of  the  Greek  empire.  The  Venetians,  who  had  joined 
this  crusade,  obtained  for  their  portion  several  cities  and  ports 
in  Dalmatia,  Albania,  Greece  and  the  Morea  ;  as  also  the  Islands 


'■^mmmM 


u^ 


=^6". 


wan  annua). 

inini.itratora, 
(  the  title  of 
•tided  on  the 
■rtheloss  the 
ig  course  ot 
I  the  govern* 
leinocratical. 
:ity,  enjoyed 
h  Tyro  had 
lencemenl  of 
•nth  century, 
lo  II.,  whom 

state  (992.) 
Bntirc  liberty 
empire ;  and 
mportant  ad- 

tne  emperor 
St  increase  of 

desire  to  ex» 
L-  of  their  first 
il  as  those  of 
racy  of  Peter 
iged  to  make 
perors  of  the 
their  empire; 

aim  to  them. 

of  Hungary, 
cities  became 

the  Kings  oi 

1  not  till  the 
:o  confirm  its 

nous  League 

by  their  ef- 

jeror  Frede- 

lis  gratitude, 

f7,)^  and  this 

of  annually 

jrandizement 

usades,  espe- 

the  dismera- 

10  had  joined 

ies  and  ports 

■so  the  Islands 


PBiioD  IV.     A.  0.  1074 — 1300. 


u» 


of  Corfu,  Cephalonia,  and  Candia  or  ('r<if.  At  length,  towards 
the  end  of  th;;  thirteenth  century,  this  r<  publu'  assumed  the  pe< 
culiar  form  of  government  which  it  ret.tinpd  tilj  the  day  of  its 
destruction.  In  the  earlier  ages  its  cuiiMtitutuin  was  democratic, 
anil  the  power  of  the  Doge  limited  by  it  gniiul  council,  which 
was  chosen  annually  from  among  the  ditli'rt.nt  classes  of  the 
citizens,  by  electors  named  by  the  people.  As  tiiese  forms  ^jave 
occasion  to  troubles  and  intestine  commotions,  the  Doge  Fietro 
Grudenigo,  to  remove  all  cause  of  discontent  in  future,  passed 
a  law  (1298,)  which  abrogated  the  custom  of  annual  elections, 
and  fixed  irrevocably  in  their  ofiice  all  those  who  then  sat  in 
the  grand  council,  and  this  to  descend  to  their  posterity  foi 
ever.  The  hereditary  aristocracy  thus  introduiud  at  Venice, 
did  not  fail  to  excite  the  discontent  of  those  whose  fatnilius  this 
new  law  had  excluded  from  the  government;  and  it  was  ibis 
which  afterwards  occasioned  various  insurrections,  of  which 
that  of  Tiepolo  (1310)  is  the  most  remarkable.  The  partisans 
of  the  ancient  government,  and  those  of  the  new,  utiRmpted  to 
decide  the  matter  by  a  battle  in  the  city  of  Venice.  Tiepolo 
and  his  party  wore  defeated,  and  Querini,  one  of  the  chiefs, 
'vas  killed  in  the  action.  A  commission  of  ten  members  was 
nominated  to  inform  against  the  accomplices  of  this  secret  con* 
spiracy.  This  commission,  which  was  meant  to  be  but  tem- 
porary, was  afterwards  declared  perpetual ;  and,  under  the 
name  of  the  Council  of  Ten,  became  one  of  the  most  formida- 
ble supports  of  the  aristocracy. 

The  city  of  Genoa,  like  that  of  Venice,  owed  her  prosperity 
(o  the  progress  of  her  commerce,  which  she  extended  to  the 
Levant,  Constantinople,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  Governed  at  first 
by  Consuls,  like  the  rest  of  the  Italian  states,  she  afterwards 
1190)  chose  a  foreign  Podesta  or  governor,  to  repress  the  vio- 
lence of  faction,  and  put  a  check  on  the  ambition  of  the  nobles. 
This  governor  was  afterwards  made  subordinate  to  n  Captain  of 
the  people,  whom  the  Genoese  chose  for  the  first  time  in  1257, 
without  being  able  yet  to  fix  their  government,  which  ex- 
perienced frequent  variations  before  assuming  a  settled  and 
permanent  form.  These  internal  divisions  of  the  Genoese  did 
not  impede  the  progress  of  their  commerce  and  their  marine. 
The  crusades  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  the  powerful  sue- 
cours  which  these  republicans  gave  to  the  crusaders,  and  to  the 
Greeks,  as  well  as  the  treaties  which  they  concluded  with  the 
Moorish  and  African  princes,  procured  them  considerable  esta- 
blishments in  the  Levant,  and  also  in  Asia  and  Africa.  CafTa, 
a  famous  seaport  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  port  of  Azoph,  the 
ancient  Tanais,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  belonged  to  them ; 


:r-  > 


■|it-l 


'^!:'l^ 


Hj      !«' 


.J»*'! 


,*'  '* 


i  -■  • 


'  I  -. 


<'■' 


140 


CHAPTER    V. 


and  served  as  entrepots  for  their  commerce  with  China  and  the 
Indies.  Smyrna  in  Asia  Minor,  us  also  the  suburbs  of  Pera 
an.!  Galata  at  Constantinople,  and  the  isles  of  Scno,  Metelin 
and  Tenedos,  in  the  Archipelaj^o,  were  ceded  to  them  by  the 
Greek  emperors.  The  kings  of  Cyprus  were  their  tributaries. 
The  Greek  and  German  emperors,  the  kings  of  Sicily,  Cas- 
lille  and  Arragon,  and  the  Sultans  of  Egypt,  ^jealously  sought 
their  alliance,  and  the  protection  of  their  marine.  Encouraged 
by  these  successes,  they  formed  a  considerable  territory  o'.i  the 
continent  of  Italy,  after  the  12th  century,  of  which  nothing  but 
a  fragment  now  remains  to  them. 

Genoa  had  at  that  time,  in  its  immediate  neighbourhood,  a 
dangerous  rival  of  its  power  and  greatness.  This  rival  was 
Pisa,  a  flourishing  republic  on  the  coast  of  Tuscany,  which 
owed  its  prosperity  entirely  to  the  increase  of  its  commerce  and 
marine.  The  proximity  of  these  two  states  --the  similarity  of 
their  views  and  their  interests — the  desire  of  conquest — and 
the  command  of  the  sea,  which  both  of  them  desired,  created  a 
marked  jealousy  between  them,  and  made  them  the  natural  and 
implacable  enemies  of  each  other.  One  of  the  principal  .sub- 
jects of  dispute  was  the  possession  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia,* 
which  the  two  republics  conte.sted  at  the  point  of  the  sword, 
after  having,  by  means  of  their  combined  force,  expelled  the 
Moors,  toward  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century.  Pisa,  ori- 
ginally superior  to  Genoa  in  maritime  strength,  disputed  with 
her  the  empire  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  haughtily  forbade  the 
Genoese  to  appear  within  those  seas  with  their  ships  of  war. 
This  rivalry  nourished  the  animosity  of  the  two  republics,  and 
rendered  it  implacable.  Hence  a  continual  source  of  mutual 
hostilities,  which  were  renewed  incessantly  for  the  space  of  200 
years,  and  only  terminated  in  1290  ;  when,  by  the  conquest  ol 
Elba,  and  the  destruction  of  the  ports  of  Pisa  and  Leghorn, 
the  Genoese  effected  the  ruin  of  the  shipping  and  commerce  of 
the  Pisan  republic. 

Lower  Italy,  possessed  by  the  Norman  princes,  under  the  title 
of  Dutchy  and  Comt^,  became  the  seat  of  a  new  kingdom  in  the 
eleventh  century — thai  of  the  two  Sicilies.  On  the  extinction 
of  the  Dukes  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  descendants  of  Robert 
Guiscard,  Roger,  son  of  Roger,  Count  of  Sicily,  and  sovereign 
of  that  island,  united  the  dominions  of  the  two  branches  of  the 
Norman  dynasty  (1127  ;)  and  being  desirous  of  procuring  for 
himself  the  royal  dignity,  he  attached  to  his  interest  the  Anti- 
pope  Anacletus  II.,  who  invested  him  with  royalty  by  a  bull 
(1130,)  in  which,  however,  he  took  care  to  reserve  the  territorial 
right  and  an  annual  tribute  to  the  Church  of  Rome.     This 


■■^imm^msm^'^^mkm^m^&M^^^  ■ 


"■•'p 


.fl- 


Ti 


hina  and  the 
urbs  of  Pera 
Icio,  Metelin 
ihem  by  the 
r  tributaries. 

Sicily,  Cas- 
Dusly  sought 

Encouraged 
ritory  on  the 
1  nothing  but 

hbfiurhood,  a 
his  rival  was 
jscnny,  which 
:ommerce  and 
!  similarity  of 
onquest — and 
ired,  created  a 
le  natural  and 
principal  sub- 
nd  Sardinia,* 
of  the  sword, 
,  expelled  the 
•y.     Pisa,  ori- 
disputed  with 
ily  forbade  the 
shipa  of  war. 
republics,  and 
rce  of  mutual 
e  space  of  200 
le  conquest  ol 
and  Leghorn, 
d  commerce  ot 

under  the  title 
ingdom  in  the 
the  extinction 
mts  of  Robert 
and  sovereign 
(ranches  of  the 

procuring  for 
■rest  the  Anti- 
alty  by  a  bull 
e  the  territorial 

Rome.     This 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300. 


141 


prince  received  the  crown  of  Palermo  from  the  hands  of  a  ;nT- 
dinal,  whom  the  pope  had  deputed  for  the  express  purpose.  On 
ihe  death  of  the  Emperor  Lothaire,  he  succeeded  in  dispossess- 
ing the  Prince  (tf  Capua,  and  subduini;^  the  dutchy  of  Naples 
(1139;)  thus  completing  the  conquest  of  all  that  is  now  deno- 
minated the  kingdom  of  Naples.  William  II.,  grandson  of 
Roger,  was  the  principal  support  of  Pope  Alexander  III.;  and 
of  the  famous  League  of  Lombardy  formed  against  the  Empe- 
ror Frederic  Barbarossa.  The  male  line  of  the  Norman  princes 
having  become  extinct  in  William  II.,  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  passed  (1189)  'o  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen,  by  the 
marriage  which  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  son  of  Frederic  Bar- 
barossa, contracted  with  the  Princess  Constance,  aunt  and  here- 
trix  of  the  last  king.  Henry  maintained  the  rights  of  his  wife 
against  the  usurper  Tancred,  and  transmitted  this  kingdom  to 
his  son  Frederic  II.,  who  acquired  by  his  marriage  with  Jolande, 
daughther  of  John  de  Brienne,  titular  King  of  Jerusalem,  the 
lilies  and  arms  of  this  latter  kingdom.  The  efforts  which  Fre 
deric  made  to  annihilate  the  League  of  Lombardy,  and  confirm 
his  own  authority  in  Italy,  drew  down  upon  him  the  persecution 
of  the  court  of  ftome,  who  taking  advantage  of  the  minority  of 
the  young  Conradin,  grandson  of  Frederic  II.,  wrested  the 
crown  of  the  two  Sicilies  from  this  rival  house,  which  alone 
was  able  to  check  its  ambitious  projects.  Mainfroi,  natural  son 
of  Frederic  II.,  disgusted  with  playing  the  part  of  tutor  to  the 
young  Conradin,  in  which  capacity  he  at  first  acted,  caused  him- 
self to  be  proclaimed  and  crowned,  at  Palermo,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  (1258.)  The  Popes  Urban  IV.,  and  Clement  IV.,  dread- 
ing the  genius  and  talents  of  this  prince,  made  an  offer  of  that 
kingdom  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  Count  of  Provence,  and  brother  of 
St.  Louis.  Clement  IV.  granted  the  investiture  of  it  (126d)  to 
hirn  and  hi:^  descendants,  male  and  female,  on  condition  of  his 
doing  fealty  and  homage  to  the  Holy  See,  and  presenting  him 
annually  with  a  white  riding  horse,  and  a  tribute  if  eight  million 
ounces  of  gold.  Charles,  after  being  crowned  at  Rome,  marched 
against  Mainfroi,  with  an  army  chiefly  composed  of  crusaders. 
He  defeated  that  prince,  who  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Bene- 
vento  (1266,)  which  was  soon  after  followed  by  the  reduction  of 
the  two  kingdoms.  One  rival  to  Charles  still  survived,  the 
young  Conradin,  the  lawful  heir  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 
Charles  vanquished  him  also,  two  years  afterwards,  in  the  plains 
of  Tagliacozzo  ;  and  having  made  him  prisoner,  together  with 
his  young  friend  Frederic  of  Austria,  he  caused  both  of  these 
princes  to  be  beheaded  at  Naples  (29th  October  1268.) 
Charles  did  not  long  enjoy  his  new  dignity.     While  he  was 


'  1:    i 

4  ' 


'fi 


■■M 


i  Mi    I. 


--IBP ■  mmi^m 


t42 


CHAPTER  V. 


,-i 


t 


prenwing  to  undertake  a  crusade  against  Michael  Paleologus, 
a  schismatic  prince  who  had  expelled  the  Latins  from  Constan- 
tinople, he  had  the  mortification  to  see  himself  dispossessed  of 
Sicily,  on  the  occasion  of  the  famous  Sicilian  Vespers  (1282.) 
This  event,  which  is  generally  regarded  as  the  result  of  a  con- 
spiracy, planned  with  great  address  by  a  gentleman  of  Salerno, 
named  John  de  Procida,  appears  to  have  been  but  the  sudden 
eflectof  an  insurrection,  occasioned  by  the  aversion  of  the  Sici- 
lians to  the  French  yoke.  During  the  hour  of  vespers,  on  the 
second  day  of  Easter  (30th  March.)  when  the  inhabitants  o' 
Palermo  were  on  their  way  to  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
situated  at  some  distance  from  the  town,  it  happened  that  a 
Frenchman,  named  Drouette,  had  offered  a  private  insult  to  a 
Sicilian  woman  :  hence  a  quarrel  arose,  which  drew  on  a  gene- 
ral insurrection  at  Palermo.  All  the  French  who  were  m  the 
city  or  the  neighbourhood  were  massacred,  with  the  exception 
of  one  Tcntleinan  from  Provence,  called  William  Porcellet,  who 
had  conciliated  all  hea-  by  his  virtues.  This  revolt  graduaHv 
extended  to  the  other  ^i.  =an  cities.  Every  where  the  French 
were  put  to  death  on  t!     :  Messi.ia  was  the  last  that  caught 

the  infection;  but  tl.t  "    evolution  did  not  take  place  till 

thirty  days  after  the  sa;...  event  at  Palermo,  (29th  April  1282.) 
It  is  therefore  not  true,  that  this  massacre  of  the  French  hap- 
pened at  the  same  hour,  and  at  the  sound  of  the  vesper  bells, 
over  all  parts  of  the  island.     Nor  is  it  more  probable,  that  the 
plot  had  been  contrived  by  Peter  III.,  King  of  Arragon  ;  since 
the  Palermitans  displayed  at  first  the  banner  of  the  church, 
having  resolved  to  surrender  to  the  Pope ;  but  being  driven  from 
this  resolution,  and  dreading  the  vengeance  of  Charles,  they 
despatched  deputies  to  the  King  of  Arragon,  who  was  then 
cruising  with  a  fleet  off' the  African  coast,  and  made  him  an  offei 
of  their  crown.     This  prince  yielded  to  the  invitation  of  the 
Palermitans ;  he  landed  at  Trapani,  and  thence  passed  to  Pa- 
lermo, where  he  was  crowned  King  of  Sicily.     The  whole 
island  submitted  to  him ;  and  Charles  of  Anjou  was  obliged  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Messina,  which  he  had  undertaken.     Peter 
entered  and  took  possession  of  the  place,  and  from  that  time 
Sicily  remained  under  the  power  of  the  Kings  of  Arragon ;  it 
b'icame  the  inheritance  of  a  particular  branch  of  the  Arragonese 
princes  ;  and  the  House  of  Anjou  were  reduced  to  the  single 
kingdom  of  Naples.  .      .     .  nu  • 

Spain,  which  was  divided  into  several  sovereignties,  both  Chris- 
tian and  Mahometan,  presented  a  continual  spectacle  ot  commo- 
tion and  carnage.  The  Christian  States  of  Castille  and  Arragon, 
were  gradually  increased  by  the  conquests  made  over  the  Maho- 


•an 


•it' 


Paleologus, 
om  Constan- 
iDossessed  of 
spers  (1288.) 
Milt  of  a  con- 
in  of  Salerno, 
ut  tlie  sudden 
in  of  the  Sici- 
Bspers,  on  the 
inhabitants  of 

Holy  Ghost,    i' 
ppened  that  8 
lie  insult  to  a 
■e\v  on  a  gene- 
^o  were  m  the 
the  exception 
Porcellel,  who 
•volt  gradually 
ere  the  French 
Inst  that  caught 
take  place  till 
th  April  1282.) 
e  French  hap- 
le  vesper  bells, 
)bable,  that  the 
Irragon ;  since 
of  the  church,    ^ 
ing  driven  from    1 
:  Charles,  they 
who  was  thnn 
ide  him  an  offei 
vitation  of  the 
passed  to  Pa- 
The  whole 
was  obliged  to 
rtaken.     Peter 
from  that  time 
of  Arragon ;  it 
the  Arragonese 
d  to  the  single 

lties,bothChri8- 

Itacle  of  commo- 

]le  and  Arragon. 

t  over  the  Maho- 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300. 


m 


metans;  while  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  less  exposed  to  con- 
quest by  its  local  situation,  remained  nearly  in  its  original  stale 
of  mediocrity.  This  latter  kingdom  pa.>;:'cd  in  succession  lo 
female  heirs  of  different  houses.  HIniiche  of  Navarre,  dauyhler 
of  Sancho  VI.,  transferred  it  to  the  Counts  of  Champaijiio  ( iy.'34.) 
On  the  extinction  of  the  male  lino  of  that  house,  in  Henry  I.  of 
Navarre  (1274,)  Joan  I.,  his  daughter  and  heiress,  conveyed  that 
kingdom,  together  with  the  ComU's  of  Champagne  and  Brie, 
to  the  crown  of  France.  Philip  the  Fair,  husband  of  that  prin- 
cess, and  his  three  sons,  Louis  le  Hutin,  Philip  the  Long,  and 
Charles  the  Fair,  were,  at  the  same  time,  kings  both  of  France 
and  Navarre.  Finally,  it  was  Queen  Joan  H.,  daughter  of 
Louis  le  Hutin,  and  herelrix  of  Navarre,  who  tran.sfcrred  that 
kingdom  to  the  family  of  the  Counts  d'Evreux,  and  relim|uished 
the  Comt^s  of  Champagne  and  Brie  to  Philip  of  V^alois,  suc- 
cessor of  Charles  the  Fair  to  the  throne  of  France  (1936.) 

The  family  of  the  Counts  of  Barcelona  ascended  the  throne 
of  Arragon  (1131,)  by  the  marriage  of  Count  Kaymond-Beren- 

fuier  V.  with  Donna  Petronilla,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Kamira 
I.,  King  of  Arragon.  Don  Pedro  II.,  grandson  of  Kaymond- 
Berenguicr,  happening  to  be  at  Rome  (1204,)  was  there  crowned 
king  of  Arragon  by  Pope  Innocent  HI.  On  this  occasion  he 
did  homage  for  his  kingdom  to  that  pontiff,  and  engaged,  for 
himself  and  successors,  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  to  the  Holy 
See.  Don  James  I.,  surnamcd  the  Conqueror,  son  of  Don  Pedro 
II.,  gained  some  important  victories  over  the  Mahometans,  from 
whom  he  took  the  Balearic  Isles  (1230,)  and  the  kingdom  of 
Valentia,'*'  (1238.)  Don  PedroIII.  eldest  son  of  Don  James  I., 
had  dispossessed  Charles  I.  of  Anjou  and  Sicily,  which  drew 
down  upon  him  a  violent  persecution  on  the  part  of  Pope  Martin 
IV.,  who  was  on  the  eve  of  publishing  a  crusade  against  him, 
and  assigning  over  his  estates  to  Charles  of  Valois,  a  younger 
brother  of  Philip  called  the  Hardy,  king  of  France.  Don  James 
II.,  younger  son  of  Don  Pedro  III.,  succeeded  in  making  his 

Eeace  with  the  Court  of  Rome,  and  even  obtained  from  Pope 
toniface  VIII.  (1297)  the  investiture  of  the  Island  of  Sardinia. 
on  condition  of  acknowledging  himself  the  vassal  and  tributary 
of  the  Holy  See  for  that  kingdom,  which  he  afterwards  obtained 
by  conquest  from  the  republic  of  Pisa. 

The  principal  victories  of  the  Christians  over  the  Mahome- 
tans in  Spain,  were  reserved  for  the  kings  of  Castille,  whose 
history  is  extremely  fertile  in  great  events.  Alphonso  VI., 
whom  some  call  Alphonso  I.,  after  having  taken  Madrid  and 
Toledo  (1085,)  and  subdued  the  whole  kingdom  of  Toledo,  was 
on  the  point  of  altogether  expelling  the  Mahometans  from  Spain, 


I- 


4 


1  IP        t 

'  I 


i 


■i.  \ 


m 


t 


i"  i 


li 


^ll 


n 
i  i 


144 


CHAI'TKR    V. 


when  n  revolution  which  happened  in  Africa  augmented  their 
iorct'rs  by  fresh  numbers,  and  thus  arrested  the  progress  of  the 
Casiilian  prince.  . 

The  Zcirides,  an  Arab  dynasty,  descended  from  Zeiri,  son  of 
Mounad,  reigned  then  over  that  part  of  Africa  which  compre- 
hends Africa  properly  so  called  (viz.  Tripoli,  Tunis,  and  Algiers,)     , 
and  the  Mogreb  (comprehending  Fez  and  Morocco,)  which  they     ! 
had  conquered   from  the  Faliniile  caliphs  of  Egypt.     It  hap-     ; 
pciicd  that  a  new  apostle  and  conqueror,  named  Aboubeker,  son 
of  Oiner,  collected  some  tribes  of  Arabs  in  the  vicinity  of  Sugul- 
messa,  a  city  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez,  and  got  himself  proclaimed 
Commander  of  the  Faithful.     His  adherents  took  the  name  of 
Morabelhin,  a  term  which  signifies  zealously  devoted  to  religion  ; 
and  whence  the  Spaniards  have  formed  the  names  Almoravtdes 
and  Mutabovths.     Having  made  him^<elf  master  of  the  city  of 
Su<rulmes.-a,  this  warlike  Emir  extended  his  conquests  m  the 
Alogreb,  as  well  as  in  Africa  Proper,  whence  he  expelled  the 
Zeirides.     His  successor,  Yousulf,  or  Joseph,  the  son  of  Tas- 
chefin,  completed  the  conquest  of  these  countries  ;  and  built  the 
city  of  Morocco  (1069,)  which  he  made  the  capital  of  the  Mogreb, 
and  the  seat  of  his  new  empire.     This  prince  joined  the  Ma- 
hometans of  Seville,  to  who>e  aid  he  marched  with  his  victorious 
lroop.s,  defeated  the  king  of  Caslllle  at  the  battle  of  Badajos 
(1090,)  and  subdued  the  principal  Mahometan  states  of  Spain, 
such  as  Grenada  and  Seville,  &c.  ,.      , 

The  empire  of  the  Almoravides  was  subverted  in  the  twelfth 
century  by  another  Mahome  an  sect,  called  the  Moahedivs,  oi 
Almohades,  a  word  signifying  Unitarians.     An  upstart  fanatic, 
named  Abdalnmimen,  was  the  founder  of  this  sect.     He  was 
educated  among  the  mountains  of  Sous,  in  Mauritania,  and 
assumed  the  quality  of  Emir  (1120,)  and  the  surname  of  Mo- 
hadi,  that  is,  the  Chief— the  leader  and  director  of  the  faithful. 
Having  subdued  Morocco,  Africa,  and  the  whole  of  the  Mogreb, 
he    annihilated  the  dynasty  of  the  Almoravides  (1146,)  and  at 
the  same  time  vanquished  the  Mahometan  states  in  Spain.     He 
took  also  (1160)  from  the  Normans  Tunis,  Mohadie,  and  Tripoli, 
of  which  they  had  taken  possession.     One  of  his  successors, 
named  Naser-Mohammed,  formed  the  project  of  re-conquering 
the  whole  continent  of  Spain.   The  immense  preparations  which 
he  mrle  for  this  purpose,  alarmed  Alphonso  VIII.,  king  of  Cas- 
tille,  who  immediately  formed  an  alliance  with  the  rfingsof  Ar- 
ragon  and  Navarre,  and  even  engaged  Pope  Innocent  III.  to 
proclaim  a  crusade  against  the  Mahometans.     The  armies  of 
Europe  and  Africa  met  on  the  confines  of  Castile  and  Andalusia 
(1212;)  and  in  the  environs  of  the  city  Ubeda  was  foughl  a 


^'•^vtfit^imm 


«*« 


gmented  their 
rogress  of  the 

n  Zeiri,  son  of 
vhich  ccnpre- 
,  and  Algiers,) 
o,)  which  they 
gypt.  It  hap- 
iboubeker,  son 
nity  of  Sugul- 
elf  proclaimed 
k  the  name  of 
ed  to  religion  / 
IS  Almoravides 
•  of  the  city  of 
nqiiests  in  the 
s  expelled  the 
le  son  of  Tas- 
;  and  built  the 
of  the  Mogreb, 
3ined  the  Mn- 
1  his  victorious 
tie  of  Kudajos 
tates  of  Spain, 

I  in  the  twelfth 
Moahedins,  oi 
ipstart  fanatic, 
sect.     He  was 
dauritania,  and 
arnaine  of  Mo- 
ot the  faithful. 
I  of  the  Mogreb, 
i  (1146,)  and  at 
in  Spain.    He 
lie,  and  Tripoli, 
his  successors, 
f  re-conquering 
parations  which 
il.,  king  of  Cas- 
,he  kings  of  Ar- 
nnocent  III.  to 
The  armies  of 
e  and  Andalusia 
la  was  fought  a 


hM 


m 


111 


i\^'   "      fl 


-'"<iii  I 


(iv 


i-^ 


Henry  1V.|^  Emperor  uf  Germany,  submitting  Co  Pope 
Jrcgory  VII.    P.  lUS. 


Ill 


lii. 


i 


Peter  the  Hermit  preaching  to  the  Crusadtra.    P.  110. 


i) 


5  to  Pope 


-^ 


Is.    P.  UO. 


PERIOD  IT.      A.  D.   1074 — 1300. 


146 


bloody  battle,  which  so  crippled  the  power  of  the  Almohades,  us 
to  occasion  in  a  short  time  the  downrall  and  dismemberment  of 
their  empire.*' 

About  this  period  (1269,)  the  Mahometans  of  Spain  revolted 
afresh  from  Africa,  and  divided  themselves  into  several  petty 
states,  of  which  the  principal  and  the  only  one  that  existed  for 
several  centuries,  was  that  of  the  descendants  of  Naser,  Kings 
of  Grenada.  Ferdinand  III.,  King  of  Castille  and  Leon,  took 
advantage  of  this  event  to  renew  his  conquests  over  the  Ma- 
hotnctans.  He  took  from  them  the  kingdoms  of  Cordova,  Mur> 
cia,  and  Seville  (1236,  et  seq.,)  and  left  them  only  the  single 
kingdom  of  Grenada. 

These  wars  against  the  Mahometans  were  the  occasion  of 
several  religious  and  military  orders  being  founded  in  Spain. 
Of  these,  the  most  ancient  was  that  founded  and  fixed  at  Alciin- 
tara  (1156,)  whence  it  took  its  name;  having  for  its  badge  or 
decoration  a  green  cross,  in  form  of  the  lily,  or  Jleur-de-lis.  The 
order  of  Calatrava  was  instituted  in  1158;  it  was  confirmed  by 
Pope  Alexander  III.  (1164,)  and  assumed  as  its  distinctive  mark 
the  red  cross,  also  in  form  of  the  lily.  The  order  of  St.  James 
of  Cumpostella,  founded  in  1161,  and  confirmed  by  the  same 
Pope  (1175,)  was  distinguished  by  a  red  cross,  in  form  of  a 
sword-  Finally,  the  order  of  Montesa  (1317,)  supplanted  that 
of  the  Templars  in  the  kingdom  of  Anagon. 

The  Kings  of  Castille  and  Arragon  having  conquered  from 
the  Arabs  a  part  of  what  is  properly  called  Portugal,  formed  it 
into  a  distinct  government,  under  the  name  of  Portocalo,  or  Por- 
tugal. Henry  of  Burgundy,  a  French  prince,  grandson  of  Ro 
bert,  called  the  Old,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  great-grandson  of 
Robert  II.,  King  of  France,  having  distinguished  himself  by  his 
bravery  in  the  wars  between  the  Castillians  and  the  Mahome- 
tans, Alphonso  VI.,  King  of  Castille,  wished  to  attach  the  young 
Erince  to  him  by  the  ties  of  blood ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  gave 
im  in  marriagr  ^is  daughter  the  Infant  Donna  Theresa ;  and 
created  him  Count  of  Portugal  (1090.)  This  State,  including 
at  first  merely  the  cities  of  Oporto,  Braga,  Miranda,  Lamego, 
Viseo,  and  Coimbra,  began  to  assume  its  present  form,  in  the 
reign  of  Alphonso  I.,  son  of  Count  Henry.  The  Mahometans, 
alarmed  at  the  warlike  propensities  of  the  young  Alphonso,  had 
marched  with  a  superior  force  to  attack  him  by  surprise.  Far 
from  being  intimidated  by  the  danger,  this  prince,  to  animate 
the  courage  of  his  troops,  pretended  that  an  apparition  from  hea- 
ven had  authorized  him  to  proclaim  himself  King  in  the  face  ot 
the  arrnVt  in  virtue  of  an  express  order  which  he  said  he  had 
received  from  Christ.  '^     He  then  marched  against  the  enemy 

10 


i 

•*•. 

t 

■  ii. 

\ 

* 

^ 

i  ■ 

« 

m 


J' 


i!    t» 


iP' 


i.-»'  t 


|i|f 


>\** 


140  CHAPTER  V. 

and  totally  routed  them  in  the  plains  of  Ouriqne  (1139.)  This 
vii-tory,  famous  in  the  nnnals  of  PorluKal,  paved  the  way  for  the 
conquest  of  the  cities  Leiria,  Santarcm,  Lisbon,  Cintra,  Alcazar 
do  Sal,  Evora,  and  Elvas,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Tagus. 
Moreover,  to  secure  the  protection  of  the  Court  of  Rome  agamst 
the  Kings  of  Leon,  who  disputed  with  him  the  independence  of 
his  new  state,  Alphonso  took  the  resolution  of  acknowledging 
himself  vassal  and  tributary  to  the  Holy  See  (1142.)  He  after- 
wards convoked  the  estates  of  his  kmgdom  at  Lamego,  and 
there  declared  his  independence  by  a  fundamental  low,  w-hich 
also  regulated  the  order  of  succession  to  the  throne.  Sancho  I., 
son  and  successor  of  Alphonso,  took  from  the  Mahometans  the 
town  of  Silves  in  Algarve ;  and  Alphonso  HI.,  soon  afttr, 
(1249,)  completed  the  conquest  of  that  province. 

The  first  Kings  of  Po"       I,  in  order  to  gain  the  protection  of 
the  Court  of  Rome,  were  obliged  to  grant  extensive  benefices  to 
the  ecclesiastics,  with  regalian  rights,  and  the  exemption  of  the 
clergy  from  the  secular  jurisdiction.     Their  successors,  how- 
ever, finding  themselves  firmly  estoblished  on  the  throne,  soon 
changed  their  policy,  and  manifested  as  much  of  indifference  for 
the  clergy  as  Alphonso  1.  had  testified  of  kindness  and  attach- 
ment to  them.     Hence  originated  a  long  series  of  broils  and 
quarrels  with  the  Court  of  Rome.     Pope  Innocent  IV.  deposed 
Sancho  II.  (124,5,)  and  appointed  Alphonso  III.  in  his  place. 
Denys,  son  and  successor  of  this  latter  prince,  was  excommuni- 
cated for  the  same  reason,  and  compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  (1289,) 
by  which  the  clergy  were  re-established  in  all  their  former  rights. 
In  France,  the  whole  policy  of  the  Kings  was  directed  against 
their  powerful  vassals,  who  shared  among  them  the  finest  pro- 
vinces of  that  kingdom.     The  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  Normandy, 
and  Aquitaine  ;  the  Counts  of  Flanders,  Champagne,  and  Tou- 
louse ;  the  Dukes  of  Bretagne,  the   Counts  of  Poitiers,  ^r, 
Blois,  Anjou  and  Maine,  Alen^on,  Auvergne,  Angoulfiine,  Pe- 
rigord,  Carcassonne,  *  &c.  formed  so  many  petty  sovereigns, 
equal  in  some  respects  to  the  electors  and  princes  of  the  Ger- 
manic empire.     Several  circumstances,  however,  contributed  to 
maintain  the  balance  in  favour  of  royalty.     The  crown  was  he- 
reditary, and  the  demesne  lands  belonging  to  the  king,  which, 
being  very  extensive,  gave  him  a  power  which  far  outweighed 
that°of  any  individual  vassal.     Besides,  these  same  demesnes 
being  situate  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  enabled  the  sovereign 
to  observe  the  conduct  of  his  vassals,  to  divide  their  forces,  and 
prevent  any  one  from  preponderating  over  another.     The  per- 
petual wars  which  they  waged  with  each  other,  the  tyranny 
which  they  exercised  over  their  dependants,  and  the  enlighten- 


"  II 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074 — V.VHt. 


147 


139.)     This 
.  way  for  the 
lira,  Alcazar 
iho  Tagus. 
loinc  against 
ependcnce  of 
knowledging 
.)     He  aflcr- 
Lamego,  and 
1  law,  which 
.     Sancho  1., 
homotans  the 
,  soon  aftt-r, 

e  protection  of 
k'c  benefices  to 
mption  of  the 
ccessors,  how- 
»  throne,  soon 
ndifference  for 
iss  and  attach- 
I  of  broils  and 
nt  IV.  deposed 
in  his  place. 
IS  excommuni- 
1  treaty  (1289,) 
•  former  rights, 
irected  ngninsl 
the  finest  pro- 
ly,  Normandy, 
igne,  and  Tou- 
Poitiers,  Bar, 
ngoul6me,  Pe- 
ty  sovereigns, 
s  of  the  Ger- 
,  contributed  to 
I  crown  was  he- 
[e  king,  which, 
far  outweighed 
lame  demesnes 
the  sovereign 
;ir  forces,  and 
,er.     The  per- 
ir,  the  tyratmy 
the  enhghlen- 


il 


ed  policy  of  several  of  the  French  kings,  by  degrees  re-estab- 
lished the  royal  iiulhnrily,  which  had  been  almost  annihilated 
under  the  last  princes  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty. 

It  was  at  this  period  that  the  rivalry  between  France  and  Eng- 
land lind  its  origin.  The  fault  that  Philip  I.  committed,  in 
making  no  opposition  to  the  conquest  of  England,  by  William 
Duke  of  Normandy,  \u.\  vassal,  served  to  kindle  the  flame  of  war 
between  thesn  princes.  The  war  which  took  place  in  1087,  was 
the  first  that  happened  between  the  two  nations  ;  it  was  renewed 
under  the  subsequent  reigns,  and  this  rivalry  was  stiil  more  in- 
creased, on  occasion  of  the  unfortunate  divorce  between  Louis 

VII.  and  Eleanor  of  Poitou,  heiress  of  Guienne,  Poitou,  and 
Gascogne.  This  divorced  Princess  married  (1152)  Henry,  sur- 
named  Plantugenet,  Duke  of  Normandy,  Count  of  Anjou  and 
Maine,  and  afterwards  King  of  England  ;  and  brought  him,  in 
dowry,  the  whole  of  her  vast  possession: .  But  it  was  reserved 
for  Philip  Augustus  to  repair  the  fauils  of  his  predecessors. 
This  great  monarch,  whose  courage  was  equal  to  his  prudence 
and  his  policy,  recovered  his  superiority  over  England  ;  he 
strengthened  his  power  and  authority  by  the  numerous  acces- 
sions which  he  made  to  the  crown-lands,  3'  (1180-1220.)  Be- 
sides Artois,  Vermandois,  the  earldoms  of  Evreux,  Auvergne, 
and  Alen«,on,  which  he  annexed  under  different  titles,  he  took 
Advantage  of  the  civil  commotions  which  had  arisen  in  England 
against  King  John,  to  dispossess  the  English  of  Normandy,  An- 
jou, Maine;  Lorraine,  and  Poitou  (1203;)  and  he  maintained 
these  conquests  by  the  brilliant  victory  which  he  gained  at  Bou- 
vines  (1214,)  over  the  combined  forces  of  England,  the  Empe- 
ror Otho,  and  the  Count  of  Flanders.  ^ 

Several  of  the  French  kings  were  exclusively  occupied  with 
the  crusades  in  the  East.  Louis  VII.,  Philip  Augustus,  and 
Louis  IX.  took  the  cross,  and  marched  in  person  to  the  Holy 
Land.  These  ultra-marine  expeditions  (1147,  1248,)  which  re- 
quired great  and  powerful  resources,  could  not  but  exhaust 
France  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  crusades  which  Louis  VIII. 
undertook  against  the  Albigenses  and  their  protectors,  the  Counts 
of  Toulouse  and  Carcassonne,  considerably  augmented  the  royal 
power.  Pope  Innocent  III.,  by  proclaiming  this  crusade  (12(fe,) 
raised  a  tedious  and  bloody  war,  which  desolated  Languedoc  ; 
and  during  which,  fanaticism  perpetrated  atrocities  which  make 
humanity  shudder.  Simon,  Count  Monfort,  the  chief  or  general 
of  these  crusaders,  had  the  whole  estates  of  the  counts  of  Tou- 
louse adjudged  him  by  the  Pope.  Amauri,  the  son  and  heir  of 
Simon,  surrendered  his  claims  over  these  forfeitures  to  Louis 

VIII.  King  of  France  (1226 ;)  and  it  was  this  circumstance  that 


i^fl'lJ 


rp: 


n 


ii 


i 


149 


CRArTKK   V. 


induced  Louis  to  march  in  person  nt  the  head  of  the  crusaders, 
against  the  Count  of  Touloiisf,  his  vatoal  uiul  cousin.  He  died 
at  the  close  of  this  expedition,  lenviuf;  to  his  son  and  successor, 
Louis  IX.,  the  tasi<  of  tinishin}r  this  diMistrous  war.  By  the 
pence  which  was  concluded  at  Furis  (It2i29,)  between  the  King 
and  the  Count,  the  greater  part  of  Lunguedoc  was  allowed  to  re- 
main in  the  possession  of  Louis.  One  arrangement  of  this 
treaty  was  the  marriage  of  the  Count's  daughter  with  Al- 
phonso,  brother  to  the  King;  with  this  express  clause,  that 
failing  heirs  of  this  marriage,  the  whole  territory  of  Toulouse 
should  revert  to  the  crown.  The  same  treaty  adjudged  to  the 
Pope  the  county  of  Venaissin,  as  an  escheat  of  the  Counts  of 
Toulouse ;  and  the  Count  of  Carcassonne,  implicated  also  in 
the  cause  of  the  Albigenses,  was  compelled  to  cede  to  the  King 
all  right  over  the  viscounties  of  Beziers,  Carcassonne,  Agde, 
Rodez,  AIbi,  and  Nismes.  One  consequence  of  this  bloody 
war  was  the  establishment  of  the  terrible  tribunal  of  the  In- 
quisition,^  and  the  founding  of  the  order  of  Dominicans.^ 

Henry  II.,  a  descendant  of  the  house  of  PInntagenet,  having 
mounted  the  throne  of  England,  in  right  of  his  mother  Ma- 
tilda, annexed  to  that  crown  the  dutchy  of  Normundy,  the  coun- 
tries of  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Maine,  together  with  Guienne, 
Gascogne  and  Poitou.  He  afterwards  added  Ireland,  which  he 
subdued  in  1172.  This  island,  which  had  never  been  con- 
quered, either  by  the  Romans,  or  the  barbarians  who  had  deso- 
lated Europe,  was,  at  that  time,  divided  into  five  principal 
sovereignties,  viz.  Mun.ster,  Ulster,  Connaught,  Leinster,  and 
Meath,  whose  several  chiefs  all  assumed  the  title  of  Kings. 
One  of  these  princes  enjoyed  the  dignity  of  monarch  of  the 
island  ;  but  he  had  neither  authority  sufficient  to  secure  inter- 
nal tranquillity,  nor  power  enough  to  repel  with  success  the 
attacks  of  enemies  from  without.  It  was  this  state  of  weakness 
that  induced  Henry  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  the  island.  He 
obtained  the  sanction  of  Pope  Adrian  Iv.,  by  a  bull  in  1155,  and 
undertook,  in  a  formal  engagement,  to  subject  the  Irish  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See,  and  the  payment  of  Peter's  pence,^' 
xhe  expulsion  of  Dermot,  king  of  Leinster,  who  had  rendered 
himself  odious  by  his  pride  and  his  tyranny,  furnished  Henry 
with  a  pretext  for  sending  troops  into  that  island,  to  assist  the 
dethroned  prince  in  recovering  his  dominions.  The  success  of 
the  English,  and  the  victories  which  they  gained  over  Roderic, 
King  of  Connaught,  who  at  that  time  was  chief  monarch  of  the 
island,  determined  Henry  to  undertake,  in  person,  an  expedition 
into  Ireland  (in  October  1172.)  He  soon  reduced  the  provinces 
of  Leinster  and  Munster  to  submission  :  and  after  having  con- 


L   i 


'M 


e  crusadprSi 
n.     He  died 
d  successor, 
iir.     By  ihe 
en  the  King 
llowed  lo  re- 
inenl  of  this     j 
er  wiih    Al-     i 
clause,  that    | 
of  Toulouse     I 
udgcd  to  the     , 
te  Counts  of 
cated  also  in 
B  to  the  King 
sonne,   Agde, 
f  this  bloody 
lal  of  the  In* 
iiinicans.'* 
genet,  having 
1  mother  Ma- 
ridy,  the  coun- 
with  Guienne, 
Iknd,  which  he 
rer  been  con- 
vho  had  deso- 
,ve   principal 
jeinster,  and 
itie  of  Kings, 
onarch  of  the 
o  secure  inter- 
ih  success  the 
te  of  weakness 
e  island.     He 
I  in  1155,  and 
le  Irish  to  the 
Peter's  peuce.^ 
had  rendered 
rnished  Henry 
d,  to  assist  the 
'he  success  oi 
over  Roderic, 
monarch  of  the 
an  expedition 
d  the  provinces 
ler  having  con- 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  0.  1074—1300. 


149 


1i 


•I" 


w 


■trucK'd  several  forts,  and  nnininated  n  vireroy  and  other  crown 
oflicfrs,  hi'  took  his  departure  without  completing  the  conour.il 
nflhe  isliinii.  Kudcric,  Kingof  Cnnnuught,  submitted  in  1175; 
but  ii  was  not  till  the  rcifrn  <if  Qufen  Elizabeth  that  the  entire 
reduction  of  Ireliiiid  was  accomplished. 

In  England,  the  rashnes.s  and  rapacity  of  John,  son  of  Henry 
11.  orcihioned  a  mighty  revolution  in  the  government.  The 
discontented  nobles,  with  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  at  their 
head,  joined  in  a  league  against  the  King.  Pope  Innocent  III. 
formally  deposed  him,  made  over  his  kingdom  to  the  Crown  of 
Franco,  and  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  him  in  every  coun- 
try of  Europe.  John  obtained  an  accommodation  with  the 
Pope;  and  in  order  to  secure  his  protecti<m,  he  consented  to  be- 
come a  vassal  of  the  Church,  both  for  England  and  Ireland  ; 
engaging  to  pay  his  Holiness,  besides  Peter's  pence,  an  annual 
tribute  of  a  thousand  marks.  But  all  in  vain  ;  the  nobles  per 
sisied  in  their  revolt,  and  forced  the  King  to  grant  them  the 
grand  charter  of  Magna  Charia,  by  which  he  and  his  succes- 
sors were  forever  deprived  of  the  power  of  exacting  subsidies 
without  the  counsel  and  advice  of  Parliament ;  which  did  not 
then  include  the  Commons.  He  granted  to  the  city  of  London, 
and  to  all  cities  and  burghs  in  the  kingdom,  a  renewal  of 
their  ancient  liberties  and  privileges,  and  the  right  of  not  being 
taxed  except  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  common  coun- 
cil. Moreover,  the  lives  and  properties  of  the  citizens  were 
secured  by  this  charter;  one  clause  of  which  expressly  pro- 
vided, that  no  subject  could  be  either  arrested,  imprisoned,  dis- 
[lossessed  of  his  fortune,  or  deprived  of  his  life,  except  by  a 
egal  sentence  of  his  peers,  conform  to  the  ancient  law  of  the 
country.     This  charter,  which  was  renewed  in  various  subse- 

2uent  reigns,  forms,  at  this  day,  the  basis  of  the   English 
Constitution. 

King  John,  meantime,  rebelled  against  this  charter,  and 
caused  it  to  be  rescinded  by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  who  even  is- 
sued a  bull  of  excommunication  against  the  barons  ;  but  they, 
far  from  being  disconcerted  or  intimidated,  made  an  ofTer  of 
their  crown  to  Louis,  son  of  Philip  Augustus  King  of  France. 
This  prince  repaired  to  England,  and  there  received  the  fealty 
and  homage  of  the  grandees  and  the  nation.  John,  abandoned 
by  all  his  subjects,  attempted  to  take  refuge  in  Scotland  ;  but 
he  died  in  his  flight  at  the  castle  of  Newark.  His  death  made 
a  sudden  change  in  the  minds  and  sentiments  of  the  English. 
The  barons  forsook  the  standard  of  the  French  prince,  and 
rallied  round  that  of  young  Henry,  son  of  King  John,  whose 
long  and  unfortunate  reign  was  a  succe.«8ion  of  troubles  and 


I ; 
1 1 


11 


■•M 


'*        \^' 


Jl 


I« 


CIIAPTKR  V. 


inleHtine  wars.  Edwiird  I.,  mn  and  tiucceMBor  of  Henry  III.,  is 
detunnincd  and  coiirngnuii!)  a:*  liix  Atther  had  been  weak  and 
indolent,  reotored  tranquillity  to  Erii^land,  and  niadtt  his  name 
illuDtrioua  by  the  conqucitt  which  he  made  of  the  principality  o( 
Wales. 

This  district,  from  the  most  remote  antiquity,  was  ruled  by 
Its  own  native  princes,  duacendcd  from  the  ancient  British  kings. 
Although  they  had  been  vunmuIs  and  tributaries  of  the  kin^f  of 
England,  they  exercised,  nevertheless,  the  rights  of  sovereignty 
In  their  own  country.  Leweilyn,  prince  of  Wales,  having  es- 
poused the  cause  of  the  insurgents  in  the  ruign  of  Henry  III., 
and  niiide  some  attempts  to  withdraw  from  the  vassalage  of  the 
English  crown,  Edward  I.  declared  war  against  him  (1282;) 
and  in  a  battle  fought  near  the  Menau,  Leweilyn  was  defeated 
and  .slain,  with  two  thousand  of  his  followers.  David,  his  bro- 
ther and  MUCceM.Mor,  met  with  a  fate  xtill  more  melancholy.  Hav- 
ing been  taken  prisoner  by  Edward,  he  wua  condemned  to  death, 
and  executed  like  a  traitor  (1293.)  The  territory  of  Wales  was 
annexed  to  the  crown;  the  king  created  his  eldest  son  Edward, 
Prince  of  Wales;  a  title  which  has  since  been  borne  by  the 
eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  England. 

At  this  period,  the  kingdoms  of  the  North  presented,  in  gen- 
eral, little  elso  than  a  spectacle  of  horror  and  carnage.  The 
warlike  and  ferocious  temper  of  the  Northern  nations,  the  want 
of  fixed  and  specific  luws  in  the  succession  of  their  kings,*  gava 
rise  to  innumerable  factions,  encuuniged  insolence,  and  foment- 
ed troubles  and  intestine  wars.  An  extravagant  and  supersti- 
tious devotion,  by  loading  the  church  with  wealth,  aggravated 
still  more  the  evils  with  which  these  kingdoms  were  distracted. 
The  bishops  and  the  new  metropolitans,'*^  enriched  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  crown-lands,  and  rendered  bold  by  their  power, 
and  the  strength  of  their  castles,  domineered  in  the  senate  and 
the  assemblies  of  the  states,  and  neglected  no  opportunity  of 
encroaching  on  the  sovereign's  authority.  They  obtained,  by 
compulsion,  the  introduction  of  tithes,  and  the  immunity  of  the 
ecclesiastics  ;  and  thus  more  and  more  increased  and  cemented 
the  sacerdotal  power.*  This  state  of  trouble  and  internal  com- 
motion tended  to  abate  that  ardour  for  maritime  incursions 
which  had  so  long  agitated  the  Scandinavian  nations.  It  did 
not,  however,  prevent  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Sweden  from 
undt^riaking,  from  time  to  time,  expeditions  by  sea,  under  the 
name  of  Crusades,  for  the  conversion  of  the  Pagan  nations  of 
he  North,  whose  territories  they  were  ambitious  to  conquer. 

The  Siavians,  who  inhabited  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  were 
ihcn  constantly  committing  piracies,  in  imitation  of  the  ancient 


^ 


enry  IITi  •» 
n  weak  and 
do  hi8  name 
incipalily  ot 

vas  ruled  by 
tritish  kings, 
the  kingf  of 

sovereignty 
I,  having  ei> 

Henry  III., 
salage  of  the 
him  (1282;) 
WU8  defeated 
ivid,  his  bro- 
choly.  Hav- 
ncd  to  death, 
if  Wales  was 
son  Edward, 
borne  by  the 

inted,  in  cen- 
Irnage.  The 
[)ns,  the  want 
kings,**  gave 

and  foment- 
and  superati* 
1,  aggravated 
re  distracted. 
»d  at  the  ex- 

their  power, 
le  senate  and 
pportunity  of 

obtained,  by 
nunity  of  the 

nd  cemented 
internal  com- 
le  incursions 
lions.  It  did 
Sweden  from 
3a,  under  the 
m  nations  of 

o  conquer. 
Baltic,  were 

f  the  ancient 


riRioD  tv.     A.  D.  1074 — 1300. 


Ml 


NormunH,  plundering  and  ravaging  the  provinces  and  itlanda 
of  Denmark.  Vuldemar  I.,  wi.<<hiiig  to  put  an  end  to  lhl■^c  de< 
va.itationN,  and  thimling  moreover  for  the  glory  of  converting  to 
Chri^tillnity  ihone  nations  ugain!)t  whom  all  the  efTorlN  of  the 
Gurmun.s  hud  failed,  attacked  them  at  different  timet  with  hie 
numerous  flotillas.  He  took  and  pillaged  several  of  their  towns, 
such  ai  Arcuna  and  Curentz  or  Guriz,  in  the  i.sle  of  Kugen 
(1168,)  Julin,  now  culled  Wollin,  and  Stettin,  two  seaports  in 
Pomeraniu  (1175-6.)  He  made  the  princes  of  Kugen  his  vas- 
sals and  tributaries,  and  is  generally  regarded  an  the  founder  of 
Duntzic  (116(3,)  which  originally  wa.i  merely  a  fort  constructed 
by  the  Danes.  Canute  VI.,  son  and  successor  of  Valdemar  I., 
followed  the  example  of  hin  father;  he  reduced  the  princes  of 
Pomerania  (1183)  and  Mecklenburg  (1186,)  uiid  the  Counts  of 
Schwerin  (1201,)  to  a  state  of  dependence;  he  made  himself 
master  of  Hamburg  and  Lubec,  and  subdued  the  whole  of  Hol- 
Btein.  Valdemar  II.  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the  Slavians, 
and  Lord  of  Nordalbingia.  He  added  Luuenburg,  a  part  of 
Prussia,  E^thonia,  and  the  Isle  of  Oesel,  to  the  conquests  of  his 
predecessors,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  cities  of  Strulsund 
and  Revel  (1209  and  1222.) 

This  prince,  master  of  nearly  the  whole  southern  coast  of  the 
Baltic,  and  raised  to  the  summit  of  prosperity  by  the  superiority 
of  his  commercial  and  maritime  power,  commanded  for  a  time 
the  attention  of  all  Europe  ;  but  an  unforeseen  event  eclipsed 
his  glory,  and  deprived  him  of  all  the  advantages  of  his  victories 
and  his  conquests.  Henry,  Count  of  Schwerin,  one  of  the  vas- 
sals of  Valdemar,  wishing  to  avenge  an  outrage  which  he  pre- 
tended to  have  received  from  him,  seized  that  prince  by  surprise 
(1223,)  and  detained  him  for  three  years  prisoner  in  the  castle 
of  Schwerin.  This  circumstance  aroused  the  courage  of  the 
o^her  vanquished  nations,  who  instantly  took  to  arms.  Adol- 
phus.  Count  of  Schauenburg,  penetrated  into  Holstein,  and 
subdued  the  princes  of  Mecklenburg  and  Pomerania,  with  the 
cities  of  Hamburg  and  Lubec.  Valdetnar,  restored  to  liberty, 
made  several  efforts  to  reconquer  his  revolted  provinces  ;  but  .i 
powerful  confederacy  being  formed  against  him,  he  was  defeat- 
ed in  a  battle  fought  (1221,)  at  Bornhoevet,  near  Segeberg,  in 
Holstein.  Of  all  his  conquests,  he  retained  only  the  Isle  of 
Rugen,  Esthonia,  and  the  town  of  Revel,  which,  in  course  of 
lime,  were  lost  or  abandoned  by  his  successors. 

Sweden,  which  had  been  governed  in  succession  by  the  dy- 
nasties of  Slenkil,  Swerkar,  and  <S/.  Eric,  was  long  a  prey  to 
internal  dissensions,  which  arose  principally  from  the  two  dif- 
ferent forms  of  worship  professed  and  authorized  by  the  state. 


^"1 


l:t. 


■^ 


r    \ 


-•  '1.        ^■ 

•in 


t^H 


iiiii 


\Si 


CHAPTER  T. 


I    ! 


The  whole  nation,  divided  in  their  religious  sentiments,  saw 
themselves  arranged  into  two  factions,  and  under  two  reigning 
families,  mutually  hating  and  exasperated  against  each  other, 
for  nearly  half  a  century.  Two,  and  sometimes  more,  princes 
were  seen  reigning  at  once  from  1080  till  1133,  when  the  throne 
began  to  be  occupied  ultimately  by  the  descendants  of  Sweyn 
and  St.  Eric.  During  all  this  time,  violence  usurped  the  place 
of  right,  and  the  crown  of  Sweden  was  more  than  once  the 
prize  of  assassination  and  treason. 

In  the  midst  of  these  intestine  disorders,  we  find  the  Swedes 
even  attempting  foreign  conquests.  To  these  they  were  insti- 
gated both  by  the  genius  of  the  age,  which  encouraged  crusades 
and  military  missions,  as  well  as  by  the  desire  of  avenging  the 
piracies  which  the  Finlanders,  and  other  Pagan  tribes  of  the 
North,  committed  from  time  to  time  on  the  coasts  of  Sweden. 
St.  Eric  became  at  once  the  apostle  and  the  conqueror  of  Fin- 
land  (1157;)  he  established  alst.  a  Swedish  colony  in  Nyland, 
and  subdued  the  provinces  of  Helsingland  and  Jamptland. 
Charles  I.,  son  of  Swerkar,  united  the  kingdom  of  Gothland  to 
Sweden,  and  was  the  first  that  took  the  title  of  these  two  king- 
doms. Eric,  surnamed  Laspe,  or  the  Lisper,  resumed  the  cru- 
sading system  of  warfare ;  and,  in  the  character  of  a  missionary, 
conquered  Tavastland  and  the  eastern  part  of  Bothnia.  Birger, 
a  prince  of  the  Folkungian  dynasty,  who  ascended  the  throne 
of  Sweden  in  1250,  conquered,  under  the  same  pretext,  Carelia 
and  Savolax,  and  fortified  Viburg.  He  compelled  the  inhabit- 
ants of  these  countries  to  embrace  the  Christian  religion  (1293,) 
and  annexed  them  to  Finland.  We  find,  also,  several  of  the 
Swedish  kings  undertaking  missionary  expeditions  against  their 
Pagan  neighbours  the  Esthonians,  who,  from  time  to  time,  com- 
mitted dreadful  ravages  on  the  coasts  of  Sweden.  These  ex- 
peditions, which  were  always  esteemed  sacred,  served  as  an 
excuse  for  the  sovereigns  of  the  North  in  avoiding  the  crusades 
to  the  Holy  Land,  in  which  they  took  no  part.^ 

Prussia  and  the  Prussians  are  totally  unknown  in  history  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  tenth  century.^  The  author  of  the  Life  of 
St.  Adelbert  of  Prague,  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  Prussia  in 
the  reign  of  Otho  III.,  is  the  first  that  mentions  them  under  this 
new  name  (997.)  Two  hundred  years  after,  the  Abb^  of  Oliva, 
surnamed  the  Christian,  became  the  apostle  of  the  Prussians, 
and  was  appointed  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  the  first  bishop  oi 
Prussia  (1215.)  This  idolatrous  nation,  haughty  and  indepen- 
dent, and  attached  to  the  reigning  superstition,  having  repulsed 
all  the  efforts  that  were  repeatedly  made  to  convert  them  to 
Christianity,  Pope  Honorius  III.,  in  the  true  spirit  of  his  age, 


m.^ 


imenls,  sew 
wo  reigning 
each  otheTi 
lore,  princes 
n  the  throne 
8  of  Sweyn 
led  the  place 
an  once  the 

the  Swedes 
y  were  insti- 
ged  crusades 
avenging  the 
tribes  of  the 
;  of  Sweden, 
leror  of  Fin- 
y  in  Nyland, 
1   Jainptland. 
■  Gothland  to 
>se  two  king- 
imed  the  cru- 
a  missionary, 
Lnia.    Birger, 
ed  the  throne 
etext,  Carelia 
the  inhabit- 
gion  (1293.) 
everal  of  the 
against  their 
to  time,  com- 
These  ex- 
served  as  an 
the  crusades 

in  history  be- 
of  the  Life  ol 
in  Prussia  in 
em  under  this 
bb^  of  Oliva, 
he  Prussians, 
rst  bishop  oi 
and  indepen- 
ving  repulsed 
ivert  them  to 
it  of  his  age, 


'1^' 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074 — 1300. 


153 


Cublished  a  Crusade  against  them  (131S,)  to  proselytize  them 
y  force.  Armies  of  crusaders  were  poured  into  Prussia,  nnd 
overran  the  whole  country  nilh  fire  and  sword.  The  Prussinns 
took  cruel  vengeance  on  the  Polonese  of  Masovia,  who  had 
made  common  cause  against  them  with  the  crusaders  of  the 
East.  At  length,  Conrad,  duke  of  Masovia,  finding  himself  too 
weak  to  withstand  the  fury  of  the  Prussians,  called  in  the  Teu- 
tonic knights  to  his  aid  ;  and,  anxious  to  secure  for  ever  the  as- 
sistance and  protection  of  that  order,  he  made  them  a  grant  of 
the  territory  of  Culm  ;  and  moreover,  promised  them  whatever 
lands  he  might  conquer  from  the  common  enemy  (1226.)  This 
contract  having  been  sanctioned  by  the  Emperor  Frederic  11., 
the  knights  speedily  came  into  possession  of  their  new  domin- 
ions (1230.)  They  extended  themselves  by  degrees  over  all 
Prussia,  after  a  long  and  murderous  war,  which  they  had  car- 
ried on  against  the  idolatrous  natives.  That  country,  which 
had  been  peopled  by  numerous  German  colonies  in  succession, 
did  not  submit  to  the  yoke  of  the  Teutonic  order,  until  the 
greater  part  of  its  ancient  inhabitants  had  been  destroyed.  The 
Knights  took  care  to  confirm  their  authority  and  their  relip'ion 
in  Prussia,  by  constructing  cities  and  forts,  and  founding 
bishoprics  and  convents.  The  city  of  Koninsberg  *'  on  the 
Pregel,  was  built  in  1255;  and  that  of  Marienburg  on  the  No- 
gat,  which  became  the  capital  of  the  Order,  i.^  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  in  1280. 

The  Teutonic  knights  completed  the  conquest  of  that  coun- 
try (1283,)  by  the  reduction  of  Sudavia,  the  last  of  the  eleven 
provinces  which  composed  ancient  Prussia.  We  can  scarcely 
conceive  how  a  handful  of  these  knights  should  have  been  able, 
in  so  short  a  time,  to  vanquish  a  warlike  and  powerful  nation, 
inspired  with  the  love  of  liberty,  and  emboldened  by  fanaticism 
to  make  the  most  intrepid  and  obstinate  defence.  But  we  ought 
to  take  into  consideration,  that  the  indulgences  of  the  court  of 
Rome  allured  continually  into  Prussia  a  multitude  of  crusaders 
from  all  the  provinces  of  the  Empire ;  and  that  the  knights 
gained  these  over  to  their  ranks,  by  distributing  among  them 
the  lands  which  they  had  won  by  conquest.  In  this  way,  their 
numbers  were  incessantly  recruited  by  new  colonies  of  crusp- 
ders,  and  the  nobles  flocked  in  crowds  to  their  standard,  to  seek 
territorial  acquisitions  in  Prussia. 

The  increase  of  commerce  on  the  Baltic,  in  the  twelAh  cen- 
tury, led  the  Germans  to  discover  the  coasts  of  Livonia.  Some 
merchants  from  Bremen,  on  their  way  to  Wisby,  in  the  island 
of  Gothland,  a  seaport  on  the  Baltic  very  much  frequented  at 
that  time,  were  thrown  by  a  tempest  on  the  coast  near  the  mouth 


rl|is| 


*:1 


4'^ 

■4    1> 


^ »« " ' 


iii) 


154  CHAPTER   V, 

of  the  Dwina  (1158.)  The  ('"sire  o<"  gain  induced  them  to  enter 
into  a  correspondence  willi  the  natives  of  the  country ;  and, 
from  a  wish  to  give  stability  to  a  branch  of  commerce  which 
miirht  become  very  lucrative,  they  attempted  to  introduce  the 
Christian  religion  into  Livonia.  A  monk  of  Segeberg  in  HoN 
stein,  named  Mainard,  undertook  this  mission.  He  was  the  first 
bishop  of  Livonia  (1192.)  and  fixed  his  residence  at  the  castle  of 
Uxkull,  which  he  strengthened  by  fortifications.  Berthold,  his 
successor,  wishing  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  Christianity,  as 
well  as  to  avoid  the  dangers  to  which  his  mission  exposed  him, 
caused  the  Pope  to  publish  a  crusade  against  the  Livonians. 
This  zealous  prelate  perished  sword  in  hand,  fighting  against 
the  people  whom  he  intended  to  convert.  The  priests,  aftei 
this,  were  either  massacred  or  expelled  from  Livonia ;  but,  in  a 
short  time,  a  new  army  of  crusaders  marched  into  the  country, 
under  the  banner  of  Albert,  the  third  bishop,  who  built  the  city 
of  Riga,  (1200)  which  became  the  seat  of  his  bishopric,  and  after- 
wards the  metropolitan  see  of  all  Prussia  and  Livonia.  The 
same  prelate  founded  the  military  order  of  the  Knights  of  Christ 
or  Sword-bearers,  to  whom  he  ceded  the  hird  of  all  the  coun- 
tries he  had  conquered.  This  order,  confirmed  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent III.  (1204,)  finding  themselves  too  weak  to  oppose  the 
Pagans  of  Livonia,  agreed  to  unite  with  the  Teutonic  order 
(1237,)  who,  at  that  time,  nominated  the  generals  or  provincial 
masters  in  I<ivonia,  known  by  the  names  of  Heermeister  and 
Landmeister.  Pope  Gregory  IX.,  in  confirming  the  union  of 
these  two  orders,  exacted  the  surrender  of  the  districts  of  Revel, 
Wesemberg,  Weisenstein,  and  Hapsal,  to  Valdemar  II.,  which  the 
knights,  with  consent  of  the  Bishop  of  Dorpat,  had  taken  from  him 
during  his  captivity.  This  retrocession  was  made  by  an  act  pass- 
ed at  Strensby,  (1238.)  Several  documents  which  still  exist  in 
the  private  archives  of  the  Teutonic  order  at  Koningsberg,  and 
especially  two,  dated  1249  and  1254,  prove  that,  at  this  p'jriod, 
the  bishops  of  Riga  still  exercised  superiority,  both  temporal  and 
spiritual,  over  these  Knights  Sword-bearers,  although  they  were 
united  with  the  Teutonic  order,  which  was  independent  of  these 
bishops.  The  combination  of  these  two  orders  rendered  them  so 
powerful,  that  they  gradually  extended  their  conquests  over  all 
Prussia,  Livonia,  Courland,  and  Semigallia;  bat  they  could 
never  succeed  farther  than  to  subject  these  nations  to  a  rigorous 
servitude,  under  pretence  of  conversion. 

Before  we  speak  of  Russia  and  the  other  Eastern  countries  of 
Europe,  it  will  be  necessary  to  turn  our  attention  for  a  little  to 
the  Moguls,  whose  conquests  and  depredations  extended,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  from  the  extremity  of  northern  Asia,  over 


r- 


'    * 
:'   t 

i    ii 

V 

!      S' 

■i      1 
I      tl 

!    tc 
tl] 


it 


tiem  to  enter 
untry ;  and, 
iierce  which 
ilroduce  the 
berg  in  Hol- 
I  was  the  first 
the  castle  of 
Berthold,  his 
ristianity,  as 
exposed  him, 
le  Livonians.     1 1 
iting  against     I, 
priests,  aftei      | 
lia ;  but,  in  a    1 1 
I  the  country,    j  j 
built  the  city    j 
iric,  and  after-    j 
ivonia.     The 
ghts  of  Christ 
all  the  coun- 
y  Pope  Inno-    ! 
to  oppose  the 
teutonic  order    | 
or  provincial     i 
ermeister  and 
the  union  of 
•icts  of  Revel, 
II.,  which  the 
iken  from  him 
»y  an  act  pass- 
h  still  exist  in 
lingsberg,  and 
at  this  period, 
temporal  and 
gh  they  were 
ndent of  these 
idered  them  so 
uests  over  all 
t  they  could 
to  a  rigorous 

Irn  countries  of 
I  for  a  little  to 
Llended,  in  the 
km  Asia,  over 


PKRIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074 — 1300. 


160 


Russia  and  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  The  native  countrv  of 
this  people  is  found  to  be  those  same  regions  which  they  still 
inhabit  in  our  day,  and  which  arc  situated  to  the  north  of  the 
great  wall  of  China,  between  Eastern  Tartary  and  modern  Buk- 
haria.  They  are  generally  confounded  with  the  Tartars,  from 
whom  they  differ  essentially,  both  in  their  appearance  and  man- 
ners, as  well  as  in  their  religion  and  political  institutions.  This 
nation  is  divided  into  two  principal  branches,  the  Eluths  or 
Oelots,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Calmucs,  and  the  Moguls, 
properly  so  called.  These  latter,  separated  from  the  Calmucs 
by  the  mountains  of  Altai,  are  now  subject  to  the  dominion  of 
China. 

The  Moguls,  scarcely  known  at  present  in  the  history  of  Eu- 
rope, owe  their  greatness  to  the  genius  of  one  man — the  famous 
Zinghis  Khan.  This  extraordinary  person,  whose  real  name 
was  Temudgin,  or,  according  to  Pallas,  Damutschin,  was  born 
in  the  year  1163,  and  originally  nothing  more  than  the  chief  of 
a  particular  horde  of  Moguls,  who  had  settled  on  the  banks  of 
the  rivers  Onon  and  Kerlon,  and  were  tributary  to  the  empire  of 
Kin.  His  first  exploits  were  against  the  other  hordes  of  Mo- 
guls, whom  he  compelled  to  acknowledge  his  authority.  Em 
boldened  by  success,  he  conceived  the  romantic  idea  of  aspiring 
to  be  the  conqueror  of  the  world.  For  this  pi- 1  pose,  he  as.«em- 
bled  near  the  source  of  the  river  Onon,  in  12* Ki.  all  the  chiefs 
of  the  Mogul  hordes,  and  the  generals  of  his  iruiies.  A  certain 
pretender  to  inspiration,  whom  the  people  regarded  as  a  holy 
man,  appeared  in  the  assembly,  and  declared  that  it  was  the  will 
of  God  that  Temudgin  should  rule  over  the  whole  earth, — that 
all  nations  should  submit  to  him, — and  that  henceforth  he  should 
bear  the  title  of  Tschinghis-Khaii,  or  Most  Great  Emperor.*^ 

In  a  short  time,  this  new  conqueror  subdued  the  two  great 
empires  of  the  Tartars ;  one  of  which,  called  also  the  empire  of 
Kin,  embraced  the  whole  of  Eastern  Tartary,  and  the  northern 
part  of  China ;  the  other,  that  of  Kara-Kitai,  or  the  Khitans,  ex- 
tended over  Western  Tartary,  and  had  its  capital  at  Kaschgar 
in  Bukharia.^^  He  afterwards  attacked  the  Carismian  Sultans 
who  ruled  over  Turkestan,  Transoxiana,  Charasm,  Chora- 
san,  and  all  Persia,  from  Derbent  to  Irak-Arabia  and  the  Indies. 
This  powerful  monarchy  was  overturned  by  Zinghis-Khan,  in 
the  course  of  six  campaigns ;  and  it  was  during  this  war  that 
the  Moguls,  while  marching  under  the  conduct  of  Toushi,  the 
eldest  son  of  Zinghis-Khan,  against  the  Kipzacs  or  Capchacs, 
to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  made  their  first  inroad  into 
the  Russian  empire.  Zinghis,  after  having  subdued  the  whole 
of  Tangout,  died  in  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  his  age  (1227.)     His- 


4'^'' 


>+■;  \ 


.1 


'\ 


1        ,'■ 


wm  \ 


«?•"■*' 


II 


■4 


iM 


$ 


h  |Hi 


m 


l/SG  CHAPTER  V. 

torians  have  remarked  in  him  the  traits  of  a  great  mnn,  bom 
to  command  others,  but  whose  noble  qualities  were  tarnished  by 
the  ferocity  of  his  nature,  which  took  delight  in  carnage,  plun- 
der, and  devastation.  Humanity  shudders  at  the  recital  of  the 
inexpressible  horrors  exercised  by  this  barbarian,  whose  maxim 
was  to  exterminate,  without  mercy,  all  who  offered  the  least  re- 
sistance to  his  victorious  arms. 

The  successors  of  this  Mogul  conqueror  followed  him  in  his 
career  of  victory.     They  achieved  the  conquest  of  all  China, 
overturned  the  caliphate  of  Bagdat,  and  rendered  the  sultans  of 
Iconium  their  tributaries.**     Octai-Khan,  the  immediate  succes- 
sor of  Zinghis,  despatched  from  the  centre  of  China  two  pow- 
erful armies,  the  one  against  Corea,  and  the  other  against  the 
nations  that  lie  to  the  north  and  north-west  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
This  latter  expedition,  which  had  for  its  chiefs  Gayouk,  son  of 
Octai,  and  Batou,  eldest  son  of  Toushi,  and  grandson  of  Zinghis- 
Khan,  after  having  subdued  all  Kipzak,  penetrated  into  Russia, 
which  they  conquered  in  1237.     Hence  they  spread  over  Poland, 
Silesia,  Moravia,  Hungary,  and  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea;  they  plundered  cities,  laid  waste  the  country, 
and  carried  terror  and  destruction  wherever  they  went.**    All 
Europe  trembled  at  the  sight  of  these  barbarians,  who  seemed 
as  if  they  wished  to  make  the  whole  earth  one  vast  empire  of 
desolation.     The  empire  of  the  Moguls  attained  its  highest  point 
of  elevation  under  Cublai,  grandson  of  Zinghis,  towards  the  end 
of  the  13th  century.     From  south  to  north,  it  extended  from 
the  Chinese  Sea  and  the  Indies,  to  the  extremity  of  Siberia ; 
and  from  east  to  west,  from  Japan  to  Asia  Minor,  and  the  fron- 
tiers of  Poland  in  Europe.     China,  and  Chinese  Tartary  formed 
the  seat  of  the  empire,  and  the  residence  of  the  Great  Khan  ; 
while  the  other  parts  of  the  dominions  were  governed  by  princes 
of  the  family  of  Zinghis  Khan,  who  either  acknowledged  the 
Great  Khan  as  their  supreme  master,  or  had  their  own  particular 
kings  and  chiefs  that  paid  him  tribute.     The  principal  subordi- 
nate Khans  of  the  race  of  Zinghis,  were  those  of  Persia,  Zagatai, 
and  Kipzac.     Their  dependence  on  the  Great  Khan  or  emperor 
of  China,  ceased  entirely  on  the  death  of  Cublai  (1294,)  and  the 
power  of  the  Moguls  soon  became  extinct  in  China.*" 

As  for  the  Moguls  of  Kipzac,  their  dominion  extended  over 
all  the  Tartar  countries  situated  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  and 
the  Euxine,  as  also  over  Russia  and  the  Crimea.  Batou-Khan, 
eldest  son  of  Toushi,  was  the  founder  of  this  dynasty.  Being 
addicted  to  a  wandering  life,  the  Khans  of  Kipzac  encamped  on 
the  banks  of  the  Wolga,  passing  from  one  place  to  another  with 
their  tents  and  flocks,  acording  to  the  custom  of  the  Mogul  and 


li 


at  mnn,  bom 
» tarnished  by 
[image,  plun- 
recilal  of  the 
whose  maxim 
d  the  least  re- 
red  him  in  his 
of  all  China, 
the  saltans  of 
lediate  succes- 
hina  two  pow- 
er agfainst  the 
>  Caspian  Sea. 
layouk,  son  of 
son  of  Zinghis* 
;d  into  Russia, 
ad  over  Poland, 
rdering  on  the 
e  the  country, 
!y  went.**     All 
s,  who  seemed 
[vast  empire  of 
ts  highest  point 
towards  the  end 
extended  from 
lity  of  Siberia ; 
and  the  fron- 
'artary  formed 
Great  Khan ; 
■rned  by  princes 
:nowledged  the 
r  own  particular 
incipal  subordi- 
^ersia,  Zagatai, 
lan  or  emperor 
1294,)  and  the 
ina.** 

extended  over 
le  Caspian  and 
Batou-Khan, 
ynasty.  Being 
ac  encamped  on 
to  another  with 
the  Mogul  and 


rsBioD  IV.    A.  D.  1074 — 1300. 


W 


Tartar  nations.*^  The  principal  sect  of  these  Khans  was  called 
the  Graiid  or  Golden  Horde  or  the  Horde  of  Kipzac,  which  was 
long  an  object  of  the  greatest  terror  to  the  KuMsianN,  Poles, 
Lithuanians  and  Hungarians.  Its  glory  declined  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  entirely  di^^appeared  under 
the  last  Khan  Achrnet,  in  1481.  A  few  separate  hordes  were 
III!  that  remained,  detached  from  the  grand  horde,  such  as  those 
of  Cassan,  Astracan,  Siberia  and  the  Crimea ; — all  of  which  were 
m  their  turn  subdued  or  extirpated  by  the  Russians.'"' 

A  crowd  u(  princes,  descendants  of  Vlademir  the  Oreat,  had 
shared  among  them  the  vast  dominions  of  Russia.  One  of  these 
princes  invested  with  the  dignity  of  Grand  Duke,  exercised  cer- 
tain rights  of  superiority  over  the  restt  who  nevertheless  acted 
the  part  of  petty  sovereigns,  and  made  war  on  each  other.  The 
capital  of  these  Grand  Dukes  was  Kiow,  which  was  also  regard- 
ed as  the  metropolis  of  the  empire.  Andrew  I.  prince  uf  Suzdal, 
having  assumed  the  title  of  Grand  Duke  (1157,)  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Vlademir  on  the  river  Kliazma,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  a 
kind  of  political  schism,  the  consequences  of  which  were  most 
fatal  to  the  Russians.  The  Grand  Dutchy  of  Kiow,  with  its 
dependent  principalities,  detached  themrelvcs  by  degree.<)  from 
the  rest  of  the  empire,  and  finally  became  a  prey  to  the  Lithu- 
anians and  Poles. 

In  the  midst  of  these  divisions  and  intestine  broils,  and  when 
Russia  was  struggling  with  difHculty  against  the  Bulgarians, 
Polowzians,''^  and  other  barbarous  tribes  in  the  neighbourhood, 
she  had  the  misfortune  to  be  attacked  by  the  Moguls  under 
Zinghid  Khan.  Toushi,  eldest  son  of  that  conqueror,  having 
marched  round  the  Caspian,  in  order  to  attack  tho  Polowzians, 
encountered  on  his  passage  the  Princes  uf  Kiow,  who  were 
allies  of  that  people.  The  battle  which  he  fought  (1223,)  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Kalka,  was  one  of  the-  most  sanguinary 
lecorded  in  history.  The  Russians  were  totally  d<;feated ;  six 
of  their  princes  perished  on  the  field  of  battle ;  and  the  whole 
of  Western  Russia  was  laid  open  to  the  conqueror.  The  Mo- 
guls penetrated  as  far  as  Novogorod,  wasting  the  whole  country 
on  their  march  with  fire  and  sword.  They  returned  by  the  same 
route,  but  without  extending  their  ravages  farther.  In  1237 
they  made  a  second  invasion,  under  the  conduct  of  Batou,  son 
of  Toushi,  and  governor  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  Mogul 
empire.  This  prince,  after  having  vanquished  the  Polow- 
zians and  Bulgarians,  that  is,  the  whole  country  of  Kipzac, 
entered  the  north  of  Russia,  where  he  took  Rugen  and  Moscow, 
and  cut  to  pieces  an  army  of  the  Russians  near  Kolomna. 
Several  other  towns  in  this  part  of  Russia  were  sucked  by  the 


it^ 


!  : 


I 


t: 


'I  h 


(»!?'!1: 


108  CHAPTER    V. 

Moguls,  in  the  commencement  of  the  following  year.  The 
laiiilly  of  the  Grand  DuWe,  Juri  II.,  perished  in  the  sack  of  Via- 
deinir;  and  he  himself  fell  in  the  battle  which  he  fought  with 
the  Moiruls  near  the  river  Sila.  Batou  extended  his  conquests 
in  Northern  Russia  as  far  as  the  city  Torshok,  in  the  territory  ol 
Ndvofrorod.  For  some  years  he  continued  his  ravages  over  the 
whole'of  Western  Russia  ;  where,  among  others,  he  took  Kiow, 
Kaminiec  in  Podolia,  Vladeniir  and  Halitsch.  From  this  we 
may  date  the  fall  of  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Kiow,  or  Western 
Russia,  which,  with  its  dependent  principalities  in  the  following 
century,  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Lithuanians  and  Poles. 
As  for  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Vlademir,  which  comprehended 
Eastern  and  Northern  Russia,  it  was  subdued  by  the  Moguls 
or  Tartars,  whose  terrible  yoke  it  wore  for  more  than  two 
hundred  years.** 

An  extraordinary  person  who  appeared  at  this  disastrous 
crisis,  preserved  that  part  of  Russia  from  sinking  into  total 
ruin.  This  was  Prince  Alexander,  son  of  the  Grand  Duke, 
Jaroslaus  II.,  who  obtained  the  epithet  or  suriiame  of  Newski, 
from  a  victory  which  he  gained  over  the  Knights  of  Livonia 
near  the  Neva,  (1241.)  Elevated  by  the  Khun  Batou,  to  the 
dignity  of  Grand  Duke  (1246,)  he  secured,  by  his  prudent  con- 
duct, his  punctuality  in  paying  tribute,  and  preserving  his  al- 
legiance to  the  Mogul  emperors,  the  good  will  of  these  new 
masters  of  Russia,  during  his  whole  reign.  When  this  great 
prince  died  in  1261,  his  name  was  enrolled  iri  their  calendar  of 
saints.  Peter  the  Great  built,  in  honour  of  his  memory,  a  con- 
vent on  the  banks  of  the  Neva,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Alexander  Newski ;  and  the  Empress  Catherine  I.,  instituted 
an  order  of  knighthood  that  was  also  called  after  the  name  of 
that  prince.  . 

Poland,  which  was  divided  among  several  prmces  of  the 
Piast  dynasty,  had  become,  at  the  time  of  which  vve  speak,  a 
prey  to  intestine  factions,  and  exposed  to  the  incursions  of  the 
neighbouring  barbarians.  These  divisions,  the  principal  source 
of  all  the  evils  that  afflicted  Poland,  continued  down  to  the 
death  of  Boleslaus  II.  (1138,)  who,  having  portioned  his  es- 
tates among  his  sons,  ordered  that  the  eldest  should  retain  the 
district  of  Cracow,  under  the  title  of  Monarch,  and  that  he 
should  exercise  the  rights  of  superiority  over  the  provincial 
dukes  and  princes,  his  brothers.  This  clause,  which  might 
have  prevented  the  dismemberment  of  the  state,  served  only  to 
kindle  the  flame  of  discord  among  these  collegatory  princes, 
iriadislaus,  who  is  generally  considered  as  the  eldest  of  these 
sons,  having  attempted  to  dispossess  his  brothero  (1146,)  they 


-«l^ 


g  year.  The 
e  sack  of  Via- 
e  fought  with 
his  conquests 
he  territory  ol 
cages  over  the 
he  took  Kiow, 
From  this  we 
,',  or  Western 
the  following 
ins  and  Poles, 
comprehended 
y  the  Moguls 
lore  than  two 

his  disastrous 
ing  into  total 
Grand  Duke, 
ne  of  Newski, 
its  of  Livonia 
Batou,  to  the 
3  prudent  con- 
erving  his  al- 
of  these  new 
ben  this  great 
eir  calendar  of 
lernory,  a  con- 
!  the  name  of 
•  I.,  instituted 
■  the  name  of 

princes  of  the 
1  we  speak,  a 
ursions  of  the 
rincipal  source 
1  down  to  the 
tioned  his  es- 
uld  retain  the 
,  and  that  he 
the  provincial 
,  which  might 
served  only  to 
ratory  princes, 
ildest  of  these 
.  (1146.)  they 


I 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300. 


1» 


rose  in  arms,  expelled  him  from  Poland,  and  obliged  his  de- 
scendants  to  content  themselves  with  Silesia.  His  sons  founded 
m  that  country,  numerous  families  of  dukes  and  princes,  who 
introduced  German  coIon.es  into  Silesia  ;  all  of  which,  in  course 

!^r  SmlrT'r?J'''i°  '^'  Y'"^'  "•■  «"^"''"'»-  Conrad,  son 
of  Casimir  the  Jus  ,  and  grandson  of  Boleslaus   III.,  was  ih*- 

TZTJ  '\  ^"!''''  u"*"  ^"J"^'"  '^"'^  ^^"^"^i"-  I^  ^vas  this 
pnnce  who  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  Teutonic  Kni<rhts 
against  the  Pagans  of  Prussia,  and  established  that  orde^  in 
the  territory  of  Culm  (1230.) 

,.n?„^fP°r'fV?J.'n^o"^.^''"'l"'^*'«''  Russia,  took  posses- 
r  Jhi  HI  l^^^-^    ?""'"8^  Sf«'"*''  '^^  '''<='°^y  «t  «he  battle 

?iS'  "«""!•  '^'^  u'  '^'^  '°  ^''^•^°^^'  ^"'^  'hen  marched  to 
Lignilz  m  Siles.a,  where  a  numerous  army  of  crusaders  were 
assembled  under  the  command  of  Henry,  duke  of  Breslau. 
,!?.?"■"''''  """^  ■l^'^^'^'^'  """^  ^"''»'"  '"  "i«  action.  The  whole 
fated'lTJhe'Mrg'!"  ''°''''"''  '''''  ""^"^  P'"«8«^  """^  ^-O' 
Hungary,  at  this  period,  presented  the  spectacle  of  a  warlike 

H^ir",."?"?  .^''''u'  '^^  ^T'^'y  "'■  '"^"'^  ">""""«  cannot  be 
better  attested  than  by  the  laws  passed  in  the  reigns  of  Ladis- 
laus  and  Coloman,  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  and  becrjnninff 

the  loss  of  liberty,  or  of  some  member  of  the  body,  such  as  the 
eye,  the  nose,  the  tongue,  &c.  These  laws  were" published  in 
heir  general  assemblies,  which  were  composed  of  the  kinc 
the  great  officers  of  the  crown,  and  the  representatives  of  the 
clergy  and  the  free  men.  All  the  other  branches  of  the  execu! 
ive  power  pertained  to  the  kings,  who  made  war  and  peace  at 
their  pleasure;  while  the  counts  or  governors  of  provinces 
claimed  no  power  either  personal  or  hereditary  " 

Under  a  government  so  despotic,  it  was  easy  for  the  kings 
of  Hungary  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  their  states.  Ladis- 
laus  took  from  the  Greeks  the  dutchy  of  Sirmium  (1080,)  com- 
prising the  lower  part  of  Sclavonia.  This  same  princTextend- 
ed  his  conquests  into  Croatia,  a  country  which  was  governed 
for  several  ages  by  the  Slavian  princes,  who  possessed  Upper 
Sclavonia  and  ruled  over  a  great  part  of  ancient  Illyria  and 
Dalmatia,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Croatia.  Dircislaus 
xvas  the  first  of  these  princes  that  took  the  title  of  kin^  (in  984  ) 
Demetrius  Swinimir,  one  of  his  successors,  did  homage  to  the 
t;ope,  in  order  to  obtain  the  protection  of  the  Holy  Se^  (1076.) 
1  he  line  of  these  kings  having  become  extinct  some  time  after  ' 
Ladislaus,  whose  sister  had  been  married  to  Demetrius  Swini-  | 
mir,  took  advantage  of  the  commoUon  that  had  arisen  in  Croatia.     I 

I 


\y  , 


|i 


i 


h  !' 


>     III  \ 


'n 


m 


M'l 


160  CRAPTBR   V. 

and  conquered  a  great  part  of  that  kingdom  (1091,)  and  «•• 
pecially  Upper  Sclavonia,  which  was  one  of  its  dependencies. 
Coiom'on  completed  their  conquest  in  1102,  and  the  same  year 
he  was  crowned  at  Belgrade  king  of  Croatia  nnd  Dalmatia.  In 
course  of  a  few  years,  he  subdued  the  maritime  cities  of  Dal- 
nmtia,  such  ns  Spoiairo,  Trau,  and  Zara,  which  he  took  from 
the  republic  of  Venice.*'  The  kingdom  of  Rama  or  Bosnia, 
fell  at  the  same  time  under  his  power.  He  took  the  title  of 
King  of  Rama(1103;)  and  Bela  II.,  his  successor,  made  over 
the  dulchy  of  Bosnia  to  Ladislaus,  his  younger  son.  The  so- 
vereignty of  the  Kings  of  Hungary  was  also  occasionally  ac- 
knowledged by  the  princes  and  kings  of  Bulgaria  and  Servia, 
and  even  by  the  Russian  princes  of  Halilsch  and  Wolodimir. 

These  conquests  gave  rise  to  an  abuse  'vhich  soon  proved 
fatal  to  Hungary.  The  kings  claimed  for  themselves  the  right 
of  disposing  of  the  newly  conquered  provinces  in  favour  of  their 
younger  sons,  to  whom  they  granted  them  under  the  title  of 
dutchies,  and  with  the  rights  of  sovereignty.  These  latter  made 
use  of  their  supreme  power  to  excite  factions  and  stir  up  civil  wars. 

The  reign  of  King  Andrew  II.  was  rendered  remarkable  bv  a 
revolution  which  happened  in  the  government  (1217.)     This 

Crince  having  undertaken  an  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land,  which 
e  equipped  at  an  extravagant  and  ruinous  expense,  the  nobles 
availed  themselves  of  his  absence  to  augment  their  own  power, 
and  usurp  the  estates  and  revenues  of  the  crown.  Corruption 
had  pervaded  every  branch  of  the  administration  ;  and  the  king, 
ofter  his  return,  made  .several  inefTectual  efforts  to  remedy  the 
disorders  of  the  government,  and  recruit  his  exhausted  finances. 
At  length  he  adopted  the  plan  of  assembling  a  general  Diet 
(1222,)  in  which  was  passed  the  famous  decree  or  Golden  Bull 
which  forms  the  basis  of  that  defective  constitution  which  pre- 
vails in  Hungary  at  this  day.  The  property  of  the  clergy  and 
the  noblesse  were  there  declared  exempt  from  taxes  and  military 
cess;  the  nobles  acquired  hereditary  possession  ol  the  royal 
grants  which  they  had  received  in  recompense  for  their  services ; 
they  were  freed  from  the  obligation  of  marching  at  their  own 
expense  on  any  expedition  out  of  the  kingdom ;  and  even  the 
right  of  resistance  was  allowed  them,  in  case  the  king  should 
mfringe  any  article  of  the  decree.  It  was  this  king  also  (An- 
drew II.)  that  conferred  several  important  privileges  and  immu- 
nities on  the  Saxons,  or  Germans  of  Transylvania,  who  had  been 
invited  thither  by  Geisa  II.  about  the  year  1142. 

Under  the  reign  of  Bela  IV.  (1241.)  Hungary  was  suddenly 
inundated  with  an  army  of  Moguls,  commanded  ^  several  chiefs, 
the  principal  of  whom  were  Batou,  the  son  of  Toushi.  and  Ga^ 


)91,)  and  ««• 
lependencies. 
ie  same  year 
)nlmntia.  In 
cities  of  Dai> 
lie  took  from 
la  or  BosniH, 

the  title  of 
If,  made  over 

I.  The  so* 
casionally  ac* 
a  and  Servia, 
1  Wolodimir. 
I  soon  proved 
Ivos  the  right 
avour  of  their 
er  the  title  of 
se  latter  made 
r  up  civil  wars, 
markable  by  a 
[1217.)  This 
y  Land,  which 
ise,  the  nobles 
lir  own  power, 
I.  Corruption 
and  the  king, 
to  remedy  the 
usled  finances. 
I  general  Diet 
r  Golden  Bull 
ion  which  pre- 
the  clergy  and 
es  and  military 
t  ot  the  royal 
their  services ; 
I  at  their  own 
;  and  even  the 
)e  king  should 
king  also  (An- 
ges  and  immu* 
,  who  had  been 

was  suddenly 
r  several  chiefsi 
oushi.  and  Qw- 


I.. 


Venice  in  tlio  lOtli  Century.    P.  138. 


Zensliis  Klian,  the  Mogul  Prince      P.  155. 


3rr' I 


i  !■ 


I'     4 


ill 


1^  <■    I 


ytift 


I 


■Jtall..   , 


*t 


I 


i 


'f'* 


.dirn^ 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300 


101 


I     youk,  .0,1  of  thr  gma  M,nn  0(  tai.     Tho  Hi.npariarA..  .t.nk  i.. 
efr.>miiia.-y  nnd  hvm^r  j,,  pprf,..-!  s.vi.rity.  ha.l  ...■gl...-t..,I  to  pro 
vi.l..  ...  ......  for  thoir  .lefiM.co,     Having  nt  Icifil,  ralli.-d  round 

tl..-  bn.=  ..t.r  o    tl„.:r  k.„g.  th..y  ,,iid,r.d  thnr  n.,,,,,  v.-ry  u.-^W- 
Kcnllv  on  tlio  b.u.ks  ol  the  Sam,  whore  th.7  w.«r.-  MirpriM-d  by 
ll...  Mogul,   who  made  terrible  havoc  of  then..     Colo.nnn,  the 
k..ig..   brother,  vyas  .shiin  in  the  nrtioii  ;  u.,d  thr  kin.'  hi...v..h 
....•cc.d.d  wah  d.fnr.,liy  i„  saving  hi.n.df  among  the  i.Ios  ol 

Dahnal.u.      fho  whole  of  Hungary  was  now  at  the  ...ercv  0/ 
U.0  conquernr,  who  nt.r,t.lrat..d  with  his  virtoriou.s  troops  i.,to 
Srlavon.a,  Croatia,  D.il.nnlia,   Bo.snJn,  Scrvia,  and   Bufgaria; 
eyry  where  glutting  hi.,   fury  with  the  blood  of  the   ........Je 

which  he  shed  in  torrents,  fhese  barbarians  seemed  deier.nin^ 
ed  to  hx  their  residence  in  Hungary,  when  the  news  of  the  death 
of  the  Khan  Octai,  and  the  ncces.ion  of  his  son  Gayouk  to  the 
Ihrone  of  China,  induced  them  to  abandon  their  ronqueN'  in  le» 
(han  three  year..,  and  return  to  the  East  loaded  with  immense 
booty.  On  hearing  this  intelligence,  Bola  ventured  from  his 
place  of  retreat  and  repaired  to  Hungary,  where  he  assembled 
the  remains  of  his  subjects,  who  were  wandering  in  the  forests, 
or  concealed  among  the  mountains.  He  rebuilt  the  cities  that 
were  laid  in  ashes,  imported  new  colonies  from  Croolia,  Bohe- 
mia, Moravia,  and  Saxony;  and,  by  degrees,  restored  life  and 
vigour  to  the  state,  which  had  been  almost  annihilated  by  the 
lUoguls.  ■' 

The  Empire  of  the  Greeks,  at  this  time,  was  grnduallv  verg- 
ing towards  Its  downfall.     Harassed  on  the  cast  by  the  Seliu- 
kian  Turks,  infested  on  the  side  of  the  Danube  by  the  Hunga- 
nans,  the  Patzina.:ites,  the  Uzes  and  the  Cuinans  ;  »  and  torn 
to  pieces  by  factious  and  intestine  wars,  that  Empire  was  making 
but  a  feeble  resistance  to  the  incessant  attacks  of  its  enemies 
when  It  was  suddenly  threatened  with  entire  destruction  by  the 
effects  of  the  fourth  crusade.     The  Emperor  Isaac  Angelus  had 
been  dethroned  by  his  brother,  Alexius  III.  (1195,)  who  had 
cruelly  caused  his  eyes  to  be  put  out.     The  son  of  Isaac,  called 
also  Alexius  found  means  to  save  his  life;  he  repaired  to  Zara, 
in  Dalinatia  (1203,)  to  implore  the  aid  of  the  Crusaders,  who 
after  having  assisted  the  Venetians  to  recover  that  rebellious 
city,  were  on  the  point  of  setting  sail  for  Palestine.     The  youn? 
Alexius  offered  to  indemnify  the  Crusaders  for  the  expenses  of 
any  expedition  which  they  might  undertake  in  his  favour ;  he 
gave  them  reason  to  expect  a  reunion  of  the  two  churches,  and 
considerable  supplies,  both  in  men  and  money,  to  assist  them  in 
reconquering  the  Holy  Land.     Yielding  to  these  solicitations, 
the  allied  chiefs,  insteaa  of  passing  directly  to  Syria,  set  sail  for 


'''     i 


f  m 


:?!  t 


'    iti 

ii    M- 

mm 

«i**' 


-^e*-^ 


n 


102 


CRAPTRR  V. 

Thev  imtm'(lint«!ly  laid  sietjn  to  the  citjr,  ex- 


Constiintitiople.     They  /  --- > ; ^-  — 

pelU'd  tliu  usurper,  and  reMlort-d  Isaac  to  the  throne,  in  conjunc* 
tion  with  his  son  Alexiu.i. 

Sfiinuly  liiid  the  CrustiidefN  quitted  Con;<tanlinople,  when  u 
new  revolution  hiinpened  there.  Another  Alexius,  .surniinied 
Mourzoiijie,  KxcMi'd  iin  insurrection  ainon^;  the  G.aekn;  and 
having  procured  the  deuth  of  tiie  Emperors  Isaac  ond  Alexius, 
he  mmie  himself  master  of  the  throne.  The  Crusaders  inmie- 
diately  returned,  ajjain  laid  sieije  to  Constantinople,  which  they 
look  by  as.sault ;  and  after  haviriR  slain  the  usurper,  they  elected 
a  new  Emperor  in  the  person  of  Baldwin,  Earl  of  Flonders,  and 
one  of  the  nohic  Crusaders.  *'  This  event  transferred  the  Greek 
Empire  to  the  Latins  (1204.)  It  was  followed  by  a  union  of 
the  two  churches,  which,  however,  was  neither  general  nor  per- 
manent, as  it  terminated  with  the  reign  of  the  Latins  at  Con 
stantinople. 

Meantime,  the  Crusaders  divided  among  themselves  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  Greek  Empire,— both  those  which  they  had  al- 
ready .seized,  and  those  which  yet  remained  to  be  conquered. 
The  greater  part  of  the  maritime  coasts  of  the  Adriatic,  Greece, 
the  Archipelago,  the  Proponlis,  and  the  Euxine;  the  islands  of 
the  Cyclades  and  Snorades,  and  those  of  the  Adriatic,  were  ad- 
judged to  the  republic  of  Venice.  Boniface,  Marquis  of  Monl- 
lerrat,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  crusade,  obtained  for  his 
share  the  island  of  Crete  or  Candia,  and  all  that  belonged  to  the 
Empire  beyond  the  Bosphorus.  He  afterwards  sold  Candia  to 
the  Venetians,  who  took  possession  of  it  in  1207.  The  other 
chiefs  of  the  Crusaders  had  also  their  portions  of  the  dismem- 
bered provinces.  None  of  them,  however,  were  to  possess  the 
countries  that  were  assigned  them,  except  under  the  title  of  vas- 
sals to  the  Empire,  and  by  acknowledging  the  sovereignty  of 

Baldwin.  u     r.      i 

In  the  midst  of  this  general  overthrow,  several  of  the  Greek 
princes  attempted  to  preserve  the  feeble  remains  of  their  Em- 

fire.  Theodore  Lascari.s,  son-in-law  of  the  Emperor  Alexius 
II.,  resolved  on  the  conquest  of  the  Greek  provinces  in  Asia. 
He  had  made  himself  master  of  Bithynia,  Lydia,  part  of  the 
coasts  of  the  Archipelago,  and  Phrygia,  and  was  crowned  Em- 
peror at  Nice  in  1206.  About  the  same  period,  Alexius  and 
David  Commenus,  grandsons  of  the  Emperor  Andronicus  I., 
having  taken  shelter  in  Pontus,  laid  there  the  foundation  of  a 
new  Empire,  which  had  for  its  capital  the  city  of  Trebizond. 

At  length  Michael  Angelus  Commenus  took  possession  of 
Durazzo,  which  he  erected  into  a  considerable  state,  extending 
from  Durazzo  to  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  and  comprehending  Epi 


IM      l« 


PRRinn  IV.     A,  D.  1074 — 1300. 


1<8 


the  city,  ex* 
E,  in  conjunc* 

ople,  when  u 
U!i,  i^urniiined 
G.^ek.'i ;  and 
and  Alexin!*, 
iMudf  rs  iinine* 
c,  which  they 
r,  they  elected 
Flanders,  and 
•red  the  Greek 
by  a  union  of 
jiiernl  nor  per* 
Liatins  at  Con      j 

iclves  the  pro* 
h  they  had  al* 
be  conquered. 
Iriatic,  Greece,     ' 
the  islands  of 
•iatic,  were  ad- 
rtjuis  of  Monl- 
stained  for  his 
)elongcd  to  the 
sold  Candia  to 
7.     The  other 
»f  the  dismem- 
to  possess  the 
the  title  of  vas- 
sovereignty  of 

il  of  the  Greek 
s  of  their  Em- 
nperor  Alexius 
vinces  in  Asia, 
lia,  part  of  the 

crowned  Eni- 
1,  Alexius  and 
Andronicus  I., 
bundation  of  a 
f  Trebizond. 

possession  of 
tiite,  extending 
rehending  Epi 


run.  Acarnnmn,  Etnlin,  and  part  of  Thrssaly.  All  these  princei 
a^iHUined  the  riuik  iirxi  ili^'tiity  of  Einporors.  The  most  power* 
ful  ainoiif,'  ilitMii  wii-i  Theodore  Luscari".  Ruiperor  of  Nice.  Hit 
KUccesMors  foiiiid  liltlft  ditlicully  in  resuminj;,  by  doprees,  their 
■uperiority  over  the  Latin  Emperors.  They  reduced  thorn  ■( 
last  ti  the  niiijrle  city  of  Confttanlinonle,  of  which  Michael  Pa* 
leolojrus,  Emperor  of  Nice,  und^rtooli  the  siege  ;  and,  with  the 
BssiMluiiic  of  the  Genoese  vessels,  he  made  himself  rnnslor  of  it 
in  1261.  Baldtvin  II.,  the  last  of  the  Latin  Emperors,  fled  to 
the  Isle  of  Nogropont,  whence  he  passed  into  Italy ;  and  his 
conqueror  became  the  ancestor  of  all  the  Emperors  of  the  House 
of  Paleologus,  that  reigned  at  Constantinople  until  the  taking  oi 
that  capital  by  the  Turks  in  1453. 

It  now  remains  for  us  to  cast  a  glance  at  the  revolutions  of 
Asia,  closely  connected  with  those  of  Europe,  on  account  of  the 
crusades  and  expeditions  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  Empire  of 
the  Seljukian  Turks  had  been  divided  into  several  dynasties  or 
distinct  sovereignties  ;  the  Atabeks  of  Irak,  and  a  number  of 
petty  princes,  reigned  in  Syria  and  the  neighbouring  countries  ; 
the  Fatimitc  Caliphs  of  Egypt  were  masters  of  Jerusalem,  and 
part  of  Palestine,  when  the  mania  of  the  crusades  converted  that 
region  of  the  East  into  a  theatre  of  carnage  and  devastation. 
For  two  hundred  years  Asia  was  seen  contending  with  Europe, 
and  the  Christian  nations  making  the  most  extraordinary  efTorts 
to  maintain  the  conquest  of  Palestine  and  the  neighbouring 
states,  against  the  arms  of  ihe  Mahometans. 

At  length  there  arose  among  the  Mussulmans  a  man  of  su> 
perior  genius,  who  rendered  himself  formidable  by  his  warlike 
prowess  to  the  Christians  in  the  East,  and  deprived  them  of  the 
fruits  of  their  numerous  victories.  This  conqueror  was  the 
famous  Saladin,  or  Salaheddin,  the  son  of  Ayoub  or  Job,  and 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ayoubites.  The  Atabek  Noured* 
din,  son  of  Amadoddin  Zenghi,  had  sent  him  into  Egypt  (1168) 
to  assist  the  Fatimite  Caliph  against  the  Franks,  or  Crusaders 
of  the  West.  While  there,  he  was  declared  vizier  and  general 
of  the  armies  of  the  Caliph  ;  and  so  well  had  he  established  his 
power  in  that  country,  that  he  eflfected  the  substitution  of  the 
Abassidian  Caliphs  in  place  of  the  Fatimites ;  and  ultimately 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Sultan  on  the  death  of  Noured* 
din  (1171,)  under  whom  he  had  served  in  the  quality  of  lieu- 
tenant. Having  vanquished  Egypt,  he  next  subdued  the 
dominions  of  Noureddin  in  Syria ;  and,  after  having  extended 
his  victories  over  this  province,  as  well  as  Mesopotamia,  Assyria, 
Armenia  and  Arabia,  he  turned  bis  arms  against  the  Christians 
in  Palestine,  whom  he  had  hemmed  in.  as  it  were,  with  hi." 


^  iA 


Ir 


fl.'^i. 


-  ''-•   'tSUi^... 


164 


CHAPTER  ▼. 


conquests.  These  princes,  separated  into  petty  sovereignties, 
divided  by  mutual  jealousy,  and  a  prey  to  the  distractions  of 
anorchy,  soon  yielded  to  the  valour  of  the  heroic  Mussulman. 
The  battle  which  they  fought  (1187,)  at  Hittin,  near  Tiberias 
(or  Tabaria,)  was  decisive.  The  Christians  sustained  a  total 
defeat ;  and  Guy  of  Lusignan,  a  weak  prince  without  talents, 
and  the  last  King  of  Jerusalem,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
queror. All  the  cities  of  Palestine  opened  their  gates  to  Saladin, 
either  voluntarily  or  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  Jerusalem  sur- 
rendered after  a  siege  of  fourteen  days.  This  defeat  rekindled 
the  zeal  of  the  Christians  in  the  West ;  and  the  most  powerful 
sovereigns  in  Europe  were  again  seen  conducting  innumerable 
armies  to  the  relief  of  the  Holy  Land.  But  the  talents  and 
bravery  of  Saladin  rendered  ali  their  efforts  unavailing  ;  and  it 
was  not  till  after  a  murderous  siege  for  three  years,  that  they 
succeeded  in  retaking  the  city  of  Ptolemais  or  Acre ;  and  thus 
arresting  for  a  short  space  the  total  extermination  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  East. 

On  the  death  of  Saladin,  whose  heroism  is  extolled  by  Chris 
tian  as  well  as  Mahometan  authors,  his  Empire  was  divided 
among  his  sons.     Several  princes,  his  dependants,  and  known 
by  the  name  of  Ayoubites,  reigned  afterwards  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
Armenia,  and  Yemen  or  Arabia  the  Happy.     These  princes 

S[uarrelling  and  making  war  with  each  othei,  their  territories 
iell,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Mamc 
lukes.  These  Mamelukes  (an  Arabic  word  which  signifies  a 
slave)  were  Turkish  or  Tartar  captives,  whom  the  Syrian  mer- 
chants purchased  from  the  Moguls,  and  sent  into  Egypt  under 
the  reign  of  the  Sultan  Saleh,  of  the  Ayoubite  dynasty.  That 
prince  bought  them  in  vast  numbers,  and  ordered  them  to  be 
trained  to  the  exercise  of  arms  in  one  of  the  maritime  cities  of 
Egypt.'^  From  this  school  he  raised  them  to  the  highest  offices 
uf  trust  in  the  state,  and  even  selected  from  them  his  own  body 
guard.  In  a  very  short  time,  these  slaves  became  so  numerous 
and  so  powerful,  that,  in  the  end,  they  seized  the  government, 
after  having  assassinated  the  Sultan  Touran  Shah,  (son  and 
succesior  of  Saleh,)  who  had  in  vain  attempted  to  disentangle 
himself  of  their  chains,  and  recover  the  authority  which  ihsy 
had  usurped  over  him.  This  revolution  (1250)  happened  in  the 
very  presence  of  St.  Louis,  who,  having  been  taken  prisoner  at 
the  battle  of  Mansoura,  had  just  concluded  a  truce  of  ten  years 
with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt.  The  Mameluke  Ibeg,  who  was  at 
first  appointed  regent  or  Atabek,  was  soon  after  proclaimed  Sul« 
Ian  of  Egypt. 
The  dominion  of  the  Mamelukes  existed  in  Egypt  for  the 


L*; 


~r 


k^^^u^amam 


"1 


overeignties, 
istractions  of 
Mussulman, 
ear  Tiberias 
tained  a  total 
thout  talents, 
s  of  the  con- 
es to  Saladin, 
erusalem  sur- 
feat  rekindled 
nost  powerful 
r  innumerable 
e  talents  and 
ailing ;  and  it 
ars,  that  they 
ere  ;  and  thus 
1  of  the  Chris- 
oiled  by  Chris 
e  was  divided 
;s,  and  known 
Egypt,  Syria, 
These  princes 
heir  territories 
1  of  the  Mamc 
ich  signifies  a 
le  Syrian  mer- 
)  Egypt  under 
ynasty.     That 
ed  them  to  be 
iritime  cities  oi 
highest  offices 
n  his  own  body 
le  so  numerous 
ie  government. 
Shah,  (son  and 
1  to  disentangle 
rity  which  thsy 
lappcned  in  the 
ken  prisoner  at 
ice  of  ten  years 
eg,  who  was  at 
proclaimed  Sul- 

Egypt  for  the     j 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1463. 


160 


space  of  263  years.  Their  numbers  being  constantly  recruited 
by  Turkish  or  Circassian  slaves,  they  disposed  of  the  throne  of 
Egypt  at  their  pleasure ;  and  the  crown  generally  fell  to  the 
share  of  the  most  audacious  of  the  gang,  provided  he  was  n  na- 
tive of  Turkistan.  These  Mamelukes  had  even  the  courage  to 
attack  the  Moguls,  and  took  from  them  the  kingdoms  of  Damas- 
cus and  Aleppo  in  Syria  (1210,)  of  which  the  latter  had  dispos- 
sessed the  Ayoubite  princes.  All  the  princes  of  this  latter 
dynasty,  with  those  of  Syria  and  Yemen,  adopted  the  expedient 
of  submitting  to  the  Mamelukes ;  who,  in  order  to  become  mas- 
ters of  all  Syria,  had  only  to  reduce  the  cities  and  territories 
which  the  Franks,  or  Christians  of  the  West,  still  retained  in 
their  possession.  They  first  attacked  thepiincipality  of  Antioch, 
which  they  soon  conquered  (1268.)  They  next  turned  their 
anna  against  the  county  of  Tripoli,  the  capital  of  which  they 
took  by  assault  (1289.)  The  city  of  Ptolemais  shared  the  same 
fate ;  after  an  obstinate  and  murderous  siege,  it  was  carried 
sword  in  hand.  Tyre  surrendered  on  capitulation ;  and  the 
Franks  were  entir-i  expelled  from  Syria  and  the  East  in  the 
year  1291. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


PERIOD   V. 


From  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  to  the  taking  of  ComtantinopU  by 
the  Turks,  a.  d.  1300—1463. 
At  the  commencement  of  this  period,  the  Pontifical  power 
WHS  in  the  zenith  of  its  grandeur.  The  Popes  proudly  assumed 
the  title  of  Masters  of  the  World  ;  and  asserted  that  their  author- 
ity, by  divine  right,  comprehended  every  other,  both  spiritual 
and  temporal.  Boniface  VIII.  went  even  farther  than  his  pre- 
decessors had  done.  According  to  him,  the  secular  power  was 
nothing  else  than  a  mere  emanation  from  the  ecclesiastical ; 
and  this  double  power  of  the  Pope  was  even  made  an  article  of 
belief,  and  founded  on  the  sacred  scriptures.  "  God  has  in- 
trusted," said  he,  "  to  St.  Peter  and  his  successors,  two  swords, 
the  one  spiritual,  and  the  other  temporal.  The  former  can  be 
exercised  by  the  church  alone ;  the  other,  by  the  secular  princes, 
for  the  service  of  the  churuh,  and  in  submission  to  the  will  of 
the  Pope.  This  latter,  that  is,  the  temporal  sword,  is  subordi- 
nate to  the  former ;  and  all  temporal  authority  necessarily  de- 
pends on  the  spiritual,  which  judges  it ;  whereas  God  alone  can 
judge  the  spiritual  power.     Finally,"  added  he. "  it  is  absolutely 


t 


$i^-J 


;  «       ,  1 


m 


166 


CHAPTER  VI. 


,!    )-'■ 


indispensable  to  salvation,  that  every  human  creature  be  subject 
to  the  Pope  of  Rome."  This  same  Pope  published  the  first 
Jubilee  (1300,)  with  plenary  indulgence  for  all  who  should  visit 
the  churches  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  at  Rome.  An  immense 
crowd  from  all  parts  of  Christendom  flocked  to  this  capital  of 
the  Western  woild,  and  filled  its  treasury  with  their  pious 
contributions.' 

The  spiritual  power  of  the  Popes,  and  their  jurisdiction  over 
the  clergy,  was  moreover  increased  every  day,  by  means  of 
dispemations  and  appeals,  which  had  multiplied  exceedingly 
since  the  introduction  of  the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX.  They 
disposed,  in  the  most  absolute  manner,  of  the  dignities  and  be- 
nefices of  the  Chuich,  and  imposed  taxes  at  their  pleasure  oa 
all  the  clergy  in  Christendom.  Collectors  or  treasurers  were 
established  by  them,  who  superintended  the  levying  of  the 
dues  they  had  found  means  to  exact,  under  a  multitude  of  dif- 
ferent  denominations.  These  collectors  were  empowered,  by 
means  of  ecclesiastical  censure,  to  proceed  against  those  who 
should  refuse  to  pay.  They  were  supported  by  the  authority 
of  the  legates  who  resided  in  the  ecclesiastical  provinces,  and 
seized  with  avidity  every  occasion  to  extend  the  usurpation  of 
the  Pope.  Moreover,  in  support  of  these  legates  appeared  a 
vast  number  of  Religious  and  Mendicant  Orders,  founded  in 
those  ages  of  ignorance ;  besides  legions  of  monks  dispersed 
over  all  th?  states  of  Christendom. 

Nothing  is  more  remarkable  than  the  influence  of  the  papal 
authority  over  the  temporalities  of  princes.  We  find  them  in- 
terfering in  all  their  quarrels — addressing  their  commands  to 
all  without  distinction — enjoining  some  to  lay  down  their 
arms — receiving  others  under  their  protection — rescinding  and 
annulling  their  acts  and  proceedings — summoning  them  to  their 
court,  and  acting  as  arbiters  in  their  disputes.  The  history  of 
the  Popes  is  the  history  of  all  Europe.  They  assumed  the 
privilege  of  legitimating  the  sons  of  kings,  in  order  to  qualify 
them  for  the  succession ;  they  forbade  sovereigns  to  tax  the 
clergy ;  they  claimed  a  feudal  superiority  over  all,  and  exer- 
cised it  over  a  very  great  number  ;  they  conferred  royalty  on 
those  who  were  ambitious  of  power ;  they  released  subjects 
from  their  oath  of  allegiance ;  dethroned  sovereigns  at  their 
pleasure  ;  and  laid  kingdoms  and  empires  under  interdict,  to 
avenge  their  own  quarrels.  We  find  tl  m  disposing  of  the 
states  of  excommunicated  princes,  as  well  as  those  of  heretics 
and  their  followers  ;  of  islands  and  kingdoms  newly  discovered  j 
of  the  property  of  infidels  or  schismatics  ;  and  even  of  Catholics 
who  refused  to  bow  before  the  insolent  tyranny  of  the  Popes.* 


PERIOD  V.       A.  D,  1300 — 1453. 


167 


e  be  subject 
ed  the  first 
should  vibit 
in  immense 
lis  capital  of 
their  pious 

diction  over 
>y  means  of 
exceedingly 
IX.  They 
ties  and  be- 
pleasure  on 
surers  were 
ying  of  the 
tude  of  dif- 
powered,  by 
It  those  who 
le  authority 
jvinces,  and 
surpation  of 
appeared  a 
founded  in 
ka  dispersed 

of  the  papal 
ind  them  in- 
jmmands  to 

down  their 
cinding  and 
hem  to  their 
le  history  of 
assumed  the 
T  to  qualify 
is  to  tax  the 
11,  and  exer- 
l  royalty  on 
sed  subjects 
gns  at  their 

interdict,  to 
osing  of  the 
!  of  heretics 
'  discovered; 

of  Catholics 

the  Popes.* 


Thus,  it  is  obvious  that  the  Court  of  Rome,  at  the  time  of  which 
we  speak,  enjoyed  a  conspicuous  preponderance  in  the  political 
system  of  Europe.  But  in  the  ordinary  course  of  human  af- 
fairs, this  power,  vast  and  formidable  as  it  was,  began,  from  the 
fourteenth  century,  gradually  to  diminish.  The  mightiest  em- 
pires have  their  appointed  term  ;  and  the  highest  stage  of  their 
elevation  is  often  the  first  step  of  their  decline.  Kings,  be- 
coming more  and  more  enlightened  as  to  their  true  interests, 
learned  to  support  the  rights  and  the  majesty  of  their  crowns, 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  Popes.  Those  who  were 
vassals  and  tributaries  of  the  Holy  See,  gradually  shook  off  the 
yoke  ;  even  the  clergy,  who  groaned  under  the  weight  of  this 
spiritual  despotism,  joined  the  secular  princes  in  repressing 
these  abuses,  and  restraining  within  proper  bounds  apower  which 
was  making  incessant  encroachments  on  their  just  prerogatives. 

Among  the  causes  which  operated  the  downfall  of  the  Pon- 
tifical power,  may  be  ranked  the  excess  of  the  power  itself, 
and  the  abuses  of  it  made  by  the  Popes.  By  issuing  too  often 
their  anathemas  and  interdicts,  they  rendered  them  useless  and 
contemptible ;  and  by  their  haughty  treatment  of  the  greatest 
princes,  they  learned  to  become  inflexible  and  boundless  in  their 
own  pretensions.  An  instance  of  this  may  be  recorded,  in  the 
famous  dispute  which  arose  between  Boniface  VIII.  and  Philip 
the  Fair,  King  of  France.  Not  content  with  constituting  him- 
self judge  between  the  King  and  his  vassal  the  Count  of  Flan- 
ders, that  PontifT  maintained,  that  the  King  could  not  exact 
subsidie.'i  from  the  clergy  without  nis  permission  ;  and  that  the 
right  of  Regale  (or  the  revenues  of  vacant  bishoprics)  which 
the  Crown  enjoyed,  was  an  abuse  which  shoull  not  be  tolera- 
ted.' He  treated  as  a  piece  of  insanity  the  prohibition  of 
Philip  against  exporting  either  gold  or  silver  out  of  the  king- 
dom ;  and  sent  an  order  to  all  the  prelates  in  France  to  repair 
in  person  to  Rome  on  the  1st  of  November,  there  to  advite 
measures  for  correcting  the  King  and  reforming  the  State.  He 
declared,  formally,  that  the  King  was  subject  to  the  Pope,  as 
Acll  in  temporal  as  spiritual  matters  ;  and  that  it  was  a  fool- 
ish persuasion  to  suppose  that  the  King  had  no  superior  on 
oarth,  and  was  not  dependent  on  the  supreme  Pontiff. 

Philip  ordered  the  papal  bull  which  contained  these  ex- 
travagant assertions  to  be  burnt ,  he  forbade  his  ecclesiastics  to 
leave  the  realm  ;  and  having  twice  assembled  the  States-Ge- 
neral of  the  kingdom  (1302 — 3,)  he  adopted,  with  their  advice 
and  approbation,  measures  against  these  dangerous  pretensions 
of  the  Court  of  Rome.  The  Three  Estates,  who  appeared  for 
the  first  time  in  these  Assemblies,  declared  themselves  strongly 


).        !■ 


M*! 


m  M  it 


.a^ 


r 


m 


les 


CHAPTER   VT. 


in  favour  of  the  King,  and  the  independence  of  the  crown.  In 
consequence,  the  excommunication  which  the  Pope  had  threat- 
ened against  the  King  proved  ineffectual.  Philip  made  his 
appeal  to  a  future  assembly,  to  which  the  three  orders  of  the 
State  adhered.* 

The  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  a  prince  of  superior  merit, 
having  incurred  tha  censures  of  the  Church  for  defending  the 
rights  and  prerogatives  of  his  crown,  could  not  obtai*^  absolu- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  most  humiliating  condescensions,  and 
the  offer  which  he  made  to  resign  the  Imperial  dignity,  and 
surrender  himself,  his  crown  and  his  property,  to  the  discretion 
of  the  Pope.  He  was  loaded  with  curses  and  anathemas,  after 
a  series  of  various  proceedings  which  had  been  instituted 
against  him.  The  bull  of  Pope  Clement  VI.,  on  this  occasion, 
far  surpassed  all  these  of  his  predecessors.  "  May  God  (said 
he,  in  speaking  of  the  Emperor)  smite  him  with  madness  and 
disease;  may  heiiven  crush  him  with  its  thunderbolts;  may 
the  wrath  of  Ood,  and  that  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  fall  on 
him  in  this  world  and  the  next ;  may  the  whole  universe  com- 
bine against  him ;  may  the  earth  swallow  him  up  alive;  may 
his  name  perish  in  the  first  generation,  and  his  memory  disap- 
pear from  the  earth  ;  may  all  the  elements  conspire  against 
him ;  may  his  children,  delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies, 
be  massacred  before  the  eyes  of  their  father."  The  indignity 
of  such  proceedings  roused  the  attention  of  the  princes  and 
states  of  the  Empire  ;  and  on  the  representation  of  the  Electo- 
ral College,  they  thought  proper  to  check  these  boundless  pre- 
tensions of  the  Popes,  by  a  decree  which  was  passed  at  the  Diet 
of  Frankfort  in  1338.  This  decree,  regarded  as  the  fundamen- 
tal law  of  the  Empire,  declared,  in  substance,  that  the  Imperial 
dignity  held  only  of  God ;  that  he  whom  the  Electors  had 
chosen  emperor  by  a  plurality  of  suffrages,  was,  in  virtue  of  that 
election,  a  true  king  and  emperor,  and  needed  heither  confirma- 
tion nor  coronation  from  the  hands  of  the  Pope ;  and  that  all 
persons  who  should  maintain  the  contrary,  should  be  treated  as 
guilty  of  high  treason. 

Among  other  events  prejudicial  to  the  authority  of  the  Popes, 
one  was,  the  translation  of  the  Pontifical  See  from  Rome  to 
Avignon.  Clement  V.,  archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  h-  ving  been 
advanced  to  the  papacy  (1306,)  instead  of  repairing  to  Rome, 
had  his  coronation  celebrated  at  Lyons ;  and  thence  he  trans- 
ferred his  residence  to  Avignon  (1309,)  out  of  complaisance 
to  Philip  the  Fair,  to  whom  he  owed  his  elevation.  The  suc- 
cessors of  this  Pope  continued  their  court  at  Avignon  until 
lfW7.  when  Gregory  XT    nsrain   mmoved   the.  See  to  Rome. 


„ij>i«iyii^iii 


H 


PERIOD  V.       A.  D.  1300—1453. 


169 


e  crown.  In 
)e  had  threat- 
lip  made  his 
orders  of  the 

periur  merit, 
lefending  the 
tbtai*^  absolu- 
censions,  and 
dignity,  and 
the  discretion 
ithemas,  after 
en  instituted 
this  occasion, 
ly  God  (said 
madness  and 
;rbolts ;  may 
Paul,  fall  on 
iniverse  com- 
p  alive;  may 
lemory  disap- 
ispire  against 
f  his  enemies, 
rhe  indignity 
>  princes  and 
if  the  Elect©- 
loundless  pre- 
led  at  the  Diet 
he  fimdamen- 
l  the  Imperial 
Electors  had 
1  virtue  of  that 
:her  confirma- 
;  and  that  all 
[  be  treated  as 

of  the  Popes, 
rom  Rome  to 
,  h-  ving  been 
ing  to  Rome, 
nee  he  trans- 
complaisance 
n.  The  suc- 
^vignon  until 
k>e  to  Rome. 


This  sojourn  at  Avignon  tended  to  weaken  the  nuthority  of  the 
Popes,  and  diminish  the  respect  and  veneration  which  till  then 
had  been  paid  them.  The  prevailing  opinion  beyond  the  Alps, 
admitted  no  other  city  than  that  of  Rome  for  the  true  capital  of 
St.  Peter  ;  und  they  despised  i  Popes  of  Avignon  as  aliens, 
who,  besides,  were  there  surrcunded  with  powerful  princes,  to 
whose  caprice  they  were  often  obliged  to  yield,  and  to  make 
condescensions  prejudicial  to  the  authority  they  had  usurped* 
This  circumstance,  joined  to  the  lapse  of  nearly  seventy  years, 
caused  the  residence  at  Avignon  to  be  stigmatized  by  the  Italians^ 
under  the  name  of  the  Babylonish  Captivity.  It  occasioned  also 
the  diminution  of  the  papal  authority  at  Rome,  and  in  the  Ec 
clesiastical  States.  The  Italians,  no  longer  restrained  by  the 
presence  of  the  sovereign  pontiffs,  yielded  but  a  reluctant  obe- 
dience to  their  representatives  ;  while  the  remembrance  of  their 
ancient  republicanism  induced  them  to  lend  a  docile  ear  to  those 
who  preached  up  insurrection  and  revolt.  The  historian  Rienzi 
informs  us,  that  one  Nicolas  Qabrini,  a  man  of  great  eloquence, 
and  whose  audacity  w  is  equal  to  his  ambition,  took  advantage 
of  these  republican  propensities  of  the  Romans,  to  constitute 
himself  master  of  the  city,  under  the  popular  title  of  Tribune 
(1347.)  He  projected  the  scheme  of  a  new  government,  called 
the  Good  Estate,  which  he  pretended  would  obtain  the  accepta- 
tion of  all  the  princes  and  republics  of  Italy ;  but  the  despotic 
power  which  he  exercised  over  the  citizens,  whose  liberator  and 
lawgiver  he  affected  to  be,  soon  reduced  him  to  his  original  in- 
significance ;  and  the  city  of  Rome  again  assumed  its  ancient 
form  of  government.  Meantime  the  Popes  did  not  recover  their 
former  authority  ;  most  of  the  cities  and  states  of  the  Ecclesi- 
astical dominions,  afler  having  been  long  a  prey  to  faction  and 
discord,  fell  under  the  power  of  the  nobles,  who  made  an  easy 
conquest  of  them ;  scarcely  leaving  to  the  Pope  a  vestige  of  the 
sovereign  authority.  It  required  all  the  insidious  policy  of 
Alexander  VI.,  and  the  vigilant  activity  of  Julius  II.,  to  repair 
the  injury  which  the  territorial  influence  of  the  Pontiffs  had  suf- 
fered from  their  residence  at  Avignon. 

Another  circumstance  that  contributed  to  humble  the  papal 
authority,  was  the  schisms  which  rent  the  Church,  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth,  and  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Gregory  XL,  who  had  abandoned  Avignon  for  Rome,  being  dead 
(1378,)  the  Italians  elected  a  Pope  of  their  own  nation,  who 
took  the  name  of  Urban  VI.,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Rome. 
The  French  cardinals,  on  the  other  hand,  declared  in  favour  of 
the  Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva,  known  by  the  name  of  Clement 
VII.,  who  fixed  his  capital  at  Avignon.     The  whole  of  Chris- 


.p:* 


i70 


CHArTBR  VI. 


tendom  was  divided  between  these  two  Popes;  and  this  grand 
schism  continaed  from  1078  till  1-117.  At  Rome,  Urban  VI. 
was  succeeded  by  Boniface  IX.,  Innocent  VII.,  and  Gregory 
XII. ;  while  Clement  VII.  had  Benedict  XIII.  for  his  successor 
at  Avignon.  In  order  to  terminate  this  schism,  every  expedient 
was  tried  to  induce  the  rival  Popes  to  give  in  their  abdication ; 
but  both  having  refused,  several  of  the  Cardinals  withdrew  their 
allegiance,  and  assembled  a  council  at  Pisa  (1409,)  where  the 
two  refractory  Popes  were  deposed,  and  the  pontifical  dignity 
conferred  on  Alexander  V.,  who  was  afterwards  succeeded  by 
John  XXIII.  This  election  of  the  council  only  tended  to  in- 
crease the  schism.  Instead  of  two  Popes,  there  arose  three ; 
and  if  his  Pisan  Holiness  gained  partisans,  the  Popes  of  Rome 
and  Avignon  contrived  also  to  maintain  each  a  number  uf  sup- 
porters. All  these  Popes,  wishing  to  maintain  their  rank  and 
dignity  with  that  splendour  and  magnificence  which  their  pre- 
decessors had  displayed  before  the  schism,  set  themselves  to 
invent  new  means  of  oppressing  the  people ;  hence  the  immense 
number  of  abuses  and  exactions,  which  subverted  the  discipline 
of  the  church,  and  roused  the  exasperated  nations  against  the 
court  of  Rome. 

A  new  General  Council  was  convoked  at  Constance  (1414) 
by  order  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund ;  and  it  was  there  that  the 
maxim  of  the  unity  and  permanency  of  Councils  was  established, 
as  well  as  of  its  superiority  over  the  Pope,  in  all  that  pertains 
to  matters  of  faith,  to  the  extirpation  of  schism,  and  the  refor- 
mation of  the  church  both  in  its  supreme  head,  and  in  its  subor- 
dinate members.  The  grand  schism  was  here  terminated  by 
the  abdication  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  the  deposition  of  those 
of  Pisa  and  Avignon.  It  was  this  famous  council  that  gave 
their  decision  against  John  Huss,  the  Reformer  of  Bohemia, 
and  a  follower  of  the  celebrated  Wickliff  His  doctrines  were 
condemned,  and  he  himself  burnt  at  Constance;  as  was  Jerome 
of  Prague,  one  of  his  most  zealous  partisans.  As  to  the  mea- 
sures that  were  taken  at  Constance  for  effecting  the  reformation 
of  the  Church,  they  practically  ended  in  nothing.  As  their 
main  object  was  to  reform  the  court  of  Rome,  by  suppressing 
or  limiting  the  new  prerogatives  which  the  Popes  for  .  -  veral 
centuries  had  usurped,  and  which  referred,  among  other  tilings, 
to  the  subject  of  benefices  and  pecuniary  exactions,  all  those 
who  had  an  interest  in  maintaining  these  abuses,  instantly  set 
themselves  to  defeat  the  proposed  amendments,  and  elude  re- 
dress. The  Council  had  formed  a  committee,  composed  of  the 
deputies  of  different  nations,  to  advise  means  for  accomplishing 
this  reformation,  which  the  whole  world  so  ardently  desired. 


nd  this  grand 
le,  Urban  VI. 
and  Gregory 
his  successor 
'ery  expedient 
ir  abdication ; 
withdrew  their 
19,)  where  the 
tifical  dignity 
succeeded  by 
tended  to  in- 
arose  three; 
opes  of  Rome 
Jinbei  of  sup- 
heir  rank  and 
ich  their  pre- 
themselves  to 
J  the  immense 
the  discipline 
IS  against  the 

stance  (1414) 
there  that  the 
IS  established, 

that  pertains 
and  the  refor- 
i  in  its  subor- 
terminated  by 
sition  of  those 
cil  that  gave 

of  Bohemia, 
loctrines  were 
s  was  Jerome 
Ls  to  the  inea- 
le  reformation 
)g.  As  their 
^  suppressing 
es  for  . '  veral 
:  other  tilings, 
ons,  all  those 
1,  instantly  set 
and  elude  re- 
(n posed  of  the 
iccomplishing 
;ntly  desired. 


iStji^f 


I  H  •  ■\ 


PERIOD  V.      A.  D.  13(      —1453. 


171 


This  committee,  known  by  the  name  of  the  College  of  Seformers. 
had  already  made  considerable  progress  in  their  task,  when  a 
question  was  started,  Whether  it  was  proper  to  proceed  to  any 
reformation  without  the  consent  and  co-operation  of  the  visible 
Head  of  the  Church  ?  It  was  carried  in  the  negative,  through  the 
intrigues  of  the  cardinals ;  and,  before  they  could  accomplish 
this  salutary  work  of  reformation,  the  election  of  a  new  Pope 
had  taken  place  (1417.)  The  choice  fell  on  Otho  de  Colonna, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  Martin  V.,  and  in  conformity  with  a 
previous  decision  of  the  council,  he  then  laid  before  them  a 
scheme  of  reform.  This  proceeding  having  been  disapproved 
l-y  the  different  nations  of  Europe,  the  whole  matter  was 
remitted  to  the  next  council ;  and  in  the  meanwhile,  they  did 
nothing  more  than  pass  some  concordats,  with  the  new  Pope, 
as  to  what  steps  they  should  take  until  the  decision  of  the  ap- 
proaching council. 

This  new  council,  which  was  assembled  at  Basle  (1431)  by 
Martin  V.,  resumed  the  suspended  work  of  reformation.     The 
former  decrees,  that  a  General  Council  was  superior  to  the  Pope, 
and  could  not  be  dissolved  or  prorogued  except  by  their  own 
free  consent,  were  here  renewed ;  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
reserves,  reversions,  annats,  and  other  exactions  of  the  Popes, 
were  regularly  abolished.     The  liberty  of  appeals  to  the  Court 
of  Rome,  was  also  circumscribed.     Eugenius  IV.,  successor  to 
Martin  V.,  alarmed  at  the  destruction  thus  aimed  at  his  author- 
ity, twice  proclaimed  the  dissolution  of  the  Council.     The  first 
dissolution,  which  occurred  on  the  17th  of  December  1431,  was 
revoked,  at  the  urgent  application  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund, 
by  a  bull  of  the  same  Pope,  issued  on  the  15th  of  December 
1433.     In  this  he  acknowledged  the  validity  of  the  Council, 
and  annulled  all  that  he  had  formerly  done  to  invalidate  its  au- 
thority.    The  second  dissolution  took  place  on  the  1st  of  Octo- 
ber 1437.     Eugenius  then  transferred  the  Council  to  Ferrara, 
and  from  Ferrara  to  Florence,  on  pretext  of  his  negotiatiniT  a 
union  with  the  Greek  church.     This  conduct  of  the  Pope  oc- 
casioned a  new  schism.     The  prelates  who  remained  at  B  islf;, 
instituted  a  procedure  against  him  ;  they  first  suspended  him 
for  contumacy,  and  finally  deposed  him.     Amadeus  VIII.,  Ex- 
duke  of  Saxony,  was  elected  in  his  place,  under  the  name  ol 
Felix  v.,  and  recognised  by  all  the  partisans  of  the  Council  as 
the  legitimate  Pope.     This  latter  schism  lasted  ten  years.     Fe- 
lix V.  at  length  gave  in  his  demission ;  and  the  Council,  which 
had  withdrawn  from  Basle  to  Lausanne,  terminated  its  sittings 
in  1449.  * 

The  French  nation  adopted  several  of  the  decrees  of  the 


f';'.  1 


I' 


flf 


I 


.•3^ 

» 


172 


CIIAPTBR  VI. 


Council  o(  Basle  in  the  famous  Pragmatic  Sanction,  which 
Charles  VII.  caused  to  be  drawn  up  at  Bourges  (1438;)  nnd 
whose  stipulations  served  as  the  basis  of  what  is  called  the 
Liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church.  The  example  of  the  French 
was  speedily  followed  by  the  Germans,  who  acceded  to  these 
decrees,  at  the  Diet  of  Mayence  in  1439.  The  Court  of  Rome 
at  length  regained  a  part  of  those  honourable  and  lucrative  rights 
of  which  the  Council  of  Basle  had  deprived  them,  by  the  con- 
cordats which  the  Germans  concluded  (1448)  with  Nicholas  V.. 
and  the  French  (1516)  with  Leo  X.  The  Councils  of  which 
we  have  now  spoken,  tended  materially  to  limit  the  exorbitant 
power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  by  giving  sanction  to  the  princi- 
ple which  established  the  superiority  of  General  Councils  over 
the  Popes.  This  maxim  put  a  check  to  the  enterprising  ambi- 
tion of  the  Court  of  Rome  ;  and  kings  availed  themselves  of  it 
to  recover  by  degrees  the  prerogatives  of  their  crowns.  The 
Popes,  moreover,  sensible  of  their  weakness,  and  of  the  need 
they  had  for  the  protection  of  the  sovereigns,  learned  to  treat 
them  with  more  attention  and  respect. 

At  length  the  new  light  which  began  to  dawn  about  the  four- 
teenth century,  hastened  on  the  progress  of  this  revolution,  by 
gradually  dissipating  the  darkness  of  superstition  into  which 
the  nations  of  Europe  were  almost  universally  sunk.     In  the 
midst  of  the  distractions  which  agitated  the  Empire  and  the 
Church,  and  during  the  papal  schism,  several  learned  and  in- 
trepid men  made  their  appearance,  who,  while  investigating  the 
origin  and  abuse  of  the  new  power  of  the  Popes,  had  the  courage 
to  revive  the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  canons,  to  enlighten  the 
minds  of  sovereigns  as  to  their  true  rights,  and  to  examine  with 
care  into  the  justs  limits  of  the  sacerdotal  authority.     Among 
the  first  of  these  reformers  was  John  of  Paris,  a  famous  Do- 
minican, who  undertook  the  defence  of  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of 
France,  against  Pope  Boniface  VIII.     His  example  was  follow- 
ed bv  the  celebrated  poet  Dante  Alighieri,  who  took  the  part  of 
the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria  against  the  Court  of  Rome.  Mar- 
silo  de  Padua,  John  de  Janduno,  William  Ockam,  Leopold  de 
Babenberg,  &c.  marched  in  the  track  of  the  Italian  poet ;  and 
among  the  crowd  of  writers  that  signalized  themselves  after  the 
grand  schism,  three  French  authors  particularly  distinguished 
themselves,  Peter  d'Ailly,  Nicholas  de  Clemange,  and  John 
Gerson,  whose  writings  met  with  general  applause.     Most  of 
these  literary  productions,  however,  were  characterized  by  bad 
taste      The  philosophy  of  Aristotle,  studied  in  Arabic  transla- 
tions, and  disfigured  by  scholastic  subtleties,  reigned  in  all  the 
Bchools,  imposed  its  fetters  on  the  human  mind,  and  nearly  ex- 


-1\ 


PERIOD  V.      A.  D.  1300—1453. 


irj 


anction,  which 
IS  (1438;)  nnd 
at  is  called  the 
I  of  the  French 
ceded  to  thetiQ 
Court  of  Rome 
lucrative  rightR 
m,  by  the  con- 
th  Nicholas  V., 
incils  of  which 
t  the  exorbitant 
n  to  the  princi- 
I  Councils  over 
erprising  ambi- 
hemselves  of  it 
crowns.  The 
id  of  the  need 
earned  to  treat 

about  the  four- 
3  revolution,  by 
ion  into  which 

sunk.  In  the 
Bmpire  and  the 
learned  and  in- 
nvestigatingthe 
lad  the  courage 
)  enlighten  the 
0  examine  with 
lority.  Among 
,  a  famous  Do- 
le Fair,  King  of 
iple  was  follow- 
took  the  part  of 
of  Rome.  Mar- 
im,  Leopold  de 
alian  poet;  and 
tselves  after  the 
ly  distinguished 
mge,  and  John 
ause.  Most  of 
icterized  by  bad 

Arabic  transla- 
igned  in  all  the 
,  and  nearly  ex- 


tinguished every  vestige  of  useful  knowledge.  The  belles  lei- 
ires  were  quite  neglected,  nnd  as  yet  had  shed  no  lustre  on  the 
sciences.  Soinetiinss,  however,  genius  broke  with  a  transient 
splendour  through  the  darkness  of  this  moral  horizon  ;  and 
several  extraordinary  persons,  despising  the  vain  cavils  of  the 
schools,  began  to  study  truth  in  the  volume  of  nature,  and  to 
copy  after  the  beautiful  models  of  antiquity.  Such  was  Roger 
Bacon  (1294,)  an  Englishman,  and  a  Franciscan  friar,  who  has 
become  so  famous  by  his  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  mechani- 
cal philosophy.  Dante  (1321,)  nurtured  in  the  spirit  of  the  an- 
cients, was  the  first  that  undertook  to  refine  the  Italian  language 
into  poetry,  and  gave  it  the  polish  of  elegance  and  grace  in 
his  compositions.  He  was  succeeded  by  two  other  celebrated 
authors,  Petrarca  nnd  Boccacio  (1374-5.) 

The  period  of  which  we  speak  gave  birth  to  several  new  in- 
ventions, which  proved  useful  auxiliaries  to  men  of  genius,  and 
tended  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  knowledge,  letters,  and  arts. 
Among  the  principal  of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  invention 
of  writing  paper,  oil-painting,  printing,  gunpowder,  and  the  ma- 
riner's compass;  to  the  effects  of  which,  Europe,  in  a  great 
measure,  owes  its  civilization,  and  the  new  order  of  things 
which  appeared  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Before  the  invention  of  paper  from  linen,  parchment  was  gen- 
erally used  in  Europe  for  the  transcribing  of  books,  or  the  draw- 
ing out  of  publi",  deeds.  Cotton  paper,  which  the  Arabs  brought 
from  the  East,  was  but  a  poor  remedy  for  the  scarceness  and 
dearth  of  parchment.  It  would  appear,  that  the  invention  of 
paper  from  linen,  and  the  custom  of  using  it  in  Europe,  is  not 
of  older  date  than  the  thirteenth  century.  The  famous  M(mt- 
faucon  acknowledges,  that,  in  spite  of  all  his  researches,  both  in 
France  and  Italy,  he  could  never  find  any  manuscript  or  char- 
ter, written  on  our  ordinary  paper,  older  than  the  year  1270, 
the  time  when  St.  Louis  died.  The  truth  is,  we  know  neither 
the  exact  date  of  the  invention  of  this  sort  of  paper,  nor  the  name 
of  the  inventor.^  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  manufacture 
of  paper  from  cotton  must  have  introduced  that  of  paper  from 
linen ;  and  the  only  question  is,  to  determine  at  what  time  the 
use  of  linen  became  so  common  in  Europe,  as  to  lead  us  to  sup- 
pose they  might  convert  its  rags  into  paper.  The  cultivation 
of  hernp  and  flax  being  originally  peculiar  to  the  northern  coun- 
tries, it  is  probable  that  the  first  attempts  at  making  paper  of 
linen  rags  were  made  in  Germany,  and  the  countries  abounding 
in  flax  and  hemp,  rather  than  in  the  southern  provinces  of  Eu- 
rope. The  most  ancient  manufactory  of  paper  from  linen  to  be 
met  with  in  Germany,  was  established  at  Nuremberg  (1390.) 


<i'  jii 


II 


lit" 


!«ife 


p 


l?4 


CHAPTRR  Vt. 


Thp  invention  of  oil-painting  is  (rencrnlly  ascribed  to  the  two 
brothers  Van-Eick,  the  younger  of  whom,  known  by  the  name 
of  John  of  Bruges,  had  gained  considerable  celebrity  about  the 
end  of  the  fourleenlh  century.  There  ia,  however,  reason  to 
believe  that  this  invention  is  of  an  older  date.  There  are  two 
nulhiirs  who  have  carried  it  hack  to  the  eleventh  century,  viz, 
Theophilus  and  Eraclius,  whose  works  in  manuscript  have  bi  n 
preserved  in  the  library  at  WolfTenbiittcl,  and  in  that  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge  j  and  who  speak  of  this  art  as  already  known 
in  their  limes.  According  to  them,  all  sorts  of  colours  could  be 
mixed  up  with  linseed  oil,  and  employed  in  painting;  but  they 
agree  as  to  the  inconvenience  of  applying  this  kind  of  painting 
to  images  or  portraits,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  drying 
colours  mixed  with  oil.  Admitting  the  credibility  of  these  two 
authors,  and  the  high  antiquity  of  their  works,  it  would  appear, 
nevertheless,  that  they  made  no  great  use  of  this  invention ; 
whether  it  may  be  that  painters  preferred  to  retain  their  for- 
mer mode,  or  that  the  difficulty  of  drying  oil  colours  had  dis- 
couraged them.  It  is,  however,  too  true,  that  the  finest  inven- 
tions have  often  languished  in  unmerited  neglect,  long  before 
men  had  learned  to  reap  any  adequate  advantage  from  them. 
Were  the  Vun-Eicks  the  first  that  practised  this  style  of  paint- 
ing ?  Or  did  John  of  Bruges,  the  younger  of  the  brothers,  and 
who  carried  it  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection,  invent  some 
mixture  or  composition  for  increasing  the  exsiccative  qualities 
of  linseed  or  nut  oil ;  especially  with  regard  to  colours  not  easily 
dried  ?  It  belongs  to  connoisseurs  and  artists  to  examine  these 
questions,  as  well  as  to  decide  whether  the  pictures,  alleged  to 
have  been  painted  in  oil-colours  before  the  time  of  the  Van- 
Eicks,  were  executed  with  any  degree  of  perfection  in  that  style 
of  painting."  This  invention  totally  changed  the  system  and 
the  principles  of  the  art  of  painting.  It  gave  birth  to  rules  as 
to  light  and  shade,  and  procured  modern  painters  one  advantage 
over  the  ancients,  that  of  rendering  their  works  much  more 
durable. 

One  of  the  most  important  inventions  is  that  of  printing; 
which  was  borrowed,  it  would  appear,  from  the  art  of  engraving 
on  wood ;  while  this  latter  owes  its  origin  to  the  moulding  or 
imprinting  of  common  cards,  which  seems  to  have  suggested  the 
first  idea  of  it.  The  use  of  cards  was  borrowed  from  Italy ; 
though  we  find  this  custom  established  in  Germany  soon  after 
the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century,  where  card- 
makers  formed  a  distinct  trade,  about  four  and  twenty  years  be 
fore  the  invention  of  printing.  It  is  probable  that  the  Germans 
were  the  first  who  designed  models  and  proper  casts  for  the  im- 


m 


:iU--_. 


bed  to  tlie  two 
n  by  the  name 
brity  nbout  the 
;ver,  reason  to 
There  are  two 
1  century,  viz. 
;ript  hnve  be  n 
that  of  Trinity 
already  known 
)loiirH  could  be 
ting;  but  they 
ind  of  painting 
ulty  in  drying 
[y  of  these  two 
would  appear, 
his  invention ; 
etain  their  for- 
)lours  had  din* 
le  finest  inven- 
!Ct,  long  before 
je  from  them, 
style  of  paint* 
:  brothers,  and 
n,  invent  some 
:ative  qualities 
lours  not  easily 
examine  these 
res,  alleged  to 
ne  of  the  Van- 
on  in  that  style 
le  system  and 
rth  to  rules  as 
one  advantage 
cs  much  more 

It  of  printing; 
t  of  engraving 
e  moulding  or 

suggested  the 
d  from  Italy; 
any  soon  after 

where  card- 
renty  years  be- 
t  the  Germans 
Bsts  lor  the  im- 


PBRIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453. 


m 


prfision  of  cards.'  The  desire  of  gain,  iiiggosted  to  these 
card-makers  the  idea  of  engraving  on  wood,  uflrr  the  ,snmc 
manner,  all  kinds  of  figures  or  scenes  from  Surnd  Hislorji 
accompanied  with  legends,  or  iiarrativi's,  intended  to  explain 
their  meaning.  It  was  from  these  le>;end.s,  printed  in  single 
folios,  and  published  also  in  the  form  of  books,  or  rather  of  im- 
pressions from  engravings  on  solid  blocks  of  wood,  that  the  art 
of  typography  took  its  origin.**  This  wonderful  art,  to  which 
Europe  owes  its  astonishing  progress  in  the  sciences,  consists 
of  two  distinct  inventions, — that  of  the  tnoveahle  tijprs,  and  that 
of  the  font.  The  former  belongs  to  John  Gutenberg,  a  gentle- 
man of  Muyence,  who  made  his  first  attempt  in  moveable  types 
at  Strasburg,  in  1436  ;  the  other,  which  is  generally  attributed 
to  Peter  Schoefferof  Gernsheim,  look  place  ut  Muyence  in  1452. 
Gutenberg  resided  at  Strasburg,  from  1424  till  1445.  Being  a 
noble  senator  of  thot  city,  he  married  a  lady  of  rank ;  and  during 
the  twenty  years  of  his  residence  there,  lie  cultivated  all  sort* 
of  occult  arts,  especially  that  of  printing.  It  was  chiefly  in  re- 
ference to  this  latter  art  that  he  contracted  an  acquaintance  with 
several  of  his  wealthy  fellow-citizens,  one  of  whom,  named 
Andrew  Drizehn,  having  died,  his  heirs  brought  an  action  against 
Gutenberg  on  account  of  some  claims  which  they  laid  to  his 
charge.  The  magistrate  ordered  an  inquiry  to  be  instituted,  the 
original  copy  of  which,  drawn  up  in  1439,  was  discovered  by 
Schoepflin  (1745)  in  the  archives  of  the  city,  and  is  still  preserv- 
ed in  the  public  library  at  Strasburg.  According  to  this  au- 
thentic document,  it  appears,  that  from  the  year  1436,  there 
existed  a  printing-press  at  Strasburg,  under  the  direction  of 
Gutenburg,  And  in  the  house  of  Andrew  Drizehn,  his  associate ; 
that  this  press  consisted  of  forms,  that  were  fastened  or  locked 
by  means  of  screws  ;  and  that  the  types,  either  cut  or  engraved, 
which  were  enclosed  within  these  forms,  were  moveable." 

Gutenburg,  after  his  return  to  Mayence,  still  continued  his 
typographical  labours.  While  there,  he  contracted  an  acquaint- 
ance with  a  new  associate  in  the  exercise  of  his  art  (1445) — the 
famous  John  Faust,  a  citizen  of  Mayence.  This  second  alliance 
continued  only  five  years ;  and  it  is  within  this  interval,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  that  the  invention  of  the  font,  or  casting  of 
types,  should  be  placed  ;  as  well  as  that  of  the  die  and  the  mould 
or  matrix,  by  the  help  of  which  the  art  of  typography  was  brought 
nearly  to  its  present  state  of  perfection.'"  Some  disputes,  which 
had  arisen  between  these  new  associates,  having  dissolved  their 
partnership,  Faust  obtained  the  press  of  Gutenberg,  with  all  its 
printing  apparatus,  which  had  fallen  to  him  by  sequestration. 
Gutenberg,  however  fitted  up  another  press,  and  continued  to 


p.*l 


176 


CHAPTER  VI. 


print  lill  the  tiiur  of  hi;*  di-at)),  in  1 168.  Not  one  of  the  boolu 
which  ixKUL-d  from  thi-  presi  of  thir*  celebrated  man,  either 
at  Sliasbiirj^  or  Mayt'iife,  bears  ihu  nnmc  of  the  invrntor,  or  the 
(iutti  of  the  irnprefiMivi  ;  whi:'li<  t  it  wuh  tlint  Uuu'nborg  made  a 
B'-'ori't  of  hi.s  invention,  r  ihui  iIm.'  prejudices  m  the  cast  to  which 
he  beh)nf{ed  prevenlt.  i  i  .  Irotn  !  ou>ting  of  his  discovery.  " 
Faust,  on  the  contrary,  ii'i  mon^r  »  i>»-  himself  master  of  Quten- 
berg's  pre^8t■.x,  than  ho  he.un)  ■  rrnibi  itius  of  notoriety,  o.i  ex- 
ample ol  which  lie  gave  by  pref,  iig  liis  name  and  that  of  I'etei 
Schu'lli-r  lo  the  famous  INaller,  which  ihoy  published  in  1467. 

The  arts  of  which  \vu  liiive  just  spoker.,  in  all  probability, 
suggested  the  idea  of  engraving  un  cooper,  of  which  we  can 
discover  ccniiin  traces  towards  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  hxiiijur  of  this  invention  is  generally  ascribed  to  a 
goldsmith  of  I'lorence,  named  Maso  Finiguerra,  who  is  supposed 
lo  liave  made  this  discovery  about  the  year  1460,  while  engrav- 
ing figures  on  silver  }:<lMle,  Daccio  lialdiiii,  another  Florentine, 
Andrew  Montogna,  a.-id  Mnrli  Antony  Haimondi,  both  Italians, 
folldvwd  in  the  ^tep^  of  1  Mii(;uerra,  and  brought  this  art  to  a 
high  li'  gree  of  perfecti(ii.  There  if,  however,  some  cause  lo 
doubt  whether  Finiguerra  was  exactly  the  first  lo  whom  the 
idea  of  this  sort  of  engraving  occurred  ;  since,  in  diflerenl  cabi- 
nets in  Europe,  we  (inil  specimens  of  engraving  on  copper,  of  a 
date  earlier  than  what  hi»s  been  assigned  to  Finiguerra.  If, 
however,  the  glory  of  this  invention  belongs  in  reality  to  the 
Italians,  it  iij  quite  certain  that  the  art  of  engraving  on  copper, 
as  well  as  on  wood,  was  cultivated  from  its  infancy,  and  brought 
to  perfection,  in  Germany.  The  first  native  engravers  in  that 
country  who  are  known,  cither  by  their  names  or  their  signa- 
tures, in  the  fifteenth  ceniury,  were  Martin  Schccn,  a  painter  and 
engraver  at  Colmar,  where  he  died  in  14S6 ;  the  two  Israels 
Von  Mechein,  father  and  son,  who  resided  at  Bockholt,  in  West- 
phalia; and  Michael  Wolgemuth  of  Nuremberg,  the  master  of 
the  celebrated  Albert  Durer,  who  made  so  conspicuous  a  figure 
about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

Next  to  the  invention  of  printing,  there  is  no  other  that  so 
much  arrests  our  attention  as  that  of  gunpowder,  which,  I;,'  in- 
troducing artillery,  and  u  new  method  of  fortifying,  attacking, 
and  defending  cities,  wrought  a  complete  change  in  the  whole 
art  and  tactics  of  war.  This  invention  comprises  seireral  disco- 
veries which  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  from  each  other.  1 
The  discovery  of  nitre,  the  principal  ingredient  in  gunpowder, 
and  the  jause  of  its  detonation.  2.  The  mixture  of  nitre  with 
sulphur  and  charcoal,  which,  properly  speaking,  forms  the  in- 


)  of  the  bookn 
I  man,  either 
rivcnlor,  or  the 
■iiberg  made  a 
D  cusito  which 
s  discovery.  " 
sier  of  Gut«n- 
loriely,  (i,i  ex- 
d  ihnl  of  I'elet 
shed  in  1457. 
ill  probability, 
which  we  can 
?  fifteenth  cen- 
yr  ascribed  to  a 
ho  is  supposed 
while  engrav- 
lier  Florentine, 
,  both  Italians, 
It  this  art  to  a 
some  cause  to 
to  whom  the 
difll'rent  cubi- 
lut  copper,  of  a 
iniguerra.  If, 
1  reality  to  the 
ring  on  copper, 
•y,  and  brought 
fruvers  in  that 
or  their  signa- 
[i,  a  painter  and 
le  two  Israels 
kholt,  ill  West- 
,  the  master  of 
icuous  a  figure 
f  the  sixteenth 

9  other  that  so 
',  which,  l.y  in- 
ing,  attacking, 
[e  in  the  whole 
s  setreral  disco- 
each  other.  1 
in  gunpowder, 
re  of  nitre  with 
, ,  forms  the  in- 


f'frf 


..^ /•' 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


4 


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1.8 


11-25  IIIIII.4   IIIIII.6 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


4 
^ 


J 


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^'^.U 


CIHM/ICMK 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


** 


i,"  h'i 


PERIOD  V.      A.  D.  1300 — 1463. 


177 


vcntion  of  gunpowder.  3.  The  application  of  powder  to  fire- 
works. 4.  Its  employment  as  an  agent  or  propelling  power 
for  throwing  stones,  bullets,  or  other  heavy  and  combustible 
bodies.  5.  Its  employment  in  springing  mines,  and  destroying 
fortifications. 

All  these  discoveries  belong  to  difTerent  epochs.  The  know 
ledge  of  saltpetre  or  nitre,  and  its  explosive  properties,  called 
detonation,  is  very  ancient.  Most  probably  it  was  brought  to 
us  from  the  East  (India  or  China,)  where  saltpetre  is  found  in  a 
natural  state  of  preparation.  It  is  not  less  probable  that  the 
nations  of  the  East  were  acquainted  with  the  composition  of 
gunpowder  before  the  Europeans, and  that  it  was  the  Arabs  who 
first  introduced  the  use  of  it  into  Europe.  The  celebrated  Roger 
Bacon,  an  English  monk  or  friar  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was 
acquainted  with  the  composition  of  powder,  and  its  employment 
in  fiife-works  and  public  festivities  ;  and  according  to  all  appear- 
ances, he  ob^xied  this  information  from  the  Arabic  authors, 
who  excelledm  their  skill  of  the  chemical  sciences.  The  em- 
ployment of  gunpowder  in  Europe  as  an  agent  for  throwing  balls 
and  stones,  is  ascertained  to  have  been  about  the  commencement 
of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  and  it  was  the  Arabs  who  first  avail- 
ed themselves  of  its  advantages  in  their  wars  against  the  Span- 
iards. From  Spain  the  use  of  gunpowder  and  artillery  passed 
to  France,  and  thence  it  gradually  extended  over  the  other 
States  of  Europe.  As  to  the  application  of  powder  to  mines, 
and  the  destruction  of  fortified  works,  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  in  practice  before  the  end  of  the  fifleenth  cen- 
lury.''  The  introduction  of  bombs  and  mortars  seems  to  have 
been  of  an  earlier  date  (1467.)  The  invention  of  these  in 
Europe,  is  attributed  to  Sigismund  Randolph  Malatssta,  Prince 
of  Rimini ;  but  in  France  they  were  not  in  use  till  about  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIII.  Muskets  and  matchlocks  began  to  be  in- 
troduced early  in  the  fifteenth  century.  They  were  without 
spring-locks  till  1517,  when  for  the  first  time  muskets  and  pis- 
tols with  spring-locks  were  manufactured  at  Nuremberg. 

Several  circumstances  tended  to  check  the  pr(^ress  of  fire- 
arms and  the  improvement  of  artillery.  Custom  made  most 
people  prefer  their  ancient  engines  of  war ;  the  construction  of 
cannons  was  but  imperfect ;"  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder 
bad ;  and  there  was  a  very  general  aversion  to  the  newly  in- 
vented arms,  as  contrary  to  humanity,  and  calculated  to  extin- 
guish military  bravery.  Above  all,  the  knights,  whose  science 
was  rendered  completely  useless  by  the  introduction  of  fire- 
arms, set  themselves  with  all  their  might  to  oppose  this  invention. 
From  what  we  hove  just  said  it  is  obvious,  that  the  common 


i.\'  I 


i!|v"^'.) 

^if.\i 

|i;t<,  ' 

!r 

fi'J'^; 


r'  r.r 


!^*i; 


!.       f 


lii  w 


178 


CHAPTER  VL 


tradition  which  ascribes  the  invention  of  gunpowder  to  a  certain 
monk,  named  Berthold  Schwartz,  merits  no  credit  whatever. 
This  tradition  is  founded  on  mere  hearsay ;  and  no  writers 
agree  as  to  the  name,  the  country,  or  the  circumstances  of  this 
pretended  inventor ;  nor  as  to  the  time  and  place  when  he  made 
this  extraordinary  discovery.     Lastly,  the  mariner's  compass, 
80  essential  to  the  art  of  navigation,  was  likewise  the  produc- 
tion of  the  barbarous  ages  to  which  we  now  refer.  The  ancients 
were  aware  of  the  property  of  the  magnet  to  attract  iron  ;  but 
its  direction  towards  the  pole,  and  the  manner  of  communica- 
ting its  magnetic  virtues  to  iron  and  steel,  were  unknown  even 
to  all  those  nations  of  antiquity  who  were  renowned  for  their 
navigation  and  commerce.    This  discovery  is  usually  attributed 
to  a  citizen  of  Amalfi,  named  Flavio  Gioia,  who  is  said  to  have 
lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.     This  tra 
dition,  ancient  though  it  be,  cannot  be  admitted,  because  we 
have  incontestable  evidence  that,  before  this  period,  the  polarity 
of  the  loadstone  and  the  magnetic  needle  were  known  in  Europe ; 
and  that,  from  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
Proven9al  mariners  made  use  of  the  compass  in  navigation.  " 
It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  we  can  neither  point  out 
the  original  author  of  this  valuable  discovery,  nor  the  true  time 
when  it  was  made.     All  that  can  be  well  ascertained  is,  that 
the  mariner's  compass  was  rectified  by  degrees  ;  and  that  the 
English  had  no  small  share  in  these  corrections.      It  is  to  this 
polar  virtue   or  quality  of  the  loadstone,  and   the  magnetic 
needle,  that  we  owe  the  astonishing  progress  of  commerce  and 
navigation  in  Europe,  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
These  were  already  very  considerable  at  the  time  of  which  we 
speak,  although  navigation  was  as  yet  confined  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  Baltic,  and  the  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean. 

The  cities  of  Italy,  the  Hanseatic  towns,  and  those  of  the 
Low  Countries,  engrossed,  at  that  time,  the  principal  commerce 
of  Europe.  The  Venetians,  the  Genoese,  and  the  Florentines, 
were  masters  of  the  Levant.  The  Genoese  had  more  espe- 
cially the  command  of  the  Black  Sea,  while  the  Venetians  laid 
claim  exclusively  to  the  commerce  of  India  and  the  East,  which 
they  carried  on  through  the  ports  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  This 
rivalry  in  trade  embroiled  these  two  republics  in  frequent  dis- 
putes, and  involved  them  in  long  and  sanguinary  wars.  The 
result  turned  in  favour  of  the  Venetians,  who  found  means  to 
maintain  the  empire  of  the  Mediterranean  against  the  Genoese. 
The  manufactories  of  silk,  after  having  passed  from  Grtece 
into  Sicily,  and  from  Sicily  into  the  other  parts  of  Italy,  »t 
length  fixed  their  principal  residence    at  Venice.     This  city 


■i  ~ 


PEBIOD  V.       A.  D,    1300 1463. 


179 


T  to  a  certain 
it  whatever, 
d  no  writers 
inces  of  this 
hen  he  made 
r's  compass, 
I  the  produc- 
The  ancients 
ict  iron  ;  but 
communira- 
iknown  even 
led  for  their 
Uy  attributed 

said  to  have 
jr.     This  tra 

because  we 
1,  the  polarity 
'n  in  Europe; 
1  century,  the 
navigation.  " 
her  point  out 
the  true  time 
lined  is,  that 
and  that  the 

It  is  to  this 
the  magnetic 
ommerce  and 
»nth  century, 
of  which  we 
the  Mediter- 
:ean. 

those  of  the 
pal  commerce 
e  Florentines, 
d  more  espe- 
/^enetians  laid 
e  East,  which 
Syria.     This 

frequent  dis- 
y  wars.  The 
ind  means  to 
t  the  Genoese. 

from  Grtece 
ts  of  Italy,  at 
e.     This  city 


came  at  length  to  furnish  the  greater  part  of  Europe  with  silk 
mercery,  and  the  productions  of  Arabia  and  India.  The  Italian 
merchants,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Lombards,  ex- 
tended their  traffic  through  all  the  different  states  of  Europe. 
Favoured  by  the  privileges  and  immunities  which  various 
sovereigns  had  granted  them,  they  soon  became  masters  of  the 
commerce  and  the  current  money  of  every  country  where  they 
established  themselves  ;  and,  in  all  probability,  they  were  the 
first  that  adopted  the  practice  of  Letters  or  Bills  of  Exchange, 
of  which  we  may  discover  traces  towards  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 

The  Hanseatic  League,  which  the  maritime  cities  on  the 
Baltic  had  formed  in  the  thirteenth  century,  for  the  protection 
of  their  commerce  against  pirates  and  brigands,  gained  very 
considerable  accessions  of  strength  in  the  following  century, 
and  even  became  a  very  formidable  maritime  power.  A  great 
number  of  the  commercial  cities  of  the  Empire,  from  the  Scheld 
and  the  isles  of  Zealand,  to  the  confines  of  Livonia,  entered 
successively  into  this  League ;  and  many  towns  in  the  interior, 
in  order  to  enjoy  their  protection,  solkited  the  favour  of  being 
admitted  under  its  flag.  The  first  public  act  of  a  general  con- 
federation among  these  cities,  was  drawn  up  at  the  assembly  of 
their  deputies,  held  at  Cologne,  in  1364.  The  whole  of  the 
allied  towns  were  subdivided  into  quarters  or  circles;  the  most 
ancient  of  which  were  the  Venedian  quarter,  containing  the 
southern  and  eastern  coasts  of  the  Baltic ;  the  Westphalian, 
for  the  towns  on  the  western  side ;  and  the  Saxon,  compre- 
hending the  inland  and  intermediate  towns.  A  fourth  circle  or 
iuarter  was  afterwards  added,  that  of  the  cities  of  Prussia  and 
livonia.  The  boundaries  of  these  different  circles  and  their 
capital  towns  varied  from  time  to  time.  The  general  assern- 
blies  of  the  League  were  held  regularly  every  three  years,  in 
the  city  of  Lubec,  which  was  considered  as  the  capital  of  the 
whole  League  ;  while  each  of  the  three  or  four  circles  had  also 
their  particular  or  provincial  assemblies. 

The  most  flourishing  epoch  of  this  League  was  about  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  and  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. At  that  time,  the  deputies  of  more  than  fourscore  cities 
appeared  at  its  assemblies  ;  and  even  some  towns  who  had  not 
the  privilege  of  sending  deputies  were,  nevertheless,  regarded 
as  allies  of  the  League.  Having  the  command  of  the  whole 
commerce  of  the  Baltic,  their  cities  exercised  at  their  pleasure 
the  rights  of  peace  and  war,  and  even  of  forming  alliances. 
They  equipped  numerous  and  powerful  fleets,  and  oflfered  bat- 
tle to  the  sovereigns  of  the  North,  whenever  they  presumed  to 


wm 


h   fu 


t'  It.    ^ 


'  1    ^ 


'  hi' 


*  1 


IK 


.' 


190  ■■     '  CIIAITKR  VI. 

interfere  with  their  monopoly,  or  to  restrict  the  privileges  and 
exemptions  which  they  had  the  weakness  to  grant  them.  The 
productions  of  the  North,  such  as  hemp,  flax,  timber,  potash, 
tar,  corn,  hides,  furs,  and  copper,  with  the  produce  of  the 
large  and  small  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Schonen,  Norway, 
Lapland,  and  Iceland,'*  formed  the  staple  of  the  Hanseatic 
commerce.  They  exchanged  these  commodities,  in  the  west- 
ern parts  of  Europe,  for  wines,  fruits,  drugs,  and  all  sorts  of 
cloths,  which  they  carried  back  to  the  North  in  return.  Their 
principal  factories  and  warehouses,  were  at  Bruges  for  Flan- 
ders, at  London  for  England,  at  Novogorod  for  Russia,  and  at 
Bergen  for  Norway.  The  merchandise  of  Italy  and  the  East 
was  imported  into  "Flanders,  in  Genoese  or  Venetian  bottoms, 
which,  at  that  time,  carried  on  most  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Levant  and  the  Mediterranean. 

Extensive  as  the  trade  of  the  Hanseatic  cities  was,  it  proved 
neither  solid  nor  durable.      As  they  were  themselves  deficient 
in  the  articles  of  raw  materials  and  large  manufactories,  and 
entirely  dependent  on  foreign  traflSc,  the  industry  of  other  na- 
tions, especially  of  thos<^  skilled  in  the  arts,  had  a  ruinous  efTect 
on  their  commerce ;  and,  in  course  of  time,  turned  the  current 
of  merchandise  into  other  channels.     Besides,  the   want  of 
union  among  these  cities,  their  factions  and  intestine  divisions, 
and  their  distance  from  each  other,  prevented  them  from  ever 
forming  a  territorial  or  colonial  power,  or  obtaining  possession 
of  the  Sound,  which  alone  was  able  to  secure  them  the  exclu- 
sive commerce  of  the  Baltic.     The  sovereigns  of  Europe,  per- 
ceiving at  length  more  clearly  their  true  interests,  and  sensible 
of  the'mistake  they  had  committed  in  surrendering  the  whole 
commerce  of  their  kingdom  to  the  Hanseatic  merchants,  used 
every  means  to  limit  and  abridge  their  privileges  more  arid 
more.     This,  in  consequence,  involved  the  confederate  towns  in 
several  destructive  wars  with  the  Kings  of  the  North,  which 
exhausted  their  finances,  and  induced  one  city  after  another  to 
abandon  the  League.     The  English  and  the  Dutch,  encouraged 
by  the  Danish  Kings,  took  advantage  of  this  favourable  oppor- 
tunity to  send  their  vessels  to  the  Baltic ;  and  bv  degrees  they 
appropriated  to  themselves  the  greater  pnrt  of  the  trade  that 
had  been  engros-ed  by  the  Hanseatic  Union.     But  what  is  of 
more  importance  to  r'^mark,  is,  that  this  League,  as  well  as  that 
of  Lombardy,  having  been  formed  in  consequence  of  the  state 
of  anarchy  into  which   the  Empire  had  fallen  in  the  middle 
ages,  th:  natural  result  was,  that  it  should  lose  its  credit  and  its 
influence  in  proportion  as  the  feudal  anarchy  declined,  and  when 
the  administration  of  the  Empire  had  assumed  a  new  form,  and 


ivileges  and 
ihem.  The 
iber,  potash, 
iuce  of  the 
en,  Norway, 
e  Hansealic 
in  the  west- 
i  all  sorts  of 
urn.  Their 
Bs  for  Flan- 
ussia,  and  at 
ind  the  East 
tian  bottoms, 
lerce  of  the 

kras,  it  proved 
Ives  deficient 
actories,  and 
of  other  na- 
ruinous  effect 
i  the  current 
the  want  of 
ine  divisions. 
Bin  from  ever 
ig  possession 
m  the  exclu- 
Europe,  per- 
I  and  sensible 
ng  the  whole 
rchants,  used 
res  more  and 
srate  towns  in 
North,  which 
er  another  to 
h,  encouraged 
urable  oppor- 
degrees  they 
the  trade  that 
ut  what  is  of 
IS  well  as  that 
e  of  the  state 
in  the  middle 
credit  and  its 
led,  and  when 
lew  form,  und 


PBHIOD  V.      A.  D.  1300—1463. 


181 


the  landed  nobility,  emboldened  by  the  accessions  which  the 
sovonteenth  century  had  made  to  their  power,  had  found  means 
to  compel  their  dependent  cities  to  return  to  their  allegiance, 
after  having  made  repeated  efforts  to  throw  off  their  authority, 
encnurnged  as  they  were  by  the  protection  which  the  League 
held  out  to  them. 

In  thia  manner  did  the  famous  Hanseatic  League,  so  formi- 
dable at  the  time  of  which  we  now  speak,  decline  by  degrees 
during  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  ;  and  during  the  Thirty  Years  War  it  be- 
came entirely  extinct.  The  cities  of  Lubec,  Hamburg  and  Bre- 
men, abandoned  by  all  their  confederates,  entered  into  a  new 
union  for  the  interests  of  their  commerce,  and  preserved  the  an- 
cient custom  of  treating  in  common  with  foreign  powers,  under 
the  name  of  the  Hanse  Towns. 

The  cities  of  Italy  and  the  North  were  not  the  only  one;  <hat 
made  commerce  their  pursuit  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries.  Ghent,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  and  other  towns  in  the 
Netherlands,  contributed  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  trade  by 
their  manufactures  of  cloth,  cotton,  camlets,  and  tapestry ;  arti- 
cles with  which  they  supplied  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  The 
English  exchanged  their  raw  wool  with  the  Belgians,  for  the 
finished  manufactures  of  their  looms,  while  the  Italians  furnish- 
ed them  with  the  productions  of  the  Levant,  and  the  silk  stuffs 
of  India.  Nothing  is  more  surprising  than  the  immense  popu- 
lation of  these  cities,  whose  wealth  and  affluence  raised  their 
rulers  to  the  rank  of  the  most  powerful  princes  in  Europe.  The 
city  of  Bruges  was,  as  it  were,  the  centre  and  principal  reposi- 
tory for  the  merchandise  of  the  North  and  the  South.  Such  an 
entrepot  was  necessary,  at  a  time  when  navigation  was  yet  in 
its  infancy.  For  this  purpose,  Flanders  and  Brabant  were  ex- 
tremely proper,  as  these  provinces  had  an  easy  communication 
with  all  the  principal  nations  of  the  Continent ;  and  as  the  great 
number  of  their  manufactories,  together  with  the  abundance  of 
fish  which  their  rivers  aflbrded,  naturally  attracted  a  vast  con- 
course of  foreign  traders.  This  superiority,  as  the  commercial 
capital  of  the  Low  Countries,  Bruges  retained  till  nearly  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  it  lost  this  preponderance, 
which  was  then  transferred  to  the  city  of  Antwerp. 

The  intestine  dissensions  with  which  the  cities  of  Flanders 
ind  Brabant  were  agitated,  the  restraints  which  were  incessant- 
ly imposed  on  their  commerce,  and  the  frequent  wars  which 
desolated  the  Low  Countries,  induced,  from  time  to  time,  a  great 
many  Flemish  operatives  about  the  fourteenth  century,  and  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  to  take  refuge  in  England,  where  they 


111 


■4 


I* 


il 


^f*.,;     , 


hW, 


my* 


1' 

1   h 


1* 


n  I 


r 


188 


CHAPTKR    VI. 


estublished  their  cloth  manufactories  under  the  immediate  pro- 
tection of  the  crown.  One  circumstance  which  more  particu- 
larly contributed  to  the  prosperity  of  the  Dutch  commerce,  wan 
the  new  method  of  salting  and  barrelling  herring,  which  was 
discovered  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  (or  1400)  by 
a  man  named  William  Beukelszoon,  a  native  of  Biervliet,  near 
Sluys.  The  new  passage  of  the  Texel,  which  the  sea  opened 
up  about  the  same  time,  proved  a  most  favourable  accident  for 
the  city  of  Amsterdam,  which  immediately  monopolized  the 
principal  commerce  of  the  fisheries,  and  began  to  be  frequented 
by  the  Hanseatic  traders.  »,      t 

We  now  return  to  the  history  of  Germany.     The  Imperial 
throne,  always  elective,  was  conferred,  in  1308,  on  the  princes 
of  the  House  of  Luxembourg,  who  occupied  it  till  1438,  when 
the  House  of  Hapsburg  obtained  the  Imperial  dignity.     It  was 
under  the  reign  of  these  two  dynasties  that  the  government  of 
the  Empire,  which  till  then  had  been  vacillating  and  uncertain, 
began  to  assume  a  constitutional  form,  and  a  new  and  settled 
code  of  laws.     That  which  was  published  at  the  Diet  of  Frank- 
fort in  1338,  secured  the  independence  of  the  Empire  against 
the  Popes.     It  was  preceded  by  a  League,  ratified  at  Rens^  by 
the  Electors,  and  known  by  the  name  of  the  General  Union  of 
the  Electors.     The  Golden  Bull,  drawn   up  by  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.  (1356,)  in  the  Diets  of  Nuremberg  and  Metz,  fixed 
the  order  and  the  form  of  electing  the  Emperors,  and  the  cere- 
monial of  their  coronation.     It  ordained  that  this  election  should 
be  determined  by  a  majority  of  the  suflTrages  of  the  seven  Elec- 
tors— and  that  the  vote  of  the  Elector,  who  might  happen  to  be 
chosen,  should  also  be  included.     Moreover,  to  prevent  those 
electoral  divisions,  which  had  more  than  once  excited  factions 
and  civil  wars  in  the  Empire,  this  law  fixed  irrevocably  the 
right  of  suffrage  in  the  Principalities,  then  entitled  Electorates, 
It  forbade  any  division  of  these  principalities,  and  for  this  end 
it  introduced  the  principal  of  birthright,  and  the  order  of  suc- 
cession, called  agnate,  or  direct  male  line  from  the  same  father. 
Finally,  the  Golden  Bull  determined  more  particularly  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  electors,  and  confirmed  to  the  electors  of 
the  Palatinate  and  Saxony  the  viceroyalty  or  government  of  the 
Empire  during  any  interregnum. 

The  efforts  which  the  Council  of  Basle  made  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  church  excited  the  attention  of  the  Estates  of  the  em- 
pire. In  a  diet  held  at  Mayence  (1439,)  they  adopted  several 
decrees  of  that  council,  by  a  solemn  act  drawn  up  in  presence 
of  the  ambassadors  of  the  council,  and  of  the  kings  of  France, 
Castille,  Arragon,  and  Portugal.    Among  these  adopted  decrees. 


-   ^-.J^' r,....^ r^^ 


J'U'i'-' 


ediate  pro- 
re  particu> 
merce,  wan 
which  was 
or  1400)  by 
rvliet,  near 
sea  opened 
ccident  for 
tpolized  the 
!  frequented 

he  Imperial 

the  princes 

1438,  when 

ity.     It  was 

'ernment  of 

i  uncertain, 

and  settled 

et  of  Frank- 

ipire  against 

at  Rensd  by 

•al  Union  of 

le  Emperor 

Metz,  fixed 

md  the  cere- 

!ction  should 

seven  Elec- 

bappen  to  be 

revent  those 

ited  factions 

evocably  the 

Electorates. 

for  this  end 

rder  of  suc- 

same  father. 

ly  the  rights 

I  electors  of 

nment  of  the 

the  reforma- 
98  of  the  em- 
[>ted  several 
in  presence 
I  of  France, 
Ited  decrees. 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300 — 1453. 


183 


which  were  not  afterwards  altered,  we  observe  those  which 
establiiih  the  superiority  of  councils  above  the  Popes,  which 
prohibited  those  appeals  called  omisso  medio,  or  immediate,  and 
enjoined  the  Pope  to  settle  all  appeals  referred  to  his  court,  by 
commi:isioncr.j  appointed  by  him  upon  the  spot.  Two  concor- 
dats, concluded  at  Rome  and  Vienna  (1447-48,)  between  the 
Papul  court  and  the  German  nation,  confirmed  these  stipulations. 
The  latter  of  these  concordats,  however,  restored  to  the  Pope 
several  of  the  reserves,  of  which  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  had 
deprived  him.  He  was  also  allowed  to  retain  the  right  of  con- 
firming the  prelates,  and  enjoying  the  annats  and  the  alternate 
months. 

The  ties  which  united  the  numerous  states  of  the  German 
empire  having  been  relaxed  by  the  introduction  of  hereditary 
feudalism,  and  the  downfall  of  Imperial  authority,  the  conse- 
quence was,  that  those  states,  which  were  more  remote  from 
uie  seat  of  authority,  by  degrees  asserted  their  independence,  or 
were  reduced  to  subjection  by  their  more  powerful  neighbours, 
[t  was  in  this  manner  that  several  provinces  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Burgundy,  or  Aries,  passed  in  succession  to  the 
crown  of  France.  Philip  the  Fair,  taking  advantage  of  the  dis- 
putes which  had  arisen  between  the  Archbishop  and  the  citizens 
of  Lyons,  obliged  the  Archbishop,  Peter  de  Savoy,  to  surrender 
to  him  by  treaty  (1312)  the  sovereignty  of  the'City  and  its  de- 
pendencies. The  same  kingdom  acquired  the  province  of  Dau- 
fihiny,  in  virtue  of  the  grant  which  the  last  Dauphin,  Humbert 
I.,  made  (1349)  of  his  estates  to  Charles,  grandson  of  Philip  de 
Valois,  and  first  Dauphin  of  France.  Provence  was  likewise 
added  (1481)  to  the  dominions  of  that  crown,  by  the  testament 
of  Charles,  last  Count  of  Provence,  of  the  House  of  Anjou. 
As  to  the  city  of  Avignon,  it  was  sold  (1348)  by  Joan  I.,  Queen 
of  Naples,  and  Countess  of  Provence,  to  Pope  Clement  VI., 
who  at  the  same  time  obtained  letters-patent  from  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.,  renouncing  the  claims  of  the  Empire  to  'he  sove- 
reignty of  that  city,  as  well  as  to  all  lands  belonging  to  -  '■:  Ohurch. 
A  most  important  revolution  happened  about  t,.<£  time  in 
Switzerland.  That  country,  formerly  dependent  upon  i  \e  king- 
dom of  Burgundy,  had  become  an  immediate  province  of  the 
Empire  (1218,)  on  the  ex'jnction  of  the  Dukes  of  Zahringen, 
who  had  governed  it  unuer  the  title  of  Regents.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Switzerland  was  divided 
into  a  number  of  petty  states,  both  secular  and  ecclesiastical. 
Among  these  we  find  the  Bishop  of  Basle,  the  Abb^  of  St.  Gall, 
the  Counts  of  Hapsburg,  Toggenbur^,  Savoy,  Gruyeres,  Neuf- 
chatel,  Werdenberg,  Bucheck,  Sec.     The  towns  of  Zurich,  So> 


^■^ 


,1    i- 


.  \ 


•* 


i:\ 


iill'  i.. 


184 


OHAPTBH   VI. 


Icure,  Basle,  Berne,  and  others,  had  the  rank  of  free  and  imperial 
cities.     A  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Under- 
walden,  who  held  immediately  of  the  Empire,  were  governed 
by  their  own  magistrates,  under  the  title  of  Cantons.     They 
were  placed  by  the  Emperor  under  the  jurisdiction  of  governors, 
who  exercisedf,  in  his  name  and  that  of  the  Empire,  the  power 
of  the  sword  in  all  these  cantons.     Such  was  the  constitution 
of  Switzerland,  when  the  Emperor  Albert  I.  of  Austria,  son  of 
Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  conceived  the  project  of  extending  his 
dominion  in  that  country,  where  he  already  had  considerable 
possessions,  in  his  capacity  of  Count  of  Hapsburg,  Kyburg, 
Baden,  and  Lentzburg.    Being  desirous  of  forming  Switzerland 
into  a  principality,  in  favour  of  one  of  his  sons,  he  made,  in 
course  of  time,  several  new  ac<u:isitions  of  territory,  with  the 
view  of  enlarging  his  estates.     Ihe  Abbeys  of  Murbach,  Ein- 
siedel,  Interlaken,  and  Disentis,  and  the  Canons  of  Lucerne,  sold 
him  their  rights  and  possessions  in  Claris,  Lucerne,  Schweitz, 
and  Underwalden.      He  next  directed  his  policy  against  the 
three  immediate  cantons  of  Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Underwalden ; 
and  endeavoured  to  make  them  acknowledge  the  superiority  ol 
Austria,  by  tolerating  the  oppressions  which  the  governors  exer- 
cised, whom  he  had  appointed  to  rule  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Empire.   It  was  under  these  circumstances  that  three  intrepid  in- 
dividuals, Werner  deStauflrach,a  native  of  the  canton  of  Schweitz, 
Waller  Furst,  of  Uri,  and  Arnold  de  Melchihal  of  Underwalden, 
took  the  resolution  of  delivering  their  country  from  the  tyranny  of 
a  foreign  yoke."  The  conspiracy  which  they  formed  for  this  pur- 
pose, broke  out  on  the  1st  of  January  1308.     The  governors, 
surprised  in  their  castles  by  the  conspirators,  were  banished  the 
country,  and  their  castles  razed  to  the  ground.     The  deputies 
of  the  three  cantons  assembled,  and  entered  into  a  league  of  ten 
years  for  the  maintenance  of  their  liberties  and  their  privileges; 
reserving  however  to  the  Empire  its  proper  rights,  as  also  those 
claimed  by  the  superiors,  whether  lay  or  ecclesiastical.     Thus 
a  conspiracy,  which  was  originally  turned  only  against  Austria, 
terminated  in  withdrawing  Switzerland  from  the  sovereignty  of 
the  German  empire.    The  victory  which  the  confederates  gained 
over  the  Austrians  at  Morgarten,  on  the  borders  of  the  canton  of 
Schweitz,  encouraged  them  to  renew  their  league  at  Brunnen 
(1316;)  and  to  renderit  perpetual.  Asitwasconfirroedbyoath,the 
confederates,  from  this  circumstance,  got  the  name  o(  EidgenosMen, 
which  means,  bou7id  by  oath.     This  league  became  henceforth 
the  basis  of  the  federal  system  of  the  Swiss,  who  were  not  long 
in  strengthening  their  cause  by  the  accession  of  other  cantons. 
The  city  of  Lucerne,  having  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  Hapsburg, 


1      I 


%IM> 


1 


hs. 


|d  imperia) 
(1  Under- 
governed 
They 
■overnora, 
^he  power 
institution 
ria,  son  of 
mding  his 
nsidcrable 
,  Kyburg, 
witzerland 
!  made,  in 
r,  with  the 
bach,  £in- 
cerne,  sold 
Schweitz, 
gainst  the 
erwalden ; 
)€riority  of 
mors  exer- 
^me  of  the 
intrepid  in- 
r  Schweitz, 
derwaldon, 
tyranny  of 
or  this  pur- 
governors, 
nished  the 
e  deputies 
igue  of  ten 
privileges; 
also  those 
al.     Thus 
St  Austria, 
jreignty  of 
tes  gained 
!  canton  of 
.  Brunnen 
ly  oath,  the 
dgenosten, 
lenceforth 
e  not  long 
r  cantons, 
[iapsburg, 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1463. 


ISA 


joined  the  Lcu'^mic  of  Brunnen  in  1333,  Zurich  in  1361,  Glarin 
and  Zug  135.'],  and  Berne  in  \365.  The^se  formed  the  ei^Ui 
ancient  cantons. 

The  Kuuutiiin  of  the  confederates,  however,  could  not  fail  to 
be  very  embarrnssincf,  so  long  as  the  Austrians  roiuined  the  vast 
possessions  which  they  hud  in  the  very  centre  of  Switzerland. 
The  proscription  which  the  Einperor  Sipismund  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constance,  issued  against  Frederic,  Duke  of  Austria  (1415,) 
as  an  adherent  and  protector  of  John  XXIII.,  at  length  fur* 
nished  the  Swiss  with  a  favourable  occasion  for  depriving  the 
house  of  Austria  of  their  possessions.  The  Bernese  were  the 
first  to  set  the  example ;  they  took  from  the  Austrian  Dukes, 
the  towns  of  ZofHngen,  Aran,  and  Bruck,  with  the  counties  of 
Hapsburg  and  Lentzburg,  and  the  greater  partofAargovia.  Ky« 
burg  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Zurichers ;  the  Lucernese  made 
themselves  masters  of  Surs<::e  ;  and  the  free  bniliA'icks,  with  the 
county  of  Baden,  the  towns  of  Mellingen  and  Bremgarten,  were 
subdued  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  ancient  cantons,  who. 
since  then,  have  possessed  them  in  common. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Lorraine  a  new  power  rose  about  this  time 
(1363,)  that  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy.  Philip  the  Hardy, 
younger  son  of  John  the  Good,  King  of  France,  having  been 
created  Duke  of  Burgundy  by  the  King  his  father,  married 
Margaret,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Louis  III.,  last  Count  of 
Flanders.  By  this  marriage  he  obtained  Flanders,  Artois, 
Franche-Comtd,  Nevers,  Rethel,  Malines,  and  Antwerp,  and 
transmitted  these  estates  to  his  son  John  the  Fearless,  and  his 
grandson  Philip  the  Good.  This  latter  prince  increased  them 
still  more  by  several  new  acquisitions.  Th<i  Count  of  Namur 
sold  him  his  whole  patrimony,  (1428.)  He  inherited  from  hit 
cousin  Philip  of  Burgundy,  the  dutchies  of  Brabant  and  Lim* 
bourg,  (1430.)  Another  cousin,  the  famous  Jaqueline  de  Ba- 
varia, made  over  to  him  by  treaty  (1433)  the  counties  of  Hainault, 
Holland,  Zealand,  and  Friesland.  Finally,  he  acquired  also  the 
dutchy  of  Luxembourg  and  the  county  of  Chiny,  by  a  compact 
which  he  made  with  the  Princess  Elizabeth  (1443,)  niece  of  the 
Emperor  Sigismund.  These  different  accessions  were  so  much 
the  more  important,  as  the  Low  Countries,  especially  Flanders 
and  Brabant,  were  at  that  time  the  seat  of  the  most  flourishing 
manufactories,  and  the  principal  mart  of  European  commerce. 
Hence  it  happened,  that  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  began  to  com- 
pete  with  the  first  powers  in  Europe,  and  even  to  rival  the  Kings 
of  France. 

Among  the  principal  reigning  families  of  the  Empire,  several 
revolutions  took  place.    The  ancient  Slavonic  dynasty  of  the 


i.(< 


I't'^iJ., 


i'i(:W, 


1 1  i\ 


rnit 


i„>i  fpfi  -'iirpnk 


Its 


CHAPTKR  VI. 


Dukes  and  Kingfs  of  Bohemia  became  extinct  with  Wenceulaiw 
v.,  who  wos  assasuinated  in  1300.  The  Emperor  Henry  VII., 
of  the  house  of  Luxembourg,  seized  this  opportunity  of  trani- 
ferrin^  to  his  own  family  the  i<ingdom  of  Bohemia,  in  which  h« 
invested  his  son  John  (1309,)  who  had  married  the  Princes* 
Elizabeth,  sister  to  the  last  King  of  Bohemia.  John,  having 
made  considerable  acquisitions  in  Bohemia,  was  induced  to  cede, 
by  treaty  with  Poland,  the  sovereignty  of  that  province.  The 
Emperor  Charles  IV.,  son  of  John,  incorporated  Silesia,  as  also 
Lusatia,  with  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  by  the  Pragmaticis 
which  he  published  in  1355  and  1370.  The  war  with  the  Huh* 
sites  broke  out  on  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Wenceslaus,  Kinnf 
of  Bohemia  (1418;)  because  the  followers  of  John  Huss,  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  had  refused  to  acknowledge,  as  successor  of 
that  prince,  the  Empetor  Sigismund,  his  brother  and  heir,  whom 
they  blamed  for  the  martyrdom  of  their  leaders.  This  war, 
one  of  the  most  sanguinary  which  the  spirit  of  intolerance  and 
fanaticism  ever  excited,  continued  for  a  long  series  of  years, 
John  de  Trocziiova,  surnamed  Ziska,  general-in-chief  of  the 
Hussites,  defeated  several  times  those  numerous  armies  of  cru- 
saders, which  were  sent  against  him  into  Bohemia ;  and  it  wax 
not  till  long  after  the  death  of  that  extraordinary  man,  that  Si* 
gismund  succeeded  in  allaying  the  tempest,  and  re-establishing 
his  own  authority  in  that  kingdom. 

The  house  of  Wiltelabach,  which  possessed  at  the  same  time 
the  Palatinate  and  Bavaria,  was  divided  into  two  principal 
branches,  viz.  that  of  the  Electors  Palatine,  and  the  Dukes  of 
Bavaria.  By  the  treaty  of  division,  which  was  entered  into  at 
Pavia  (1329,)  they  agreed  on  a  reciprocal  succession  of  the  two 
branches,  in  case  the  one  or  the  other  should  happen  to  fail  of 
heirs-male.  The  direct  line  of  the  Electors  of  Saxony  of  the 
Ascanian  House  happening  to  become  extinct,  the  Emperor 
Sigismund,  without  poying  any  regard  to  the  claims  of  the 
younger  branches  of  Saxony,  conferred  that  Electorate  (1423,) 
as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  Empire,  on  Frederic  the  Warlike,  Mar- 
grave of  Misnia,  who  had  rendered  him  signal  assistance  in  the 
war  against  the  Hussites.  This  Prince  had  two  grandsons, 
Ernest  and  Albert,  from  whom  are  descended  the  two  principal 
branches,  which  still  divide  the  House  of  Saxony. 

The  Ascanian  dynasty  did  not  lose  merely  the  Electorate  of 
Saxony,  as  we  have  just  stated  ;  it  was  also  deprived,  in  the 
preceding  century,  of  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg.  Albert, 
surnamed  the  Bear,  a  scion  of  this  house,  had  transmitted  this 
latter  Electorate,  of  which  he  was  the  founder,  to  his  descend* 
ants  in  direct  line,  the  male  heirs  of  which  failed  about  the  be- 


irt>iiVT*iiiiriWT<afmi,tli.'i*nr>-il>Lr[iwiiiieaiiS>w<Wi 


i  tm  MiiiWteMMWiWii* 


■*►- 


I  " 


Henry  VII., 
lily  of  trans- 

in  which  he 
jhe  Princes* 
ohn,  having 

iced  to  cede, 

ince.  The 
ei>ia,  an  altio 

Pragmaiicis 
'ith  the  Huh- 
eslaus,  Kinjr 

Huss,  and 
successor  of 

heir,  whom 

This  war, 

lernnce  and 

es  of  years, 

chief  of  the 

mies  of  cm- 

and  it  wax 

n,  that  Si- 

■establishing 


e  same  time 
vo  principal 
e  Dukes  of 
ered  into  at 
n  of  the  two 
«n  to  fail  of 
xony  of  the 
e  Emperor 
aims  of  the 
rate  (1423,) 
irliice,  Mar- 
ance  in  the 
grandsons, 
'0  principal 

lectorate  of 
ived,  in  the 
g.  Albert, 
mitted  this 
is  descend- 
Dul  the  be- 


PBRIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453. 


187 


Enning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  Emperor  Louis  of 
nvaria  then  bestowed  it  on  his  eldest  son  Louis  (1324,)  to  lh« 
exclusion  of  the  coilatornl  branches  of  Suxony  and  Anhalt.  The 
Bavarian  Princes,  howeve;,  did  not  long  preserve  this  Electo« 
rate;  they  surrendered  ii  (1373)  to  the  Emperor  Charles  IV., 
whose  son  Sigismund  cided  it  to  Frederic,  Burgrave  of  Nu- 
remberg, of  the  House  of  Hohenzollern,  who  had  advanced  him 
considerable  sums  to  defray  his  expeditions  into  Hungary.  Thia 
Prince  was  solemnly  invested  with  the  electoral  dignity  by  x\w 
Emperor,  at  the  Council  of  Constance  (1417,)  and  became  the 
ancestor  of  all  the  Electors  ond  Margraves  of  Brandenburg,  as 
well  as  of  the  Kings  of  Prussia. 

The  numerous  republics  which  had  sprung  up  in  Italy,  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  were  torn  to  pieces  by  contend- 
ing factions,  and  a  prey  to  mutual  and  incessant  hostilities. 
What  contributed  to  augment  the  trouble  and  confusion  in  thai 
unhappy  country  was,  that,  during  a  long  series  of  years,  no 
Emperor  had  repaired  thither  in  person,  or  made  the  smallest 
attempt  to  restore  the  Imperial  authority  in  those  states.  The 
feeble  efforts  of  Henry  VII.,  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  Charles  IV., 
only  served  to  prove,  that  in  Italy  the  royal  prerogative  was 
without  vigour  or  effect.  Anarchy  every  where  prevailed  ;  and 
that  spirit  of  liberty  and  republicanism  which  had  once  anima- 
ted the  Italians  gradually  disappeared.  Disgusted  at  length 
with  privileges  which  had  become  so  fatal  to  them,  some  of  these 
republics  adopted  the  plan  of  choosing  new  masters ;  while 
others  were  subjected,  against  their  inclinations,  by  the  more 
powerful  of  the  nobles.  The  Marquises  of  Este  seized  Modena 
and  Reggio  (1330.)  and  obtained  the  ducal  dignity  (1452)  from 
the  Emperor  Frederic  III.  Mantua  fell  to  the  house  of  Gonza- 
ga,  who  possessed  that  sovereignty  first  under  the  title  of  Mar- 
graves, and  afterwards  under  that  of  Pu^es,  which  was  confer- 
red on  them  by  the  Emperor  Charles  /.  n  1530.  But  the 
greater  part  of  these  Italian  republics  fell  *j  the  share  of  the 
Visconti  of  Milan.  The  person  who  founded  the  prosperity  of 
their  house  was  Matthew  Visconti,  nephew  of  Otho  Visconti, 
Archbishop  of  Milan.  Invested  with  the  titles  of  Captain  and 
Imperial  Viceroy  in  Lombardy,  he  continued  to  make  himself 
acknowledged  as  sovereign  of  Milan  (1315,)  and  conquered  in 
succession  all  the  principal  towns  and  republics  of  Lombardy. 
His  successors  followed  his  example :  they  enlarged  their  terri- 
tories by  several  new  conquests,  till  at  length  John  Galeas,  great 
grandson  of  Matthew  Visconti,  obtained,  from  the  Emperor  Wen- 
ceslaus  (1395,)  for  a  sum  of  a  hundred  thousand  florins  of  gold 
which  he  paid  him,  the  title  of  Duke  of  Milan  for  himself  and 


||#    1 


mi 


ii  il  ill 


igg  »'  CHVIPTER  VI. 

all  his  descendants.     The  Visconti  family  reigned  at  Milan  till 
1447,  when  they  were  replaced  by  that  of  Sforza. 

Among  the  republics  of  Italy  who  escaped  the  catastrophe  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  the  most  conspicuous  were  those  of 
Florence,  Genoa  and  Venice.  The  city  of  Florence,  like  all 
the  others  in  Tuscany,  formed  itself  into  a  republic  about  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century.  Its  government  underwent  sequent 
changes,  after  the  introduction  of  a  democracy  about  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  various  factions  which  had  agi- 
tated the  republic,  induced  the  Florentines  to  elect  a  magistrate 
(1292,)  called  Gonfdoniere  de  Justice,  or  Captain  of  Justice ; 
invested  with  power  to  assemble  the  inhabitants  under  his  stand- 
ard, whenever  the  means  for  conciliation  were  insufficient  to 
snppress  faction  and  restore  peace.  These  internal  agitations, 
however,  did  not  prevent  the  Florentines  from  enriching  them- 
selves by  means  of  their  commerce  and  manufactures.  They 
succeeded,  in  course  of  time,  in  subjecting  the  greater  part  of 
the  free  cities  of  Tuscany,  and  especially  that  of  Pisa,  which 
thev  conquered  in  1406.  The  republic  of  Lucca  was  the  only 
one'  that  maintained  its  independence,  in  spite  of  all  the  eflorts 
which  the  Florentines  made  to  subdue  it.  The  republican  form 
of  government  continued  in  Florence  till  the  year  1530,  when 
the  family  of  the  Medici  usurped  the  sovereignty,  under  the 
protection  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  •     •  • 

The  same  rivalry  which  had  set  the  Genoese  to  quarrel  with 
the  Pisans,  excited  their  jealousy  against  the  Venetians.     The 
interests  of  these  two  Republics  thwarted  each  other,  both  in  the 
Levant  and  the  Mediterranean.     This  gave  rise  to  a  long  and 
disastrous  series  of  wars,  the  last  and  most  memorable  ol  which 
was  that  of  Chioggia  (1376-82.)     The  Genoese,  after  a  signal 
victory  which  they  obtained  over  the  Venetians,  before  Pola  in 
the  Adriatic  Gulf,  penetrated  to  the  very  midst  of  the  lagoons 
of  Venice,  and  attacked  the  port  of  Chioggia.     Peter  Dona  made 
himself  master  of  this  port;  he  would  have  even  surprised  Ve- 
nice,  had  he  taken  advantage  of  the  first  consternation  of  the 
Venetians,  who  were  already  deliberating  whether  they  sh^ld 
abandon  their  city  and  take  refuge  in  the  isle  of  Candia.     1  he 
tardiness  of  the  Genoese  admiral  gave  them  time  to  recover 
themselves.     Impelled  by  a  noble  despair,  they  made  extraordi- 
nary  efforts  to  equip  a  new  fleet,  with  which  they  attacked  the 
Genoese  near  Chioggia.     This  place  was  retaken  (24th  June 
1390.)  and  the  severe  check  which  the  Genoese  there  received, 
may  be  said  to  have  decided  the  command  of  the  sea  in  favour 
of  th»  Venetians.     But  what  contributed  still  more  to  the  down- 
fall of  the  Genoese,  was  the  instability  of  their  government,  and 


<iiiiim*->r  T'  ■  'f  ■ 


at  Milan  till 

atnstrophe  of 

ere  those  of 

nee,  like  all 

ic  about  the 

vent  frequent 

it  the  middle 

hich  had  agi- 

a  magistrate 

n  of  Justice; 

der  his  stand- 

nsufficient  to 

lal  agitations, 

riching  them- 

tures.     They 

reater  part  of 

■  Pisa,  which 

was  the  only 

all  the  eflbrts 

publican  form 

ir  1530,  when 

ity,  under  the 

3  quarrel  with 
letians.  The 
er,  both  in  the 
to  a  long  and 
•able  of  which 
after  a  signal 
>efore  Pola  in 
f  the  lagoons 
er  Doria  made 
surprised  Ve- 
nation of  the 
r  they  should 
Candia.  The 
ime  to  recover 
lade  extraordi- 
f  attacked  the 
;n  (24th  June 
;here  received, 
!  sea  in  favour 
e  to  the  down- 
vernment,  and 


1 1 


PERIOD  y.     A.  D.  1300—1453. 


199 


the  internal  commotions  of  the  republic.  Agitated  by  continual 
divisions  between  the  nobles  and  the  common  citizens,  and  in- 
capable of  managing  their  own  affairs,  they  at  length  surrender- 
ed themselves  to  the  power  of  strangers.  Volatile  and  incon- 
stant, and  equally  impatient  of  liberty  as  of  servitude,  these 
fickle  republicans  underwent  a  frequent  change  of  masters 
Twice  (1396-1458)  they  put  themselves  under  the  proteciion  of 
the  Kings  of  France.  At  length  they  diitcarded  the  French, 
and  chose  for  their  protector  either  the  Marquis  of  Montftrrat 
or  the  Duke  of  Milan.  Finally,  from  the  year  1464,  the  city  of 
Genoa  was  constantly  regarded  as  a  dependency  of  the  dutchy 
of  Milan,  until  1528,  when  it  recovered  once  more  its  ancient 
state  of  independence. 

While  the  Republic  of  Genoa  was  gradually  declining,  that 
of  Venice  was  every  day  acquiring  new  accessions  of  power. 
The  numerous  establishments  which  they  had  formed  in  the 
Adriatic  Gulf  and  the  Eastern  Seas,  together  with  the  additional 
vigour  which  they  derived  from  the  introduction  of  the  heredi- 
tary aristocracy,  were  highly  advantageous  to  the  progress  of 
their  commerce  and  marine.  The  treaty  which  they  concluded 
with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  (1343,)  by  guaranteeing  to  their  re- 
public an  entire  liberty  of  commerce  in  the  ports  of  Syria  and 
Egypt,  as  also  the  privilege  of  having  consuls  at  Alexandria  and 
Damascus,  put  it  in  their  power  gradually  to  appropriate  to 
themselves  the  whole  trade  of  India,  and  to  maintain  it  against 
the  Genoese,  who  had  disputed  with  them  the  commerce  of  the 
East,  as  well  as  the  command  of  the  sea.  These  successes  en- 
couraged the  Venetians  to  make  new  acquisitions  ;  the  turbu- 
lent state  of  Lombardy  having  afforded  them  an  opportunity  of 
enlarging  their  dominions  on  the  continent  of  Italy,  where  at 
first  they  had  possessed  only  the  single  dogeship  of  Venice,  and 
the  small  province  of  Istria.  They  seized  on  Treviso,  and  the 
whole  Trevisan  March  (1388,)  which  they  took  from  the  pow- 
erful house  of  Carrara.  In  1420  they  again  got  possession  of 
Dalmatia,  which  they  conquered  from  Sigismund,  King  of  Hun- 
gary. This  conquest  paved  the  way  for  that  of  Friuli,  which 
they  took  about  the  same  time  from  the  Patriarch  of  Aquileia, 
an  ally  of  the  King  of  Hungary.  At  length,  by  a  succession  of 
good  fortune,  they  detached  from  the  dutchy  of  Milan  (1404) 
the  cities  and  territories  of  Vicenza,  Belluno,  Verona,  Padua, 
Brescia,  Bergamo,  and  Cremona  (1454,)  and  thus  formed  a  con- 
siderable estate  on  the  mainland. 

Naples,  during  the  course  of  this  period,  was  go  rned  by  a 
descendant  of  Charles,  of  the  first  House  of  Anjou,  and  younger 
brother  of  St.  Louis.     Queen  Joan  I.,  daughter  of  Robert,  King 


'  t 


•1(1 


ili.4. 


»:ii:.  W 


H 


J  \ 


I 


f? 


r 


ttio 


CHAPTER   VI. 


of  Naples,  having  no  children  of  her  own,  adoptea  a  younger 
prince  of  the  Angevine  family,  Charles  of  Dnrazzo,  whom  she 
destined  as  her  successor,  after  having  given  him  her  niece  in 
marriage.  This  ungrateful  prince,  in  his  eagerness  to  possess 
the  crown,  took  arms  against  the  Queen  his  benefactress,  and 
compelled  her  to  solicit  the  aid  of  foreign  powers.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  Joan,  after  rescinding  and  annulling  her  former 
deed  of  adoption,  made  another  in  favour  of  Louis  I.,  younger 
brother  of  Charles  V.,  King  of  France,  and  founder  of  the  second 
House  of  Anjou.  But  the  succours  of  that  prince  cume  too  late 
to  save  the  Queen  from  the  hands  of  her  cruel  enemy.  Charles 
having  made  himself  master  of  Naples  and  of  the  Queen's  per- 
son (1382,)  immediately  put  her  to  death,  and  maintained  him- 
self on  the  throne,  in  spite  of  his  adversary  Louis  of  Anjou,  who 
obtained  nothing  more  of  the  Queen's  estates  than  the  single 
county  of  Provence,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  descendants, 
together  with  his  claim  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Joan  IL, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  of  Durazzo,  having  been  at- 
tacked by  Louis  HL  of  Anjou,  who  wished  to  enforce  the  rights 
of  adoption  which  had  descended  to  him  from  his  grandfather 
Louis  I,,  she  implored  the  protection  of  Alphonso  V.,  King  of 
Arragon,  whom  she  adopted  and  declared  her  heir  (14il ;)  but 
afterwards,  having  quarrelled  with  that  prince,  she  changed  her 
resolution,  and  passed  a  new  act  of  adoption  (1423)  in  favour  of 
that  same  Louis  of  Anjou  who  had  just  made  war  against  her 
Ren^  of  Anjou,  the  brother  and  successor  of  that  prince,  took 
possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  on  the  death  of  Joan  IL 
(14.35;)  but  he  was  expelled  by  the  King  of  Arragon  (1446,) 
who  had  procured  from  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  the  investiture  of 
that  kingdom,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  natural  son  Ferdi- 
nand, descended  from  a  particular  branch  of  the  Kings  of  Na- 
ples. The  rights  of  the  second  race  of  Angevine  princes,  were 
transferred  to  the  Kings  of  France,  along  with  the  county  ot 
Provence  (1481.) 

Spain,  which  was  divided  into  a  variety  of  sovereignties  both 
Christian  and  Mahometan,  presented  at  this  time  a  kind  of  sepa- 
rate or  distinct  continent,  whose  interests  had  almost  nothing  in 
common  with  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  Kings  of  Natrarre,  Cas- 
tille,  and  Arragon,  disagreeing  among  themselves,  and  occupied 
with  the  internal  affairs  of  their  own  kingdoms,  had  but  little 
leisure  to  attempt  or  accomplish  any  foreign  enterprise.  Of  all 
the  Kings  of  Castille  at  this  period,  the  most  famous,  in  the 
wars  against  the  Moors,  was  Alphonso  XI.  The  Mahometan 
kings  of  Morocco  and  Grenada  having  united  their  forces,  laid 
siege  to  the  city  of  Tarifia  in  Andalusia,  where  Alphonso,  as- 


M 


a  younger 
whom  she 
her  niece  in 
s  to  possess 
actress,  and 
t  was  on  this 
her  former 
I.,  younger 
of  the  second 
:ume  too  late 
my.  Charles 
Queen's  per- 
ntained  him- 
r  Anjou,  who 
in  the  single 
descendants, 
Joan  ir., 
ing  been  at- 
ce  the  rights 
i  grandfather 
v.,  King  of 
{14il;)  but 
changed  her 
I  in  favour  of 
against  her 
prince,  took 
of  Joan  II. 
igon  (1446,) 
ivestiture  of    I 
I  son  Ferdi-    j 
^ings  of  Na-    j 
»rinces,  were 
e  county  of 

'ignties  both 
Eind  of  sepa- 
t  nothing  in 
airarre,  Cas- 
nd  occupied 
id  but  little 
ise.  Of  ail 
lous,  in  the 
Mahometan 
forces,  laid 

IphoDSO,  U' 


PERIOD  V.      A.  V.  1300—1453. 


1»1 


sisted  by  the  King  of  Portugal,  ventured  to  attack  them  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  that  place.  He  gained  a  complete  victory  over 
the  Moors  (1340 ;)  and  triis  was  followed  by  the  conquest  of 
various  other  cities  and  districts ;  among  others,  Alcala-Real. 
and  Algesiras. 

While  the  Kings  of  Castille  were  extending  their  conquests 
in  the  interior  of  Spain,  those  of  Arragon,  hemmed  in  by  the 
Cnstillians,  were  obliged  to  look  for  aggrandizement  abroad. 
They  possessed  the  country  of  Barcelona  or  Catalonia,  in  virtue 
of  the  marriage  of  Count  Raymond  Berenger  IV.  with  Donna 
Petronilla,  heiress  of  the  kingdom  of  Arragon.  To  this  they 
added  the  county  of  Rousillon,  and  the  seignory  or  lordship  of 
Monlpelier,  both  of  which,  as  well  as  Catalonia,  belonged  to  the 
sovereignty  of  France.  Don  James  I.,  who  conquered  the  king- 
dom of  Valencia  and  the  Balearic  Isles,  gave  these,  with  Rou- 
sillon  and  Montpelier,  to  Don  James  his  younger  son,  and  from 
whom  were  descended  the  Kings  of  Majorca,  the  last  of  whom, 
Don  James  III.,  sold  Montpelier  to  Fraiice  (1349.)  Don  Pedro 
III.,  King  of  Arragon,  and  eldest  son  of  Don  James  I.,  took 
Sicily,  as  we  have  already  seen,  from  Charles  I.  of  Anjou. 
Ferdinand  II.,  a  younger  son  of  Don  Pedro,  formed  a  separate 
branch  of  the  kings  of  Sicily,  on  the  extinction  of  which  (1409,) 
that  kingdom  reverted  to  the  crown  of  Arnigon.  Sardinia  was 
incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  Arragon  by  Don  James  II., 
who  had  conquered  it  from  the  Pisans.  Finally,  Alphonso  V., 
King  of  Arragon,  having  deprived  the  Angevines  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  established  a  distinct  line  of  Neapolitan  kings. 
This  kingdom  was  at  length  united  with  the  monarchy  of  Arra- 
gon by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 

In  Portugal,  the  legitimate  line  of  kings,  descendants  of 
Henry  of  Burgtindy,  hud  failed  in  Don  Ferdinand,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Don  Pedro  III.  This  prince  had  an  only  daughter 
named  Beatrix,  born  in  criminal  intercourse  with  Eleanora 
Tellez  de  Meneses,  whom  he  had  taken  from  her  lawful  hus- 
band. Being  desirous  to  make  this  princess  his  successor,  he 
married  her,  at  the  age  of  eleven,  to  John  I.,  King  of  Castille  : 
securing  the  throne  to  the  son  who  should  be  born  of  this  union, 
and  failing  hirn,  to  the  King  of  Castille,  his  son-in-law.  Fer- 
dmand  dying  soon  after  this  marriage,  Don  Juan,  his  natural 
brother,  and  grand-master  of  the  order  of  Aviez,  knowing  the 
aversion  of  the  Portuguese  lor  the  Castillian  sway,  turned  this 
to  his  own  advantage,  by  seizing  the  regency,  of  which  he  had 
deprived  the  Queen-dowager.  The  King  of  Castille  imme- 
diately laid  siege  to  Lisbon ;  but  having  miscarried  in  this  en- 
terprise, the  States  of  Portugal  assembled  at  Coimbra,  and 


!'  ii.i'* 


(1|! 


I*  it 


W 


1,1  ■•  .1 

m 


ij 


:i*'i 


-I'M 


igS  i '«>         ;      CHAFTEB  VI.        .!ff»  ( 

conferred  the  crown  on  Don  Juan,  known  in  history  by  the 
nnine  of  John  the  Bastard.  This  prince,  aided  with  troops  from 
England,  engaged  the  Cnstillians  and  their  allies  the  French, 
at  the  famous  battle  fought  on  the  plains  of  Aljulmrota  {14th 
August  13S5.)  The  Portuguese  remained  masters  of  the  field, 
and  John  the  Bastard  succeeded  in  maintaining  himself  on  ihe 
throne  of  Portugal.  The  war,  however,  continued  several 
years  between  the  Portuguese  and  the  Castillians,  and  did  not 
terminate  till  1411.  By  the  peace  which  was  then  concluded, 
Henry  III.,  son  of  John  I.,  King  of  Castille,  agreed  never  lo 
urge  the  claiuis  of  Queen  Beatrix,  his  mother-in-law,  who  had 
no  children.  John  the  Bastard  founded  a  new  dynasty  of  kings, 
who  occupied  the  throne  of  Portugal  from  1386  to  1580. 

In  France,  the  direct  line  of  kings,  descendants  of  Hugh 
Capet,  having  become  extinct  in  the  sons  of  Philip  the  Fair, 
the  crown  passed  to  the  collateral  branch  of  Valois  (1328,) 
which  furnished  a  series  of  thirteen  kings,  during  a  period  ol 
two  hundred  and  sixty-one  years. 

The  rivalry  between  France  and  England,  which  had  sprung 
up  during  the  preceding  period,  assumed  a  more  hostile  charac- 
ter on  the  accession  of  the  family  of  Valois.     Till  then,  the 
quarrels  of  the  two  nations  had  been  limited  to  some  particular 
territory,  or  province  ;  but  now  they  disputed  even  the  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  ofFrance,  which  the  kings  of  England  claimed 
as  their  right.     Edward  III.,  by  his  mother,  Isabella  of  Franco, 
was  nephew  to  Charles  IV.,  the  last  of  the  Capetian  kings  in  a 
direct  line.     He  claimed  the  succession  in  opposition  to  Philip 
VI.,  surnamed  de  Valois,  who  being  cousin-german  to  Charles, 
was  one  degree  more  remote  than  the  King  of  England.     The 
claim  of  Edward  was  opposed  by  the  Salic  law,  which  excluded 
females  from  the  succession  to  the  throne  ;  but,  according  to  the 
interpretation  of  that  prince,  the  law  admitted  his  right,  and 
must  be  understood  as  refening  to  females  personally,  who 
were  excluded  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  their  sex,  and 
not  to  their  male  descendants.     Granting  that  his  mother,  Isa- 
bella, could  not  herself  aspire  to  the  crown,  he  maintained  that 
she  gave  him  the  right  of  proximity,  which  qualified  him  for 
the  succession.     The  States  of  France,  however,  having  de- 
cided in  favour  of  Philip,  the  King  of  England  did  fealty  and 
homage  to  that  prince  for  the  dutchy  of  Guienne ;  but  he  laid 
'    no  claim  to  the  crown  until  1337,  when  he  assumed  the  title 
!    and  arms  of  the  King  of  France.     The  war  which  began  in 
1338,  was  renewed  during  several  reigns,  for  the  space  of  a 
I    hundred  years,  and  ended  with  the  entire  expulsion  of  the  Eng 
:    lish  from  France. 


'igi  iihS»* 


story  by  thf 
h  troops  from 
s  the  French, 
iharota  (14tb 
•s  of  the  field, 
imself  on  ihe 
nued  several 
,  and  did  not 
;n  concluded, 
■eed  never  lo 
law,  who  had 
asty  of  kin^s, 
ol5S0. 
mts  of  Hugh 
ilip  the  Fair, 
Galois  (1328.) 
^  a  period  ol 

ch  had  sprung 
loslile  charac- 
Till  then,  the 
)me  particular 
en  the  succes- 
igland  claimed 
ilia  of  Franco, 
tian  kings  in  a 
tion  to  Philip 
an  to  Charles, 
ngland.     The 
rhich  excluded 
xording  to  the 
his  right,  and 
•rsonally,  who 
their  sex,  and 
is  mother,  Isa- 
laintained  that 
ilified  him  foi 
;r,  having  de- 
did  fealty  and 
e  ;  but  he  laid 
umed  the  title 
hich  began  in 
the  space  of  8 
ion  of  the  Eng- 


rBRioD  V.    A.  D.  1300 — 1453. 


193 


Nothing  could  be  more  wretched  than  the  situation  of  this 
kingdom  during  the  reign  of  Charles  VI      That  prince  having 
follen  into  a  slate  of  insanity  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  two  par- 
ties, those  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans,  who  had  disputed  with 
each  other  akut  the  regency,  divided  the  Court  into  factions, 
and  kindled  the  flames  of  civil  war  in  the  four  corners  of  the 
kingdom.    John  the  Fearless,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  uncle 
to  the  king,  caused  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  King's  own 
brother,  to  be  assassinated  at  Paris  (1407.)     He  himself  was 
assassinated    in   his  turn  (1419)  on  the  bridge  of  Montereau, 
in  the  very  presence  of  the  Dauphin,  who  was  afterwards  king, 
under  the  name  of  Charles  VII.     These  dissensions  gave  the 
English  an  opportunity  for  renewing  the  war.     Henry  the  V. 
of  England  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Agincourt,  which  was 
followed  by  the  conquest  of  all  Normandy.     Isabella  of  Ba- 
varia then  abandoned  the  faction  of  Orleans,  and  the  party  of 
her  son  the  Dauphin,  and  joined  that  of  Burgundy.     Philip 
the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  son  of  John  the  Fearless, 
being  determined  to  revenge  the  death  of  his  father,  which  he 
laid  to  the  charge  of  the  Dauphin,  entered  into  a  negotiation 
with  England,  into  which  he  contrived  to  draw  Queen  Isabella, 
and  the  imbecile  Charles  the  VI.     By  the  treaty  of  peace  con- 
cluded at  Troves  in  Champagne  (1420,)  it   was  acreed  that 
Catharine  of  France,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  and  Isabella  of 
Bavaria,  should  espouse  Henry  V.,  and  that,  on  the  death  of 
the  King,  the  crown  should  pass  to  Henry,  and  the  children  of 
his  marriage  with  the  Princess  of  France  ;  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  Dauphin,  who,  as  an  accomplice  in  the  murder  of  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  was  declared  to  have  lost  his  rights  to  the  crown, 
and  was  banished  from  the  kingdom.    Henry  V.  died  in  the 
flower  of  his  age,  and  his  death  was  followed  soon  after  by  that 
of  Charles  VI.    Henry  VI.,  son  of  Henry  V.  and  Catharine  of 
France,  being  then  proclaimed  King  of  England  and  France, 
fixed  his  residence  at  Paris,  and  had  for  his  regente  his  two 
uncles,  the  Dukes  of  Bedford  and  Gloucester. 

Such  was  the  preponderance  of  the  English  and  Burgundian 
party  in  Fiance  at  this  period,  that  Charles  VII.,  commonly 
called  the  Dauphin,  more  than  once  saw  himself  upon  the 
point  of  being  expelled  the  kingdom.  He  owed  his  safety  en- 
tirely to  the  appearance  of  the  famous  Joan  of  Arc,  called  the 
Maid  of  Orleans.  This  extraordinary  woman  revived  the 
drooping  courage  of  the  French.  She  compelled  the  English 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and  brought  the  King  to  be 
crowned  at  Rheims  (1429.)  But  what  contributed  still  more  to 
retrieve  the  party  of  Charles  VII.,  was  the  reconciliation  of  that 
*^  '  13 


ilf^  ■    ■' 


f  t 


'h^ 


M. 


ill  ] 


ii't^ 


194 


CHAPTER  VI. 


prince  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  which  took  place  at  the 
peace  of  Arras  (1435.)  The  Duke  having  then  united  hi« 
forces  with  those  of  the  King,  the  Enghsh  were  in  their  tuni 
expelled  from  France  (1453.)  the  single  city  of  Calais  being  all 
that  remained  to  them  of  their  former  conquests. 

An  important  revolution  happened  in  the  government  ol 
France  under  the  reign  of  Charles  VII.     The  royal  authority 
gained  fresh  vigour  by  the  expulsion  of  the  English,  and  the 
reconciliation  of  various  parties  that  took  place  ,n  consequence. 
The  feudal  system,  which  till  then  had  prevailed  in  1*  ranee,  fell 
bv  degrees  into  disuse.     Charles  was  ifie  first  king  who  estab- 
lished  a  permanent  militia,  and  taught  his  successors  to  abandon 
the  feudal  mode  of  warfare.     This  prince  also  instituted  Com- 
panmof  ordomnce  (1446 ;)  and,  to  defray  the  expense  of  their 
maintenance,  he  ordered,  of  his  own  authority,  a  certain  impost 
to  be  levied,  called  the  Tax  of  the  Gens-d'armes.     This  stand- 
ing army,  which  at  first  amounted  only  to  six  thousand  men, 
was  augmented  in  course  of  time,  while  the  roya    finances 
increased  in  proportion.     By  means  of  these  establishments, 
the  kings  obtained  such  an  ascendancy  over  their  vassals  that 
they  soon  found  themselves  in  a  condition  to  prescribe  laws  to 
them,  and  thus  gradually  to  abolish  the  feudal  system.     The 
most  powerful  of  the  nobles  could  make  little  resistance  against 
a  sovereign  who  was  always  armed  ;  while  the  kings,  imposing 
taxes  at  their  pleasure,  by  degrees  dispensed  with  the  necessity 
of  assembling  the  states-general.     The  same  prince  secured  the 
liberties  of  the  Galilean  church  against  the  encroachments  ol 
the  Court  of  Rome,  by  solemnly  adopting  several  of  the  decrees 
of  the  Council  of  Basle,  which  he  caused  to  be  passed  in  the 
National  Council  held  at  Bourges,  and  published  under  the  title 
of  ihe  Pragmatic  Sanction  {1^^.)         .  r.i.    t>i  „ 

In  England,  two  branches  of  the  reignmg  family  of  the  Plan- 
tagenets,  those  of  Lancaster  and  York,  contested  for  a  long 
ti^e  the  right  to  the  crown.    Henry  IV.,  the  first  king  of  the 
House  of  Lancaster,  was  the  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 
Lancaster,  and  grandson  of  Edward  III.  King  of  England      He 
usurped  the  crown  from  Richard  II.,  whom  he  deposed  by  act 
of  Parliament  (1399.)     But  instead  of  enforcing  the  rights 
which  he  inherited  from  his  father  and  grandfather,  he  rested 
his  claims  entirely  upon  those  which  he  alleged  had  devolved 
to  him  in  right  of  his  mother,  Blanch  of  Lancaster,  great  grand- 
daughter of  Edward,  surnamed  Hunchback,  Eari  of  Lancaster. 
This  prince,  according  to  a  popular  tradition,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Henry  III.,  who,  it  was  said,  had  been  excluded  from  the 
throne  by  hi.  younger  brother  Edward  I.,  on  account  of  his  de 


ft 
ll 

0 

L 
F 

11 
a 

A 

0 

tl 


•ll.  [I'HnifW'iiiiliiU'ii'i 


lace  at  thp 
united  hi« 
their  tum 

lis  bein^  nil 

ernment  of 

1  authority 

ish,  and  the 

onsequence. 

France,  fell 

who  estab- 

s  to  abandon 

tituted  Com- 

;nse  of  their 

rtain  impost 

This  stand- 

)usand  men, 

yal   finances 

ablishments, 

vassals  that 

:ribe  laws  to 

(Tstem.     The 

lance  against 

igs,  imposing 

the  necessity 

e  secured  the 

)achments  of 

if  the  decrees 

lassed  in  the 

inder  the  title 

f  of  the  Plan- 
d  for  a  long 
I  king  of  the 
unt,  Duke  of 
Ingland.  He 
eposed  by  act 
g  the  rights 
ler,  he  rested 
had  devolved 
■,  great  grand- 
of  Lancaster, 
the  eldest  son 
ded  from  the 
unt  of  his  de 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453. 


IM 


formlty.  This  tradition  proved  useful  to  Henry  IV.  in  excluding 
the  rights  of  the  House  of  Clarence,  who  preceded  him  in  the 
order  of  succession.  This  latter  fiimily  was  descended  from 
Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  elder  brother  of  John  of  Gaunt. 
Philippine,  daughter  of  Lionel,  was  married  to  Edward  Morti- 
mer, by  whom  she  had  a  son,  Roger,  whom  the  Parliament,  by 
an  act  passed  in  1386,  declared  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown. 
Ann  Mortimer,  the  daughter  of  Roger,  married  Richard,  Duke  of 
York,  son  of  Edward  Langley,  who  was  the  younger  brother 
of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  thus  transferred  the  right  of  Lionel  to 
the  Royal  House  of  York. 

The  Princes  of  the  House  of  Lancaster  are  known  in  Eng- 
lish history  by  the  name  of  the  Red  Rose,  while  those  of  York 
were  designated  by  that  of  the  White  Rose.  The  former  of 
these  Houses  occupied  the  throne  for  a  period  of  sixty-three 
years,  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  IV.,  V.,  VI.  It  was  under 
the  feeble  reign  of  Henry  VI.  that  the  House  of  York  began  to 
advance  their  right  to  the  crown,  and  that  the  civil  war  broke 
out  between  the  two  Roses.  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  heir 
to  the  claims  of  Lionel  and  Mortimer,  was  the  first  to  raise  the 
standard  in  this  war  of  competition  (1452,)  which  continued 
more  than  thirty  years,  and  was  one  of  the  most  cruel  and  san- 
guinary recorded  in  history.  Twelve  pitched  battles  were 
fought  between  the  two  Roses,  eighty  princes  of  the  blood  pe- 
rished in  the  contest,  and  England,  during  the  whole  time,  pre- 
sented a  tragical  spectacle  of  horror  and  carnage.  Edward  IV., 
son  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  grandson  of  Ann  Mortimer, 
ascended  the  throne  (1461,)  which  he  had  stained  with  the  blood 
of  Henry  IV.,  and  of  several  other  Princes  of  the  House  of 
Lancaster. 

In  Scotland,  the  male  line  of  the  ancient  kings  having  become 
extinct  in  Alexander  III.,  a  crowd  of  claimants  appeared  on  the 
field,  who  disputed  with  each  other  the  succession  of  the  throne. 
The  chief  of  these  competitors  were  the  two  Scottish  families 
of  Baliol  and  Bruce,  both  descended  by  the  mother's  side  from 
the  Royal  Family.  Four  princes  of  these  contending  families 
reigned  in  Scotland  until  the  year  1371,  when  the  crown  passed 
from  the  House  of  Bruce  to  that  of  Stuart.  Robert  II.,  son  ot 
Walter  Stuart  and  Marjory  Bruce,  succeeded  his  uncle  David 
II.,  and  in  his  family  the  throne  remained  until  the  Union,  when 
Scotland  was  united  to  England  about  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Under  the  government  of  the  Ftuarts, 
the  royal  authority  acquired  fresh  energy  after  being  long  re- 
strained  and  circumscribed  by  a  turbulent  nobility.  Towards 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  James  1.,  a  very  accomplished 


:  '4f 


I! 


1 


I 


<»■ 


i 


4 


1 


!  T 


196 


CtlAPTRR    VI. 


; 


prince,  pave  the  first  blow  to  the  feudal  system  and  the  exorb*-    , 
lanl  power  of  the  grandees.     He  deprived  them  of  several  of    j 
the  crown-lands  which  they  had  usurped,  and  confiscated  the     ] 
properly  of  some  of  the  ino^t  audacious  whom  he  had  con-     j 
dcmnecl  to  execution.     James  II.  followed  the  example  of  his 
father.     Ho  strengthened  the  royal  authority,  by  humbling  the 
powerful  family  of  Douglas,  as  well  as  by  the  wise  laws  which 
he  prevailed  with  his  Parliament  to  adopt. 

The  three  kingdmns  of  the  North,  after  having  been  long 
agitated  by  internal  dissensions,  'vere  at  length  united  >nio  a 
single  monarchy  by  Margaret,  called  the  Semiramis  of  the  North. 
This  princess  was  daughter  of  Valdemar  HI.,  the  last  Kinc  of 
Denmark  of  the  ancient  reigning  family,  and  widow  of  Haco 
VII.,  King  of  Norway.      Sh^  was  first  elected  Queen  of  Den- 
mark, and  then  of  Norway,  after  the  death  of  her  son,  Olaus 
v.,  whom  she  had  by  her  marriage  with  Haco,  and  who  died 
without  leaving  any  posterity   (1387.)     The  Swedes,  discon- 
tented with  their  King,  Albert  of  Mecklenburg,  likewise  be- 
stowed their  crown  upon  this  princess.     Albert  was  vanquished 
and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Fahlekoeping  (1389.)     The 
whole  of  Sweden,  from  that  time,  acknowledged  the  authority 
of  Queen  Margaret.     Being  desirous  of  uniting  the  three  king- 
doms into  one  single  body-politic,  she  assembled  their  respective 
Estates  at  Calmar  (1397,)  and  there  caused  her  grand-nephew 
Eric,  son  of  Wratislaus,   Duke   of  Pomerania,  and   Mary  of 
Mecklenburg,  daughter  of  Ingeburg,  her  own  sister,  to  be  re- 
ceived and  crowned  as  her  successor.     The  act  which  ratified 
the  perpetual  and  irrevocable  union  of  the  three  kingdoms,  was 
approved  in  that  assembly.      It  provided,  that  the  united  states 
should,  in  future,  have  but  one  and  the  same  king,  who  should 
be  chosen  with  the  common  consent  of  the  Senators  and  Depu- 
ties of  the  three  kingdoms  ;  that  they  should  always  give  the 
preference  to  the  descendants  of  Eric,  if  there  were  any  ;  that 
the  three  kingdoms  should  assist  each  other  with  their  combined 
forces  against  all  foreign  enemies;  that  each  kingdom  should 
preserve  its  own  constitution,  its  senate,  and  national  legisla- 
ture, and  be  governed  conformably  to  its  own  laws. 
i         This  union,  how  formidable  soever  it  might  appear  at  first 
'     sight,  was  by  no  means  firmly  consolidated.     A  federal  system 
I     of  three  monarchies,  divided  by  mutual  jealousies,  and  by  dis- 
I     similarity  in  their  laws,  manners,  and  institutions,  could  present 
nothm,]  either  Iblid   or  durable.     The  predilection,  besides, 
which  the  kings  of  the  union  who  succeeded  Margaret  showed 
for  the  Danes ;  the  preference  which  they  gave  them  m  the 
distribution  of  favours  and  places  of  trust,  and  the  tone  of  su 


- « )iM"w«'j|iiMwMiiMii»  jiMWjIiiMiMa'i  Wat 


le 


the  exorb'* 

several  0/ 

iscntcd  the 

had  coii- 

inple  of  his 

iimhiing  the 

aws  which 

gf  been  long 

nited  into  a 

of  the  North. 

ast  King  of 

ow  of  Haco 

een  of  Den- 

'  son,  Olaus 

nd  who  died 

edes,  discon- 

likewise  be- 

s  vanquished 

1389.)     The 

he  authority 

e  three  king- 

eir  respective 

;rand-nephew 

and  Mary  of 

Iter,  to  be  re- 

rhich  ratified 

in£rdoms,  was 

united  states 

,  who  should 

rs  and  Depu- 

ays  give  the 

re  any ;  that 

leir  combined 

g^dom  should 

onal  legisla- 

)pear  at  first 
deral  system 
I,  and  by  dis- 
;ould  present 
ion,  besides, 
raret  showed 
them  in  the 
e  tone  of  su 


iiHrtMwitivw-iiiiii  '-m 


I-EHIOD  V.       A.   D.   1300—1453. 


197 


periority  which  they  afTecled  towards  their  iillies,  tended  natu- 
rally  to  foster  animosity  and  haired,  nnd,  above  all,  to  exasperate 
•he  Swedes  nijainst  the  union.  Eric,  after  a  very  turbulent 
reign,  was  deposed,  and  his  nephew,  Christopher  the  Bavarian. 
was  elected  King  of  the  union  in  his  place.  This  latter  prince 
having  died  without  issue,  the  Swedes  took  this  opportunity  01 
breaking  the  union,  and  choosing  a  king  of  their  own, Charles 
Canutson  Bonde,  known  by  the  title  of  Charles  VIII.  It  was 
he  who  induced  the  Danes  to  venture  likewise  on  a  new  elec- 
tion ;  and  this  same  year  they  transferred  their  crown  to  Chris- 
tian, son  of  Thierry,  nnd  Count  of  Oldenburg,  descended  by 
the  female  side  from  the  race  of  their  ancient  kings.  This 
prince  had  the  good  fortime  to  renew  the  union  with  Norway 
(1450;)  he  likewise  governed  Sweden  from  the  year  1437, 
when  Charles  VIII.  was  expelled  by  his  subjects,  till  1464. 
when  he  was  recalled.  But  what  deserves  more  particularly 
to  be  remarked,  is  the  acquisition  which  Christian  made  of  the 
provinces  of  Sleswick  and  Holslein,  to  which  he  succeeded 
(1459,)  by  a  disposition  of  the  States  of  these  provinces,  after 
the  death  of  Duke  Adolphus,  the  maternal  uncle  of  the  new 
King  of  Denmark,  and  last  male  heir  of  the  Counts  of  Hol- 
slein, of  the  ancient  House  of  Schauenburg.  Christian  I.  was 
the  progenitor  of  all  the  Kings  who  have  since  reigned  in  Den- 
mark and  Norway.  His  grandson  lost  Sweden  ;  but,  in  the 
last  century,  the  thrones  both  of  Russia  and  Sweden  were 
occupied  by  princes  of  his  family. 

Russia,  during  the  whole  of  this  period,  groaned  under  the 
degrading  yoke  of  the  Moguls  and  the  Tartars.  The  Grand 
Dukes,  as  well  as  the  other  Russian  princes,  were  obliged  to 
solicit  the  confirmation  of  their  dignity  from  the  Khan  of  Kip- 
zack,  who  granted  or  refused  it  at  his  pleasure.  The  dissen- 
sions which  arose  among  these  northern  princes,  were  in  like 
manner  submitted  to  his  decision.  When  summoned  to  appear  at 
his  horde,  they  were  obliged  to  repair  thither  without  delay,  and 
often  sufTered  the  punishment  of  ignominy  and  death.''  The 
contributions  which  the  Khans  at  first  exacted  from  the  Rus- 
sians in  the  shape  of  gratuitous  donations,  were  converted,  in 
course  of  time,  into  regular  tribute.  Bereke  Khan,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Baton,  was  the  first  who  levied  this  tribute  by  officers 
of  his  own  nation.  His  successors  increased  still  more  the 
load  of  these  taxes ;  they  even  subjected  the  Russian  princes 
to  the  performance  of  military  service. 

The  Grand  Ducal  dignity,  which  for  a  long  time  belonged 
exclusively  to  the  chiefs  of  the  principalities  of  Vladimir  and 
Kiaso,  became  common,  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  cen 


=JJ 


•■I 


.!  H- 


IW 


CIUrTEH  TI. 


tury,  to  several  of  the  other  principalities,  who  shared  among 
'.hem  the  dominion  of  Russia.  The  princes  of  Rezan,  Twer, 
Smolensko,  and  several  others,  took  the  title  of  Grand  Dukes, 
to  distinguish  themselves  from  the  petty  princes  who  were  es- 
tablished within  their  principalities.  These  divisions,  together 
with  the  internal  broils  to  which  they  gave  rise,  emboldened 
the  Lithuanians  and  Poles  to  carry  their  victorious  arms  into 
Russia  ;  and  by  degrees  they  dismembered  the  whole  western 
part  of  the  ancient  empire. 

The  Lithuanians,'*  who  are  supposed  to  have  been  of  the 
same  race  with  the  ancient  Prussians,  Lethonians,  Livonians, 
and  Esthonians,  inhabited  originally  the  banks  of  the  rivers 
Niemen  and  Wilia ;  an  inconsiderable  stale,  comprehending 
Samogitia  and  a  part  of  the  ancient  Palatinates  of  Troki  and 
Wilna.  After  having  been  tributaries  to  the  Russians  for  a 
long  time,  the  princes  of  Lithuania  shook  off  their  yoke,  and 
began  to  aggrandize  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  Grand 
Dukes,  their  former  masters.  Towards  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century,  they  passed  the  Wiiia,  founded  the  town  of  Kier- 
now,  and  took  from  the  Russians  Braclaw,  Novgorodek,  Grodno, 
Borzesc,  Bielsk,  Pinsk,  Mozyr,  Polotsk,  Minsk,  Witepsk,  Orza, 
and  Mscislaw,  with  their  extensive  dependencies.  Ringold 
was  the  first  of  these  princes  that  assumed  the  dignity  of  Grand 
Duke,  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  His  succes- 
sor Mendog  or  Mindow,  harassed  by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  em- 
braced Christianity  about  the  year  1252,  and  was  declared  King 
of  Lithuania  by  the  Pope ;  though  he  afterwards  returned  to 
Paganism,  and  became  one  of  the  most  cruel  enemies  of  the 
Christian  name.  Gedimin,  who  ascended  the  throne  of  the 
Grand  Duke  (1315,)  rendered  himself  famous  by  his  new  con- 
quests. After  a  series  of  victories  which  he  gained  over  the 
Russian  Princes,  who  were  supported  by  the  Tartars,  he  took 
possession  of  the  city  and  Principality  of  Kiow  (1320.)  The 
whole  of  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Kiow,  and  its  dependent  princi- 
palities on  this  side  the  Dnieper,  were  conquered  in  succession. 
The  Grand  Dukes  of  Lithuonia,  who  had  become  formidable  to 
all  their  neighbours,  weakened  their  power  by  partitioning  tneir 
estates  among  their  sons  ;  reserving  to  one,  under  the  title  of 
Grand  Duke,  the  right  of  superiority  over  the  rest.  The  civil 
dissensions  which  resulted  from  these  divisions,  gave  the  Poles 
an  opportunity  of  seizing  the  principalities  of  Leopold,  Przemysl, 
and  Haliisch  (1340,)  and  of  taking  from  the  Lithuanians  and 
their  Grand  Duke  Olgerd,  the  whole  of  Volhynia  and  Podolia, 
of  which  they  had  deprived  the  Russians  (1349.) 

Nothing  more  then  remained  of  the  ancient'Russian  Empire 


'^-^fifrtwwiimu'itf/iji 


iHjaijMi-MiifiwswwtW' 


PBBIOD  V.      A.  D.  1300—1403. 


19» 


lared  amonp 
iezaii,  Twer, 
[rand  Dukes, 
Ivho  were  es« 
Ions,  together 
I,  emboldened 
jus  arms  into 
hole  western 

been  of  the 
I  Livonians, 
of  the  rivers 
mprehending 
)f  Troki  and 
iiKsians  for  a 
[?ir  yoke,  and 
)f  the  Grand 
iddle  of  the 
townofKier- 
)iiek,  Grodno, 
'^itepsk,  Otza, 
es.     Ringold 
nily  of  Grand 
His  succes- 
Knights,  em- 
leclared  King 
I  returned  to 
emies  of  the 
hrone  of  the 
his  new  con- 
ned over  the 
tars,  he  took 
1320.)      The 
ndent  princi- 
1  succession, 
formidable  to 
itioning  tneir 
r  the  title  of 
:.     The  civil 
ve  the  Poles 
d,  Przemysl, 
uanians  and 
md  Podolia, 

sian  Empire 


except  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Wolodimir,  so  called  from  the  town 
of  that  numc  on  the  river  Kliazma,  where  the  Grand  Dukes  of 
Eastern  and  Northern  Russia  had  their  residence,  before  they 
had  fixed  their  capital  at  Moscow ;  which  happened  about  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
This  Grand  Dutchy,  which  had  several  dependent  and  subor- 
dinate principalities,  was  conferred  by  the  Khan  of  Kipzoch 
(1320)  on  Iwan  or  John  Danilovitsh,  Prince  of  Moscow,  who 
transmitted  it  to  his  descendants.  Demetrius  Iwanovitsh,  grand- 
son of  Iwan,  took  advantage  of  the  turbulencu  which  distracted 
the  grand  horde,  and  turned  his  arms  against  the  Tartars.  As- 
sisted by  several  of  the  Russian  princes  his  vassals,  he  gained 
a  signal  victory  near  the  Don  (1380,)  over  the  Khan  Temnic- 
Mamai,  the  first  which  gained  the  Russians  any  celebrity,  and 
which  procured  Demetrius  the  proud  epithet  of  Danski,  or  con- 
queror of  the  Don.  This  prince,  however,  gained  little  advan- 
tage by  his  victory  ;  and  for  a  long  time  after,  the  Tartars  gave 
law  to  the  Russians  and  made  them  their  tributaries.  Toktamibh 
Khan,  after  having  vanquished  and  humbled  Mamai,  penetrated 
as  far  as  Moscow,  sacked  the  city,  and  massacred  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  inhabitants.  Demetrius  was  forced  to  implore  the 
mercy  of  the  conqueror,  and  to  send  his  son  a  hostage  to  the 
horde  in  security  for  his  allegiance. 

The  chief  residence  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  which  had  for- 
merly been  at  Verden,  was  fixed  at  Marienburg,  »  city  newly 
'juilt,  which  from  that  time  became  the  capital  of  all  Prussia. 
The  Teutonic  Knights  did  not  limit  their  conquests  to  Prussia; 
they  took  from  the  Poles  Dantzic  or  Eastern  romerania  (1311,) 
itituated  between  the  Netze,  the  Vistula,  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  and 
koown  since  by  the  name  of  Pomerelia.  This  province  was 
definitively  ceded  to  them,  with  the  territory  of  Culm,  and 
Michelau,  by  a  treaty  of  peace  which  was  signed  at  Kalitz 
f  1343.)  The  city  of  Dantzic,  which  was  their  capital,  increased 
considerably  under  the  dominion  of  the  Order,  and  became  one 
of  the  principal  entrepots  for  the  commerce  of  the  Baltic.  Oi 
all  the  exploits  of  these  Knights,  the  most  enterprising  was  that 
which  had  for  its  object  the  conquest  of  Lithuania.  Religion, 
and  a  pretended  gift  of  the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  served 
them  as  a  pretext  for  attacking  the  Lithuanians,  who  were  Pa- 
gans, in  a  murderous  war,  which  continued  almost  without  in- 
terruption for  the  space  of  a  century.  The  Grand  Dukes  of 
Lithuania,  always  more  formidable  after  their  defeat,  defended 
their  liberties  and  independence  with  a  courage  and  perseverance 
almost  miraculous ;  and  it  was  only  by  taking  advantage  of  the 
dissensions  which  had  arisen  in  the  family  of  the  Grand  Duke, 


IK'    1 


m 


$ » 


;■  !(,, 


900 


CMAPTIII   VI. 


that  they  succeeded  in  obtaining  poRSPSflion  of  Samogitio.  by 
the  irenty  of  peace  which  was  concluded  nt  Racinnx  (1404.) 

The  Knights  of  Livonia,  united  to  the  Teutonic  Order  under 
the  authority  of  one  and  the  same  Qrund  Master,  added  tu  their 
former  conquests  the  province  of  Esthonia,  which  was  sold  to 
them  by  Valdemar  Iv.,  King  of  Denmark.  '"  The  Teutonic 
Knif  hts  were  at  the  zenith  of  their  greatness,  about  the  begin* 
ning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  At  that  time  they  were  become 
a  formidable  power  in  the  North,  having  under  their  dominion 
the  whole  of  Prussia,  comprehending  Pomerania  and  the  New 
March,  as  also  Samogitia,  Courland,  Livonia  and  Esthonia.  ** 
A  population  proportioned  to  the  extent  of  their  dominions,  u 
well  regulated  treasury,  and  a  flourishing  commerce,  seemed  to 
guarantee  them  a  solid  and  durable  empire.     Nevertheless,  the 

Jealousy  of  their  neighbours,  the  union  of  Lithuania  with  Po« 
and,  and  the  conversion  of  the  Lithuaniatis  to  Chr'stianity, 
which  deprived  the  Knights  of  the  assistance  of  the  Crusaders, 
soon  became  fatal  to  their  Order,  and  accelerated  their  down* 
fall.  The  Lithuanians  again  obtained  possession  of  Samogitia, 
which,  with  Sudavia,  was  ceded  to  them  by  the  various  treaties 
which  they  concluded  with  that  Order,  between  1411-1436. 

The  oppressive  government  of  the  Teutonic  Knights — their 
own  private  dissensions,  and  the  intolerable  burden  of  taxation  — 
the  fatal  consequence  of  incessant  war — induced  the  nobles  and 
cities  of  Prussia  and  Pomerania  to  form  a  confederacy  against 
the  Order,  and  to  solicit  the  protection  of  the  Kings  of  Poland. 
This  was  granted  to  them,  on  their  signing  a  deed  of  submission 
to  that  kingdom  (1454.)  The  result  was  a  long  and  bloody 
war  with  Poland,  which  did  not  terminate  till  the  pence  of  Thorn 
(1466.)  Poland  then  obtained  the  cession  of  Culm,  Michelau 
and  Dantzic ;  that  is  to  say,  all  the  countries  now  comprehended 
under  the  name  of  Polish  Prussia.  The  rest  of  Prussia  was 
retained  by  the  Teutonic  Order,  who  promised,  by  means  of 
their  Grand  Master,  to  do  fealty  and  homage  for  it  to  the  Kings 
of  Poland.  The  chief  residence  of  the  Order  was  then  trans- 
ferred to  Koningsberg,  where  it  continued  until  the  time  when  the 
Knights  were  deprived  of  Prussia  by  the  House  of  Brandenburg. 

At  length,  however,  Poland  recovered  from  this  state  of  weak- 
ness into  which  the  unfortunate  divisions  of  Boleslaus  III.  and 
his  descendants  had  plunged  it.  Uladislaus  IV.  surnamed  the 
Dwarf,  having  combined  several  of  these  principalities,  was 
crowned  King  of  Poland  at  Cracow  (1320.)  From  that  time 
the  Royal  dignity  became  permanent  in  Poland,  and  was  trans- 
mitted to  all  the  successors  of  Uladislaus.  -'  The  immediate 
successor  of  that  Prince  was  his  son  Casimir  the  Great,  who 


■ npiwtW 


m-i 


moffitia.  by 

(1404.) 
)rdpr  under 
dv(J  to  their 
was  .sold  to 
Teutonic 

the  begin* 
'ore  become 
ir  dominion 
id  the  New 
Esthonia.  ** 
ominions,  u 
,  seemed  to 
rthelesB,  the 
ia  with  Po- 
'hr.'stianity, 
Crusaders, 
their  down- 
Samogitia, 
ous  treaties 
1-1436. 
ghts — their 
taxation  — 
!  nobles  and 
•acy  against 
of  Poland, 
submission 
and  bloody 
ce  of  Thorn 
1,  Michelau 
nprchended 
'russia  was 
'  means  of 
>  the  Kings 
then  trans- 
le  when  the 
andenburg. 
te  of  weak- 
US  III.  and 
named  the 
ilities,  was 
1  that  time 
was  trans- 
immediate 
Grreat,  who 


H 


nnion  v.     a,  n.  iyOO_i453. 


901 


renounced  hi-  ricrliin  of  stiypr'-iffnty  ovi-r  Silesia  in  favour  of  the 
Kinp  of  Bohfiui  I  ■>n(l  aflttwutd--  <'om|n?ri!«Fiif(|  this  loss  by  the 
acquisition  of  sever  f'  of  ih^  provirrri's  of  nncit'tit  Kussia.  He 
likewise  took  possession  of  Red  Hiisxia  (1^40,)  ns  also  of  the 
provinces  of  Volhynin,  l'o(l(/lui.  Cholni  iind  Bel/,  which  he  con- 

Siuered  from  the  Grand  Diik<-.  of  Lithuania  (1349,)  who  had 
orinerly  dismt'inlwred  them  from  the  Russian  Empire. 

Under  Casimir  the  Orent,  another  revoliilion  happened  in  the 
government  of  Poland.  That  Prince,  having  no  >  bil-'ren  of  his 
own,  and  wishing  to  bequeath  the  crown  to  his  nephew  Louis, 
his  sister'.s  son,  by  Charlo:*  Robeit  Kinq  of  Hunirary,  convoked 
a  general  asNC'mbly  of  the  nation  at  Cracow  (1339.)  and  there 
got  the  succession  of  the  Hungarian  Prince  ratified,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  legitimate  rights  of  the  Piast  Dynasty,  who  reigned 
in  Masovin  and  Silesia.  This  subversion  of  the  hereditary 
right  of  the  different  branches  of  the  Piosts,  gave  the  Polish 
Nobles  n  pretext  for  interfering  in  the  election  of  their  Kings, 
until  at  last  the  throne  became  completely  elective.  It  also 
afforded  them  an  opportunity  for  limiting  the  power  of  their 
Kings,  and  laying  the  foundation  of  a  republican  and  aristocratic 
government.  Deputies  were  sent  into  Hungary  (1355,)  even 
during  the  life  of  Cnsimir,  who  obliged  King  Louis,  his  intended 
successor,  to  subscribe  an  act  which  provided  that,  on  his  ac- 
cession to  the  crown,  he  should  bind  himself,  and  his  successors, 
to  disburden  the  Polish  nobility  of  all  taxes  and  contributions  ; 
that  he  should  never,  under  any  pretext,  exact  subsidies  from 
them ;  and  that,  in  travelling,  he  should  claim  nothing  for  the 
support  of  his  court,  in  any  place  during  his  journey.  The  an- 
cient race  of  the  Piast  sovereigns  of  Poland  ended  with  Casimir 
(1370,)  after  having  occupied  the  throne  of  that  kingdom  for 
several  centuries. 

His  successor  in  Poland  and  Hungary  was  Louis,  surnamed 
the  Great.  In  a  Diet  assembled  in  1382,  he  obtained  the  con- 
currence of  the  Poles,  in  the  choice  which  he  had  made  of  Sigis- 
mund  of  Luxembourg,  as  his  son-in-law  and  successor  in  both 
kingdoms.  But  on  the  death  of  Louis,  which  happened  imme- 
diately after,  the  Poles  broke  their  engagement,  and  confeired 
their  crown  on  Hedwiga,  a  younger  daughter  of  that  Prince.  It 
was  stipulated,  that  she  should  marry  Jagcllon, Grand  Duke  of 
Lithuania,  who  agreed  to  incorporate  Lithuania  with  Poland, 
to  renounce  Paganism,  and  embrace  Christianity,  himself  and 
all  his  suHects.  Jagellon  was  baptized,  when  he  received  the 
name  of  Uladislaus,  and  was  crowned  King  of  Poland  at  Cracow 
(1386.)''^  It  was  on  the  accession  of  Jagellon,that  Poland  and 
Lithuania,  long  opposed  in  their  interests,  and  implacable  enemies 


(i    f, 


i^h 


iA 


202 


CHAPTER    VI. 


I! 


of  each  other,  were  united  into  one  body  politic  under  the  au- 
thority of  one  and  the  same  King.  Nevertheless,  for  nearly 
two  centuries,  Lithuania  still  preserved  its  own  Grand  Dukes, 
who  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Pciand  ;  and  it  was  not, 
properly  speaking,  till  the  reign  of  Sigismund  Augustus,  that 
the  union  of  the  two  states  was  finally  accomplished  (1569.) 
This  important  union  rendered  Po'and  the  preponderating  power 
of  the  North.  It  became  fatal  to  the  influence  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  who  soon  yielded  to  the  united  efforts  of  the  Poles  and 
Lithuanians. 

Uladislaus  Jagellon  did  not  obtain  the  assent  of  the  Polish 
nobility  to  the  succession  of  his  son,  except  by  adding  new  pri- 
vile^-  *)  to  those  which  they  had  obtained  from  his  predecessor. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  Polish  kings  who,  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
posing an  extraordinary  taxation,  called  in  the  Nuncios  or  De- 
puties of  the  Nobility  to  the  General  Diet  (1404,)  and  established 
the  use  of  Dietines  or  provincial  diets.  His  descendants  enjoyed 
the  crown  until  they  became  extinct,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  succession,  however,  was  mixed ;  and  although  the  princes 
of  the  House  of  Jagellon  might  regard  themselves  us  hereditary 
possessors  of  the  kingdom,  nevertheless,  on  every  change  of 
reign,  it  was  necessary  that  the  crown  should  be  conferred  by 
the  choice  and  consent  of  the  nobility. 

In  Hungary,  the  male  race  of  the  ancient  kings,  descendants 
of  Duke  Arpad,  had  become  extinct  in  Andrew  III.  (1301.)  The 
Crown  was  then  contested  by  several  competitors,  and  at  length 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  House  of  Anjou,  the  reigning  family 
of  Naples.  Charles  Robert,  grandson  of  Charles  II.  King  of 
Naples,  by  Mary  of  Hungary,  outstripped  his  rivals,  and  trans- 
mitted the  Crown  to  his  son  Louis,  surnamed  the  Great  (1308.) 
This  Prmce,  characterized  by  his  eminent  qualities,  made  a  dis- 
tinguished figure  among  the  Kings  of  Hungary.  He  conquered 
from  the  Venetians  the  whole  of  Dalmatia,  from  the  frontiers  of 
Istria,  as  far  as  Durazzo  ;  he  reduced  the  Princes  of  Moldavia, 
Walachia,  Bosnia  and  Bulgaria,  to  a  state  of  dependence ;  and 
dt  length  mounted  the  throne  of  Poland  on  the  detith  of  his  uncle 
Casiinir  the  Great.  ^  Mary,  his  eldest  daughter,  succeeded 
him  in  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  (1382.)  This  Princess  mar- 
ried Sigismund  of  Luxembourg,  who  thus  united  the  monarchy 
of  Hungary  to  the  Imperial  crown. 

The  reign  of  Sigismund  in  Hungary  was  most  unfortunate, 
and  a  prey  to  continual  disturbances.  He  had  to  sustain  the 
first  war  against  the  Ottoman  Turks  ;  and  with  the  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  as  his  ally,  he  assembled  a  formidable  army, 
with  which  he  undertook  the  &iege  of  Nicdpolis  in  Bulgaria. 


under  the  a*^- 

less,  for  nearly 

jGrand  Dukes, 

ind  it  was  not, 

ugustus,  that 

):ished  (1569.) 

[derating  power 

f  the  Teutonic 

the  Poles  and 

of  the  Polish 
dding  new  pri- 
is  predecessor. 

purpose  of  im- 
Nuncios  or  De- 
and  established 
ndants  enjoyed 
teenlh  century, 
ugh  the  princes 
s  us  hereditary 
ivery  change  of 
be  conferred  by 

gs,  descendants 
II.  (1301.)  The 
rs,  and  at  length 
reigning  family 
rles  II.  King  of 
vals,  and  trans- 
le  Great  (1308.) 
ies,  made  a  dis- 

He  conquered 
I  the  frontiers  of 
!s  of  Moldavia, 
pendence ;  and 
dthof  his  uncle 
hter,  succeeded 

Princess  mar- 
d  the  monarchy 

>st  unfortunate, 
to  sustain  the 
the  Emperor  of 
rmidable  army, 
lis  in  Bulgaria. 


PBRIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453. 


203 


Here  he  sustained  a  complete  defeat  by  the  Turks.  In  his  ro- 
treat  he  was  compelled  to  embark  on  the  Danube,  and  directed 
his  flight  towards  Constantinople.  This  disaster  was  followed 
by  new  misfortunes.  The  malcontents  of  Hungary  offered  their 
Crown  to  Ladislaus,  cdled  the  Magnanimous,  King  of  Naples, 
who  took  possession  of  Dalmatia,  which  he  afterwards  surren- 
dered to  the  Venetians.  Desirous  to  provide  for  the  defence 
and  security  of  his  kingdom,  Sigismund  acquired,  by  treaty  with 
the  Prince  of  Servia,  the  fortress  of  Belgrade  (1425,)  which,  by 
Its  situation  at  the  confluence  of  the  Danube  and  the  Save, 
seetned  to  him  a  proper  bulwark  to  protect  Hungary  against  the 
Turks.  He  transmitted  the  crown  of  Hungary  to  his  son-in-law, 
Albert  of  Austria,  who  reigned  only  two  years.  The  war  with 
the  Turks  was  renewed  under  Uladislaus  of  Poland,  son  of 
Jagellon,andsuccessur  to  Albert.  That  Prince  fought  a  bloody 
battle  with  them  near  Varna  in  Bulgaria  (1444.)  The  Hungari- 
ans again  sustained  a  total  defeat,  and  the  King  himself  lost  his 
life  in  the  action.  ^  The  safety  of  Hungary  then  depended  en- 
tirely on  the  bravery  of  the  celebrated  John  Hunniades,  governor 
of  the  kingdom,  during  the  minority  of  Ladislaus,  the  posthu- 
mous son  of  Albert  of  Austria.  That  general  signalized  himselt 
in  various  actions  against  the  Turks,  and  obliged  Mahomet  II. 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Belgrade  (1456,)  where  he  lost  above  twenty- 
five  thousand  men,  and  was  himself  severely  wounded. 

The  Greek  Empire  was  gradually  approaching  its  downfall, 
under  the  feeble  administration  of  the  House  of  Paleologus,  who 
had  occupied  the  throne  of  Constantinople  since  the  year  1261. 
The  same  vices  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  the  great 
power  of  the  patriarchs  and  the  monks,  the  rancour  of  theological 
disputes,  the  fury  of  sectaries  and  schismatics,  and  the  internal 
dissension  to  which  they  gave  rise,  aggravated  the  misfortunes 
and  disorders  of  the  state,  and  were  instrumental  in  hastening 
on  its  final  destruction.  John  I.  and  his  successors,  the  last 
Emperors  of  Constantinople,  being  reduced  to  the  sad  necessity 
of  paying  tribute  to  the  Turks,  and  marching  on  military  expe- 
ditions, at  the  command  of  the  Sultans,  owed  the  preservation 
of  their  shattered  and  declining  Empire,  for  some  time,  entirely 
to  the  reverses  of  fortune  which  hud  befallen  the  Ottpmans  ;  and 
to  the  difiiculties  which  the  siege  of  their  capital  presented  to  a 
barbarous  nation  unacquainted  with  the  arts  of  blockade. 

The  power  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  took  its  rise  about  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  A  Turkish  Emir,  called  Ottoman, 
or  Osman,  was  its  original  founder  in  Asia  Minor.  He  was 
one  of  the  number  of  those  Einirs,  who,  after  the  subversion  of 
the  Seljukians  of  Roum  or  Iconium,  by  the  Moguls,  shared 


'■i    ! 


;ii 


\i- 


S04  CHAPTRR  VI. 

among  them  the  spoils  of  their  ancient  masters.  A  part  of  ' 
Bithynin,  and  the  whole  country  lying  round  Mount  Olympus, 
fell  10  the  share  of  Ottoman,  who  afterwards  formed  an  alliano* 
with  the  other  Emirs,  and  invaded  the  possessions  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  under  the  feeble  reign  of  the  Emperor  Andronicus  11. 
Prusa,  or  Bursa,  the  principal  city  of  Bithynia,  was  conquered 
by  Ottoman  (1327.)  He  and  his  successors  made  it  the  capital 
of  their  new  state,  which,  in  course  of  time,  gained  the  ascen- 
dency over  all  the  other  Turkish  sovereignties,  formed,  like  thai 
of  Ottoman,  from  the  ruins  of  Iconium  and  the  Greek  Empire. 

Orchan,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ottoman,  instituted  the 
famous  Order  of  the  Janissaries,  to  which  in  a  great  neasure 
the  Turks  owed  their  success.     He  took  from  the  Greeks  thfi 
cities  of  Nice  and  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia ;  and,  after  having 
subdued  most  of  the  Turkish  Emirs  in  Asia  Minor,  he  took  the 
title  of  Sultan  or  King,  as  well  as  that  of  Pacha,  which  is  cqui- 
ralent  to  the  title  of  Emperor.    His  son  Soliman  crossed  the  Hel- 
lespont, by  his  orders,  near  the  ruins  of  ancient  Troy,  and  took 
the  city  of  Gallipoli,  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  (1358.)    The 
conquest  of  this  place  opened  a  passage  for  the  Turks  into  Eu- 
rope, when  Thrace  and  the  whole  of  Greece  was  soon  inundated 
by  these  new  invaders.     Amuralh  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Orchan,  made  himself  master  of  Adrianoplc  and  the  whole 
of  Thrace  (1360;)    he  next  attacked  Macedonia,  Servia  and 
Bulgaria,  and  appointed  the  first  Beglerbeg,  or  Governor-general 
of  Romelia.     Several  Turkish  princes  of  Asia  Minor  were 
obliged  to  acknowledge  his  authority  ;  he  made  himself  master 
of  Kiutaja,  the  metropolis  of  Phrygia,  which  afterwards  became 
the  capital  of  Anatolia,  and  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  that 
province  (1389.)     Amurath  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cassova 
which  he  fought  with  the  Despot  of  Servia,  assisted  by  his  nume- 
rous allies.     In  this  bloody  battle  the  Despot  himself  was  slain, 
and  both  sides  equally  claimed  the  victory.     Bajuzel  I.,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Amurath,  put  an  end  to  all  the  Turkish  sovereignties 
which  still  subsisted  in  Asia  Minor.     He  completed  the  reduc- 
tion of  Bulgaria,  and  maintained  the  possession  of  it  by  the 
signal  victory  which  he  gained  at  Nicopolis  (1396)  over  Sigis- 
mund.  King  of  Hungary.     The  Greek  Empire  would  have  yield- 
ed to  the  persevering  efforts  of  that  prince,  who  had  maintained, 
for  ten  years,  the  siege  of  Constantinople-,  had  he  not  been  at- 
tacked, m  the  midst  of  these  enterprises,  by  the  famous  Timour. 
the  new  conqueror  of  Asia. 

Timour. commonly  called  Tamerlane,  was  one  of  those  Mogul 
Emirs  who  had  divided  amongst  them  the  sovereignty  of  Trans- 
oxiana,  after  the  extinction  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  of  Zagatai. 


i 


A  pan  of 

nt  Olympu6, 
an  alliance 
of  the  Greek 
droiiicus  II. 
■s  conquered 
it  the  capital 
d  the  ascen- 
ned,  like  that 
ek  Empire, 
istituted  the 
reat  neasure 
!  Greeks  \hfi 
after  havinj^ 
',  he  took  the 
hich  is  equi- 
ssed  the  HeU 
roy,  and  took 
[1358.)    The 
trks  into  £u- 
on  inundated 
successor  of 
id  the  whole 
,  Servia  and 
ernor-general 
Minor  were 
imself  master 
vards  became 
k^ernor  of  that 
!  of  Cassova 
by  his  nume- 
elf  was  slain, 
et  I.,  the  sue- 
sovereignties 
ed  the  reduc- 
of  it  by  the 
1)  over  Sigis- 
d  have  yield- 
I  maintained, 
not  been  at- 
lous  Timour. 

those  Mogul 
»ty  of  Tran»> 
r  of  Zagatai. 


1-": 


PERIOD  V.      A.  D.   1300—1453. 


205 


Trnnsoxiann  was  the  theatre  ot  his  first  exploits ;  there  he 
usurped  the  whole  power  of  the  Khan$,  or  Eiiiperor.«  of  Zagatai, 
and  fixed  the  capital  of  his  new  dominions  nt  the  city  of 
Samarcand  (1369.)  Persia,  the  whole  of  Upper  Asia,  Kipzach, 
and  Hindostan,  were  vanquished  by  him  in  succession ;  where- 
ver he  marched,  he  renewed  the  same  .«cenes  of  horror,  blood- 
shed, and  carnajje,  which  had  marked  the  footsteps  of  the 
first  Mogul  conqueror.''"  Timour  at  length  attacked  the  do- 
minions of  Bajnzet  in  Anatolia  (1400.)  He  fought  a  bloody 
and  decisive  buttle  near  Angora,  in  the  ancient  Gallogrecia, 
which  proved  fatal  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Bnjazct  sustained 
an  entire  defeat,  and  fell  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
queror. All  Anatolia  was  then  conquered  and  pillaged  by  the 
Moguls,  and  there  Timour  fixed  his  winter  quarters.  Meantime 
he  treated  his  captive  Bajazet  with  kindness  and  generosity ; 
and  the  anecdote  of  the  iron  cage,  in  which  he  is  said  to  have 
confined  his  prisoner,  merits  no  credit.  Slierefeddin  Ali,  who 
accompanied  Timour  in  his  expedition  against  Bajuzet,  makes  no 
mention  of  it ;  on  the  contrary,  he  avers  that  Timour  consented 
to  leave  him  the  Empire,  and  that  he  grunted  the  investiture  oi 
it  to  him  and  two  of  his  sons.  Bajazei  did  rmt  long  survive  his 
misfortune ;  he  died  of  an  attack  of  apoplexy  (1403,)  with  which 
he  was  struck  in  the  camp  of  Timour  in  Caramania. 

Timour,  a  short  time  after,  formed  the  project  of  an  expedi- 
tion into  China;  but  he  died  on  the  route  in  1405,  at  the  age 
of  sixty-nine.  His  vast  dominions  were  dismembered  after  his 
death.  One  of  his  descendants,  named  Babour,  founded  a  pow- 
erful Empire  in  India,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  preserved 
under  the  name  of  the  Empire  of  the  Great  Mogul.  The  inva- 
sion of  Timour  retarded  for  some  time  the  progress  of  the  Turk- 
ish Empire.  The  fatal  dissensions,  which  arose  among  the  sons 
of  Bajazet,  set  them  at  open  war  with  each  other.  At  length 
Amurnth  II.,  the  son  of  Mahomet  I.,  and  grandson  of  Bajazet, 
succeeded  in  putting  a  stop  to  these  divisions,  and  restored  the 
Empire  to  its  primitive  splendour.  He  deprived  the  Greeks  of 
all  the  places  which  still  remained  in  their  hands  on  the  Black 
Sea,  along  the  coast  of  Thrace,  in  Macedonia  and  Thessaly. 
He  even  took,  by  assault,  the  wall  and  forts  which  they  had 
constructed  at  the  entrance  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  car- 
ried his  ravages  to  the  very  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  two  heroes  of  the  Christians,  John  Hunniades  and  Scan- 
derbeg,  arrested  the  progress  of  the  Ottoman  Sultan.  The 
former,  who  was  General  of  the  Hungarians,  boldly  repulsed 
the  Sultan  of  Servia,  whom  he  was  ambitious  to  conquer.  The 
other,  a  Greek  Prince,  who  possessed  one  of  the  petty  states  of 


m 


ii|j 


<»  -til, 


"  4-  ' 


4 

n 

1 

"  !j 


t^ 


r 


■  n^iiiigwijinW^T* 


iiiiiiiHii^A»»ii»WiWintnp^«»  Wt 


2(16 


CRAMER  VI. 


; 


Albania  of  which  Croja  was  the  capital,  resisted  with  success 
the  repeated  attacks  of  the  Turks.  Supported  by  n  small  hut 
well  disciplined  army,  and  favoured  by  the  mountains  with  which 
his  territory  was  surrounded,  he  twice  compelled  Amurath  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Croja.  At  length  appeared  Mahomet  II.,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Amurath,  (1451.)  This  Prince,  who  was 
raised  to  the  Ottoman  throne  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  age, 
conceived  the  design  of  achieving  the  conquest  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  by  the  taking  of  Constantinople.  He  succeeded  in 
overcoming  all  the  difficulties  which  obstructed  this  enterprise, 
in  which  several  of  his  predecessors  had  failed.  At  the  head 
of  an  army  of  three  hundred  thousand  combatants,  supported 
by  a  fleet  of  300  sail,  he  appeared  before  that  capital,  and  com- 
menced the  siege  on  the  6th  April  1463.  The  besieged  having 
only  from  SOOO  to  10,000  men  to  oppose  the  superior  force  of 
the  enemy,  yielded  to  the  powerful  and  redoubled  eflbrts  of  the 
Turks,  after  a  vigorous  defence  of  fifty-three  days.  The  city 
was  carried  by  assault,  29th  May,  and  delivered  up  to  the  un- 
restrained pillage  of  the  soldiers.  Constantine,  surnamed 
Dragases,  the  last  of  the  Greek  Emperors,  perished  in  the  first 
onset ;  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  that  great  and  opulent  city 
were  carried  into  slavery.**  Mahomet,  on  entering  the  very 
day  of  the  sack,  saw  nothing  but  one  vast  and  dismal  solitude. 
Wishing  afterwards  to  attract  new  inhabitants  to  this  city,  which 
he  proposed  to  make  the  seat  of  his  Empire,  he  guaranteed  an 
entire  liberty  of  conscience  to  the  Greeks  who  might  come 
to  settle  there ;  and  authorized  them  to  proceed  to  the  elec- 
tion of  a  new  patriarch,  whose  dignity  he  enhanced  by  the 
honours  and  privileges  which  he  attached  to  it.  He  restored 
also  the  fortifications  of  the  city,  and,  by  way  of  precaution 
against  the  armaments  of  the  Venetians  and  other  western 
nations,  which  he  had  some  reason  to  dread,  he  constructed 
the  famous  castle  of  the  Dardanelles,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Hellespont. 

This  conquest  was  followed  by  that  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  Alba- 
nia, Greece,  and  the  whole  Peloponnesus  or  Morea,  as  well  as 
most  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  The  Greek  Empire  of 
Trebizond,  on  the  ciast  of  Asia  Minor,  submitted  in  like  tnan- 
ner  to  the  law  of  the  conqueror  (1466.)  David  Commenus,  the 
last  Emperor,  fell  by  the  swords  of  the  Mahometans,  and  with 
him  perished  many  of  his  children  and  relations.  Such  a  rapid 
succession  of  conquests  created  an  alarm  among  the  powers  of 
Christendom.  In  an  assembly,  which  Pope  Pius  II.  held  at 
Mantua  (1459,)  he  proposed  a  general  associaVon  among  the 
powers  of  the  West  against  the  Turks.     A  crusade  was  pub- 


PERIOD  VI.    A.  D.  1453--1648. 


207 


ith  success 
n  smnJl  hut 
wilh  whirh 
lAmurath  to 
met  II.,  the 
e,  who  was 
of  his  ago, 
r  the  Greek 
ucceeded  in 
enterprise, 
At  the  head 
s,  supported 
EtI,  and  com* 
eged  having 
ior  force  of 
ffbrts  of  the 
The  city 
p  to  the  un> 
I    surnamed 
i  in  the  first 
opulent  city 
ng  the  very 
lal  solitude. 
5  city,  which 
laranteed  an 
night  come 
to  the  elec- 
iced  by  the 
He  restored 
'  precaution 
ler  western 
constructed 
ince  of  the 

ssnin,  Alba* 
I  as  well  as 
c  Empire  of 
1  like  nian- 
imenus,  the 
s,  and  with 
uch  a  rapid 

rowers  of 
,  held  at 
among  the 
I  was  pub* 


lished  by  his  orders,  and  he  was  on  the  point  of  setting  out  in 
person  at  the  head  ol  this  expeJiiion,  when  lie  was  suddenly  cut 
off  by  dealn  iu  Ancona  (1464,)  where  he  had  appointee!  the 
general  rendezvous  of  the  conlederate  tioops.  This  event,  add- 
ed to  the  terror  which  the  arms  of  Mahomet  had  created  among 
the  nations  o(  the  West,  disconcerted  the  plans  of  the  Crusa- 
ders, and  was  the  means  of  dissolving  their  confederacy.  The 
Turkish  Empire  thus  became  firmly  established  in  Europe,  and 
the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  put  themselves  at  the  same  time 
under  the  protection  of  the  Porte. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

PERIOD  VI. 

From  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  to  the  Peace 
of  Wettp}uUia.—K.  d.  1453—1648. 

The  revolution  which  happened  in  the  fifteenth  century  en- 
tirely changed  the  face  of  Europe,  and  introduced  a  new  system 
of  politics.  This  revolution  was  not  achieved  by  any  combina- 
tions of  profound  policy,  nor  by  the  operation  of  that  physical 
force  which  generally  subverts  thrunes  and  governments.  It 
was  the  result  of  those  progressive  changes  which  had  been 
produced  in  the  ideas  and  understandings  of  the  nations  of  Eu- 
rope, by  the  improvements  and  institutions  of  preceding  times; 
OS  well  as  by  the  invention  of  paper  and  printing,  of  gunpowder, 
and  the  mariner's  compass.  By  means  of  these,  the  empire  of 
letters  and  arts  was  greatly  extended,  and  various  salutary  im- 
provements made  in  the  religion,  manners,  and  governments  of 
Europe.  The  people  by  degrees  shook  off  the  yoke  of  barba- 
rism, superstition,  and  fanaticism,  which  the  revolution  of  the 
fiflh  century  had  imposed  on  tham ,  and  from  that  time  the 
principal  States  of  Europe  began  to  acquire  the  strength,  and 
gradually  to  assume  the  form,  which  they  have  since  maintained. 

Several  extraordinary  events,  however,  conspired  to  accelerate 
these  happy  changes.  The  Belles  Lettres  and  the  Fine  Arts 
shone  out  wi'h  new  splendour,  after  the  downfall  of  the  Greek 
Empire.  The  celebrated  Petrarch,  and  his  disciples  Boccacio 
and  John  of  Ravenna,  were  the  first  that  made  the  Italians  ac- 
quainted with  ancient  literature,  as  the  true  source  and  standard 
of  good  taste.  They  prepared  the  way  for  a  vast  number  of  the 
Grecian  literati,  who,  to  escape  the  barbarity  of  the  Turks,  had 
fled  into  Italy,  where  they  opened  schools,  and  brought  the  study 


m^ 


\ 


»;f>r 


*'■  \i 


tT" 


208  CHAPTER  vn. 

of  Creek  literature  into  considerable  repute.  The  moit  celebrated 
of  these  Greek  refugees  were,  Manuel  Chrysoloras,  Cardinal 
Bessarion,  Theodore  Gaza,  George  of  Trebizond,  John  Argyro- 
philus,  and  Demetrius  Chalcondylea.  Protected  by  the  family 
of  the  Medicis  at  Florence,  they  assisted  in  forming  those  fine 
geniuses  which  arose  in  Italy  during  the  fifteenth  c«jntury,  such 
as  Leonard  Aretin,  the  two  Guarini,  Poggio  of  Florence,  Ange- 
lo  Politian,  and  many  others.  Academies,  or  Free  Societies, 
were  founded  at  Rome  Naples,  Venice,  Milan,  Ferrara  and 
Florence,  for  the  encouragement  of  ancient  literature. 

From  Italy  the  study  of  the  ancient  arts  passed  to  the  other 
stales  of  Europe.  They  soon  diffused  their  influence  over  every 
department  of  literature  and  science,  which  by  degrees  assumed 
an  aspect  totally  new.  The  scholastic  system,  which  till  then 
had  been  in  vogue  in  the  pulpits  and  universities,  lost  its  credit, 
and  gave  place  to  a  more  refined  philosophy.  Men  learned  to 
discriminate  the  vices  of  the  feudal  system,  and  sought  out  the 
means  of  correcting  them.  The  sources  of  disorder  and  anarchy 
were  gradually  dried  up,  and  gave  place  to  better  organized 
governments.  Painting,  sculpture,  and  the  arts  in  general, 
cleared  from  the  Gothic  rust  which  they  had  contracted  during 
the  barbarous  ages,  and  finished  after  the  models  of  the  ancients, 
shone  forth  with  renewed  lustre.  Navigation,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  compass,  reached  a  degree  of  perfection  which  at- 
tracted universal  attention ;  and  while  the  ancients  merely  coasted 
along  their  own  shores  in  the  pursuit  of  commerce  or  maritime 
exploits,  we  find  the  modern  Europeans  extending  their  naviga- 
tion over  the  whole  globe,  and  bringing  both  hemispheres  under 
their  dominion. 

America,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  was  discovered  during 
this  period ;  as  well  as  the  route  to  India  and  the  East,  round 
the  Continent  of  Africa.  The  notion  of  a  fourth  quarter  of  the 
world  had  long  been  prevalent  among  the  ancients.  We  aU 
recollect  the  Atlantis  of  Plato,  which,  according  to  the  assertion 
of  that  philosopher,  was  larger  than  Asia  and  Africa;  and  we 
know  that  .Elian  the  historian,  who  lived  in  the  reigii  of  Adrian, 
affirmed  in  like  manner  the  existence  of  a  fourth  continent  of 
immense  extent.  This  opinion  had  got  so  much  into  fashion, 
during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  that 
Lactantius  and  St.  Augustine  thought  themselves  bound  in  duty 
to  combat  it  in  their  writings ;  inveighing  against  the  antipodes 
by  reasons  and  arguments,  the  frivolousness  of  which  is  now 
very  generally  admitted ;  but,  whatever  were  the  notions  which 
the  ancients  might  have  entertained  as  to  a  fourth  quarter  of  the 
globe,  it  is  very  certain  that  they  knew  it  only"  from  conjecture 
and  that  their  navigation  never  extende**  io  <or. 


,  .'•) 


h\ 


lo&t  celebrated 
ras,  Cardinal 
John  Argyro- 
by  the  family 
ng  those  fine 
contury,  such 
irence,  Ange- 
roe  Societies, 
Ferrara  and 
ure. 

d  to  the  other 
ice  over  every 
^rees  assumed 
hich  till  then 
lost  its  credit, 
en  learned  to 
lought  out  the 
r  and  anarchy 
:ter  organized 
ts  in  general, 
tracted  during 
f  the  ancients, 
ider  the  direc- 
tion which  at- 
nerely  coasted 
;e  or  maritime 
T  their  naviga- 
spheres  under 

overed  during 
le  East,  round 
quarter  of  the 
ents.  We  aU 
a  the  assertion 
frica;  and  we 
igii  of  Adrian, 
:h  continent  of 
h  into  fashion, 
istian  era,  that 
bound  in  duty 
t  the  antipodes 
which  is  now 
notions  which 
quarter  of  the 
om  conjecture 


l.:\ 


■>1«ii 


■i-5  ■ 


.\\- 


fi 


if: 


I 

I 


Death  o(  Joan  of  Arc.     1'.  I'M.    The  English  inhumanly 
burned  this  Heroine  as  a  Sorceress. 


hZ':  ■  y  ,,. 


1'  ^^ "     :  ^ 


if  ^  ji_ic-'  sum  .jsnTi 


Death  of  Constantine  XV.  in  Delending  Constantinople. 

IV  wo. 


iiili  inhumanly 
ess. 


onstantinople, 


PBsioo  VI.     1463—1648. 


209 


The  honour  of  this  important  discover)  belongs  to  modem 
navigators,  more  especially  to  Christopher  Columous,  a  native 
of  Genoa.  From  the  knowledge  which  this  i-elebrated  man  had 
ncquired  in  the  sciences  of  Navigation,  Ast.onomy,  and  Geo- 
jjraphy,  he  was  persuaded  that  there  must  be  aj  lother  hemispher^^ 
lying  to  the  westward,  and  unknown  to  Europeans,  but  neces* 
sary  to  the  equilibrium  of  the  globe.  These  conjectures  he 
communicated  to  several  of  the  courts  of  Europe,  who  all  re- 
garded  him  as  a  visionary ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  many  soli- 
citations, that  Isabella,  Queen  of  Castile,  granted  him  three 
vessels,  with  which  he  set  sail  in  quest  of  the  new  continent, 
3d  August  1492.  AAer  a  perilous  navigation  of  some  months, 
he  reached  the  l!<land  Guanahani  or  Cat  Island,  one  of  the  Lu- 
cayos  or  Bahamas,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  St.  Salvador. 
This  discovery  was  followed  soon  after  by  that  of  the  Islands  of 
St.  Domingo  and  Cuba ;  and  in  the  second  and  third  voyages 
which  that  navigator  undertook  to  America  (1493-1498,)  he  dis- 
covered  the  mainland  or  continent  of  the  New  World,  especially 
the  coast  of  Paria,  as  far  as  the  point  of  Araya,  making  port  of 
theprovince  kno>vn  at  present  by  the  name  of  Cumana. 

The  track  of  the  Genoese  navigator  was  followed  by  a  Flo- 
rentine  merchant,  named  Amerigo  Vesputio.  Under  the  con- 
duct of  a  Spanish  captain,  called  Alphonso  de  Ojeda,  he  made 
several  voyages  to  the  New  World  after  the  year  1497.  Difle- 
rent  coasts  of  the  continent  of  South  America  were  visited  by 
him ;  and  in  the  maps  of  his  discoveries  which  he  drew  up,  hie 
usurped  a  glory  which  did  not  belong  to  him,  by  applying  his 
own  name  to  the  new  continent ;  which  it  has  since  retained. 

The  Spaniards  conquered  the  islands  and  a  great  part  of  the 
continent  of  America ;  extending  their  victories  along  with  their 
discoveries.  Stimulated  by  the  thirst  of  gold,  which  the  New 
World  oflered  to  them  in  abundance,  they  committed  crimes  and 
barbarities  which  make  humanity  shudder.  Millions  of  the 
unfortunate  natives  were  either  massacred  or  buried  in  the  sea, 
in  spite  of  the  eflbrts  which  the  Spanish  Bishop,  Bartholomew 
de  Las  Casas,  vainly  made  to  arrest  the  fuiy  of  his  country- 
men. '  In  the  year  af\er  the  first  discovery  of  Columbus,  Fer- 
dinand the  Catholic,  King  of  Spain,  obtained  a  bull  from  Pope 
Alexander  VI.,  by  which  that  Pontiff  made  him  a  gift  of  all  the 
countries  discovered,  or  to  be  discovered,  towards  the  west  and 
the  south ;  drawing  an  imaginary  line  from  one  pole  to  the  other, 
at  the  distance  of  a  hundred  leagues  westwaid  of  Cape  Verd 
and  the  Azores.  This  decision  having  given  oflence  to  the  King 
of  Portugal,  who  deemed  it  prejudicial  to  his  discoveries  in  ths 
East,  an  accommodation  was  contrived  between  the  two  courta, 

14 


m 


a 


^) 


810 


CHAFTRR  VII. 


in  virtue  of  which  the  same  Pope,  by  another  Bull  (1404,)  re- 
moved the  line  in  question  farther  xvest,  to  the  distance  of  four 
hundred  and  seventy  leagues ;  so  that  all  the  countries  lying  to 
the  westward  of  this  line  should  belong  to  the  King  of  Spain, 
while  those  which  might  be  discovered  to  the  eastward,  should 
fall  to  the  possession  of  the  King  of  Portugal.  *  It  was  on  thiH 
pretended  title  that  the  Spaniards  founded  their  right  to  demand 
>iie  submission  of  the  American  nations  to  the  Spanish  Crown. 
Their  principal  conquests  in  the  New  World  commence  from 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  It  was  in  his  name  that 
Ferdinand  Cortes,  with  a  mere  handful  of  troops,  overthrew  the 
vast  Empire  of  Mexico  (1521;)  the  last  Emperors  of  which, 
Montezuma  and  Qatimozin,  were  slain,  and  a  prodigious  num- 
ber of  the  Mexicans  put  to  the  sword.  The  conqueror  of  Peru 
was  Francis  Pizarro  (1533.)  He  entered  the  country,  at  the 
head  of  300  men,  at  the  very  time  when  Atnbalipa  or  Atahualpa 
was  commencing  his  reign  as  Incas,  or  Sovc'.>;ign  of  Peru.  That 
prince  was  slain,  and  the  whole  of  Peru  sub«i>icc  bv  the  Spaniards. 

[The  Spaniards  founded  various  colonies  and.  establishments 
in  that  part  of  America  which  they  had  subjected  to  their  do- 
minion. The  character  of  these  colonies  difl'ercd  from  that  of 
the  establishments  which  the  Portuguese  had  founded  in  India, 
and  the  Dutch,  the  English,  and  the  French,  in  diflbrent  parts 
of  the  world.  As  the  Spaniards  were  by  no  means  a  commer- 
cial nation,  the  precious  metals  alone  were  the  object  of  their 
cupidity.  They  applied  themselves,  in  consequence,  to  the 
working  of  mines;  they  t  tinrted  negroes  to  labour  in  them, 
and  made  slaves  of  the  natives.  In  process  of  time,  when  the 
number  of  Europeans  had  increased  m  these  countries,  and  the 
precious  metals  became  less  abundant,  the  Spanish  colonists 
were  obliged  to  employ  themselves  in  agriculture,  and  in  raising 
what  is  commonly  called  colonial  produce.  What  we  have  now 
said,  accounts  for  the  limitations  and  restrictions  which  were 
imposed  on  the  trade  of  these  colonies  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment ;  they  wished  to  reserve  to  themselves  exclusively  the  pro- 
fits  of  the  mines.  Commerce,  which  at  iir.st  had  been  confined 
to  the  single  entrepot  of  Seville,  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  small 
number  of  merchants,  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  foreigners.  As 
for  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America,  they  were  planted  with 
Episcopal  and  Metropolitan  Sees,  Missions,  Convents,  and  Uni- 
versities. The  Inquisition  was  also  introduced ;  but  the  hierar- 
chy which  was  founded  there,  insteod  of  augmenting  the  power 
of  the  Popes,  remained  in  a  state  of  complete  dependence  upon 
the  Sovereigns.] 

The  discovery  of  Brazil  belongs  to  the  Portuguese.     Alvares 


II  (1404.)  re. 
tance  of  four 
|tric8  lying  to 
ig  of  Spain, 
|ward,  should 
was  on  this 
Jht  to  (ienianH 
inish  Crown, 
imcnce  from 
lis  name  that 
)verthrew  the 
an  of  which, 
digious  num* 
ueror  of  Peru 
untry,  at  the 
or  Atahualpa 
fPeru.  That 
he  Spaniards, 
stablishments 
d  to  their  do- 
I  from  that  of 
idcd  in  India, 
difTcrent  parts 
ns  a  commer- 
bject  of  their 
uence,  to  the 
)our  in  them, 
me,  when  the 
ttries,  and  the 
dish  colonists 
md  in  raising 
we  have  now 
5  which  were 
inish  govern- 
ively  the  pro- 
)eon  confined 
ds  of  a  small 
eigners.     As 
!  pUnted  with 
nts,  and  Uni- 
ut  the  hierar- 
ng  the  power 
mdence  upon 

me.     Alrares 


I 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1463—1648. 


211 


Cnbral,  the  cnmnmnder  of  their  fleet,  while  on  his  route  to  India- 
was  driven,  by  contrary  wind^,  on  the  coast  of  Brazil  (1500,)  and 
took  possosMion  of  the  country  in  name  of  the  King  of  1'or* 
tugal.  This  colony,  in  the  course  of  time,  became  highly  im- 
portant, from  the  rich  mines  of  diamonds  and  gold  which  werr 
discovered  there. 

The  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  were  at  first  the  only  mastpn 
of  America ;  but  in  a  short  time,  establishments  were  formed 
there  by  some  of  the  other  maritime  nations  of  Europe.  The 
first  English  colony  was  that  of  Virginia,  which  was  conducted 
to  North  America  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (1584,)  but  it  did  not 
gain  a  permanent  settlement  till  the  reign  of  James  I.  This  was 
afterwards  followed  by  several  other  colonies  which  had  settled 
in  that  part  of  the  American  continent,  on  account  of  the  perse- 
cution carried  on  by  the  Stuart  Kings  against  the  non-conform- 
ists. The  first  settlements  of  the  English  in  the  Antilles,  were 
those  which  they  formed  in  the  Islands  of  Barbadoes  and  St. 
Christopher  (1639 ;)  to  these  they  added  the  Island  of  Jamaica, 
which  they  took  from  the  Spaniards  (1656.)  The  date  of  the 
French  establishments  in  Canada,  is  as  old  as  the  reigns  of 
Francis  I.  and  Henry  IV.,  in  the  years  15,34  and  1604.  The 
city  of  Quebec  was  founded  in  1608.  It  was  at  a  later  period 
when  the  French  established  themselves  in  the  Antilles.  The 
origin  of  their  colonies  in  Martinique  and  Gaudaloupe,  is  gene- 
rally referred  to  the  year  1635.  They  gained  a  footing  in  St. 
Domingo  as  early  as  1630,  but  the  flourishing  state  of  that  re- 
markable colony  did  not  beginM)roperly  speaking,  till  1722.  Alj 
the  establishments  which  the  ffnglish  and  French  had  formed  in 
America,  were  purely  agricultural ;  and  in  this  respect  they  were 
distinguished  from  the  Spanish  colonics. 

The  discovery  of  a  passage  by  sea  to  the  East  Indies  round 
Africa,  belongs  also  to  the  Portuguese.  It  forms  one  of  those 
great  events  which  often  take  their  first  impulse  from  very  slen- 
der causes.  John  I.  surnamed  the  Bastard,  the  new  founder  of 
the  kingdom  of  Portugal,  being  desirous  of  aflbrding  tu  his  sons 
an  opportunity  of  signalizing  themselves,  and  earning  the  honour 
of  knighthood,  planned  an  expedition  against  the  Moois  in  Africa; 
he  equipped  a  fleet,  with  which  he  landed  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Ceuta  (1415,)  of  which  he  soon  made  himself  master,  and 
created  his  sons  knights  in  the  grand  mosque  of  that  city.  AAer 
this  event,  the  Portuguese  began  to  have  a  taste  for  navigation 
and  maritime  discoveries.  In  this  they  were  encouraged  by  the 
Infant  Don  Henry,  Duke  of  Viseu,  aiiH  one  oi  the  sons  of  King 
John,  who  had  particularly  distinguished  himself  in  the  expedi- 
iion  of  which  we  have  just  spoken.     That  prince,  who  was  well 


ii 


m: 


■^M 


819 


CHAPTXR  VIl. 


iikillpd  in  mnthematicn  and  the  nrt  nf  iinvi^ntion,  established  hit 
r»>Nidcnce  iit  Ciipc  St.  Vincent,  on  the  woxtern  extremity  of  AU 
Kurra.  There  he  ordered  vossiels  to  f>e  constructed  iit  his  own 
expense,  and  sent  them  to  reconnoitre  the  coasts  of  Africa.  From 
ihat  time  the  Portujjuesc  discovered,  in  succession,  tlie  Islands  nf 
Madeira  (1420,)  the  Canaries  (1424.)  the  Azores  (1431,)  and 
Cape  Verd  (1460.)  There  they  found3d  colonies;  and,  ud- 
vancinf^  by  degrees  along  the  southern  shores  nf  Africa,  they 
extended  their  navigation  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  (iuineaand  Ni« 
gritia.  The  islands  which  they  had  newly  discovered,  were 
confirmed  to  the  Kings  of  Portugal  by  several  of  the  Popes.  The 
Canaries,  however,  having  been  claimed  by  the  Spaniards,  a 
treaty  was  negotiated  between  the  two  kingdoms,  in  virtue  of 
which  these  islands  wore  abandoned  to  Spain  (1481.) 

It  was  under  the  reign  of  John  II.  that  the  Portuguese  ex- 
tended their  navigation  as  far  as  the  most  nouthcrly  point  of 
Africa.  Bartholomew  Diaz,  their  admiral,  was  the  first  who 
doubled  the  Cape,  which  he  culled  the  Storrqiy  Cape  ;  a  name 
which  King  John  changed  into  that  of  Good  Hope.  At  length, 
after  twelve  years  of  toils,  Vasco  di  Gama,  another  Portuguese 
admiral,  had  the  glory  of  carrying  his  national  flag  as  far  as 
India.  He  landed  at  the  Port  of  Calicut  (1498,)  on  the  Ma- 
labar coast,  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Emmanuel.  Several 
other  celebrated  Portuguese  navigators,  such  as  Almeida,  Albu* 
querque,  Acunga,  Silveira,  and  de  Castro,  following  the  tract  of 
Vasco  di  Gama,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  power  of  the  Portu- 
guese in  India.  Francis  Almeida  defeated  the  fleet  of  the 
Mameluke  Sultan  of  Egypt,  in  conjunction  with  that  of  the 
Kings  of  India  (1509.)  Alfonzo  Albuquerque  conquered  Goa 
(1511,)  and  made  it  the  capital  of  all  the  Portuguese  settlements 
in  that  part  of  the  world.  About  the  s«me  time,  the  Portuguese 
established  themselves  in  the  Molucca  Islands,  with  some  oppo- 
sition on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards.  Anthony  Silveira  signalized 
himself  by  his  able  defence  of  Din  (1535.)  He  repulsed  the 
Turks,  and  ruined  the  fleet  which  Soliman  the  Great  had  sent 
to  the  siege  of  that  place  (1547.)  The  King  of  Cambay  having 
resumed  the  siege,  he  experienced  likewise  a  total  defeat  from 
John  dc  Castro,  who  then  conquered  the  whole  kingdom  of  Diu. 

The  Portuguese  found  powerful  kingdoms  in  India,  and 
nations  rich  and  civilized.  Th^re,  nature  and  the  industry  of 
the  natives,  produced  or  fabricated  those  articles  of  commerce 
and  merchandise  which  have  since  become  an  object  of  luxury 
to  Europeans ;  at  least  until  the  activity  of  the  Venetians  had 
furnished  the  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  the  world  with  them  in 
such  abundance,  as  to  make  them  regarded  as  articles  of  abso- 


iBRinnvi.     A.  D.  1455—1648. 


»18 


tnblished  hit 

|<'rnity  of  Al« 

I  lit  hilt  own 

fiicn.  From 

|lio  Islands  of 

1431,)  and 

Is ;    and,  ud< 

Africa,  Ihcy 

inea  and  Ni- 

)vored,  were 

Popes.    The 

Spaniards,  a 

in  virtue  of 

1.) 

rlugut'se  ex» 
eriy  point  of 
he  first  who 
ipe  ;  a  name 
At  leng'ih, 
r  Portugtiese 
flajT  as  far  as 
)  on  the  Ma- 
luel.  Several 
Imeida,  Albu- 
ig  the  tract  of 
of  the  Porta- 
fleet  of  the 
I  that  of  the 
nquered  Goa 
e  settlements 
e  Portuguese 
h  somcoppo- 
ira  signalized 
repulsed  the 
real  had  sent 
mbay  having 
I  defeat  from 
jdom  of  Diu. 
India,   and 
3  industry  of 
)f  commerce 
ict  of  luxury 
inetians  had 
vith  them  in 
lies  of  abso- 


lute necessity.  This  circumstance  was  the  reason  why  the  Per- 
mgiiese  never  formed  any  other  than  mercantile  cstablishmentn 
w,  India,  which  they  erected  on  the  coasts,  without  extending 
th- rn  into  the  interior.  The  working  of  the  mines,  and  the  cares 
of  agriculture,  were  abandoned  entirely  to  the  natives. 

This  era  produced  a  total  change  in  the  commerce  of  the  East. 
Formerly  the  Venetians  were  the  people  that  carried  on  the 
principal  traffic  to  India.  The  Jewish  or  Mahometan  merchants 
purchased  at  Gon,  Calicut,  and  Cofhin,  those  spiceries  and  other 
productions  of  the  Ea.st,  which  they  imported  into  Syria  by  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  into  Egypt  by  the  Red  Sea.  They  were  then 
conveyed  by  a  laborious  and  expensive  land-carriage,  either  to 
the  port  of  Alexandria,  or  that  of  Bairout  in  Syria.  Thither 
the  Venetians  repaired  in  quest  of  the  luxuries  of  India;  they 
fixed  their  price,  and  distributed  them  over  all  Europe.  This 
commerce  proved  a  source  of  vast  wealth  to  these  republicans: 
it  furnished  them  with  the  means  of  maintaining  a  formida- 
ble marine,  iind  of  very  often  dictating  the  law  to  the  other 
European  powers  ;  hut  after  the  discovery  of  the  new  passage 
round  the  Cape,  and  the  conquests  of  the  Portuguese  in  India, 
the  Venetians  saw  themselves  compelled  to  abandon  a  traffic  in 
which  they  could  not  compete  with  the  Portuguese.  This  was 
a  terrible  blow  to  that  republic,  and  the  principal  cause  of  its 
downfall.  The  Portuguese,  however,  did  not  profit  by  this  ex- 
clusive commerce  as  they  might  have  done.  They  did  not,  like 
other  nations,  constitute  Companies,  with  exclusive  commercial 
privileges  ;  they  carried  it  on  by  means  of  fleets,  which  the  go- 
vernment regularly  despatched  at  fixed  periods.  In  this  manner, 
the  commodities  of  the  East  were  imported  to  Lisbon ;  but  the 
indolence  of  the  native  merchants  left  to  other  nations  the  care 
of  distributing  thefn  through  the  markets  of  Europe.  The  Dutch 
were  the  people  that  profited  most  by  this  branch  of  industry ; 
they  cultivated  it  with  so  much  success,  and  under  such  favour- 
able circumstances,  that  they  at  length  succeeded  in  excluding 
the  Portuguese  themselves  from  this  lucrative  traf&c,  by  dis- 
possessing them  of  their  colonies  in  the  East. 

If  the  events  which  we  have  now  briefly  detailed  proved  fatal 
to  the  Venetians,  and  afl!licting  to  humanity,  by  the  wars  and 
misfortunes  which  they  occasioned,  it  is  nevertheless  certain, 
that  commerce  and  navigation  gained  prodigiously  by  these  new 
discoveries.  The  Portuguese,  after  having  maintained  for  some 
time  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  navigation  and  trade  of  the 
East,  found  afterwards  powerful  competitors  in  the  Spaniards, 
the  butch,  English,  French,  and  Danes,  who  all  established 
mercantile  connexions  both  in  India  and  America.      Hence  in- 


'^:-)l 


H 


■i\ 


li, 


■;  i 


|.i:< 


15 

1*1. 


t 


s 


214 


CHAPTER  VII. 


numerable  sources  of  wealth  were  opened  to  the  industry  of  the 
Europeans ;  and  their  commerce,  formerly  limited  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  Baltic,  and  the  Northern  Seas,  and  confined  to  a 
few  cities  in  Italy,  Flanders,  and  Germany,  was  now,  by  means 
of  their  colonies  in  Africa,  and  the  East  and  West  Indies,  ex- 
tended  to  all  parts  of  the  globe.  *  The  intercourse  of  the  Por- 
tuguese with  China  was  as  early  as  the  year  1517,  and  with 
Japan  it  began  in  1542.  Ferdinand  Magellan  undertook  the 
first  voyage  round  the  world  (1519,)  and  his  example  found 
afterwards  a  number  of  imitators.  '  By  degrees  the  maritime 
power  of  Europe  assumed  a  formidable  aspect ;  arts  and  manu- 
factures were  multiplied  ;  and  states,  formerly  poor,  became  rich 
and  flourishing.  Kingdoms  at  length  found  in  their  commerce, 
resources  for  augmenting  their  strength  and  their  influence,  and 
carrying  into  execution  their  projects  of  aggrandizement  and 
conquest. 

[Among  the  causes  of  this  revolution  which  took  place  in 
commerce,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  a  discovery  ap- 
parently of  trivial  imDortance,  but  which  exercised  a  most  ex- 
traordinary influence  over  the  civilization  of  Europe,  viz.  that 
of  horse-posts  for  the  conveyance  of  letters.  Before  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  communications  between  distant  countries  were 
few  and  difBcult.  Messengers,  travelling  on  short  journeys,  on 
foot  or  on  horseback,  were  their  only  couriers.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Maximilian  I.,  an  Italian  gentleman  of  the  name  of  Francis  de 
la  Tour  et  Taxis,  established  the  first  posts  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. Their  object  at  first  was  merely  for  the  conveyance  of 
letters  by  posts  or  post,  for  which  he  provided  regular  relays. 
By  and  by,  for  the  sake  of  despatch,  the  use  of  horses  was  in- 
troduced, placed  at  certain  distances.  From  the  Low  Countries 
this  system  found  its  way  into  Germany,  where  its  profits 
were  secured  to  the  family  of  Taxis  by  imperial  grants ;  and 
from  thence  it  spread  over  every  civilized  country  in  the  world.] 

A  revolution  not  less  important,  is  that  which  took  place  in  re- 
ligion about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  abuses 
which  disgraced  the  court  of  Rome,  the  excess  of  the  power,  and 
the  depravity  of  the  morals  of  the  clergy,  had  excited  a  very  ge- 
neral discontent.  A  reformation  had  for  a  long  time  been  deemed 
necessary,  but  there  was  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  me- 
thod of  eflfecting  it.  The  common  notion  was,  that  this  task 
r,ould  be  legally  accomplished  only  by  General  Councils,  con- 
voked under  the  authority  of  the  ropes.  It  was  easy,  however, 
to  perceive  the  inefficacy  of  any  remedy  left  t\t  the  disposal  of 
those  very  persons  from  whom  the  evil  proceeded ;  and  the  un- 


^*VKt<mvtfaimitsgK>- 


dustiy  of  the 

to  the  Medi- 

confined  to  a 

|ow,  by  means 

t  Indies,  ex- 

e  of  the  Por- 

17,  and  with 

ndertook  the 

[ample  found 

the  maritime 

ts  and  manu- 

',  became  rich 

eir  commerce, 

influence,  and 

dizement  and 

took  place  in 
discovery  ap- 
ed a  most  ex- 
ope,  viz.  that 
;  the  sixteenth 
9untries  were 
t  journeys,  on 
^bout  the  be- 

the  reign  of 
of  Francis  de 
e  Low  Coun- 
onveyance  of 
?gular  relays, 
orses  was  m- 
*ow  Countries 
re  its  profits 
I  grants ;  and 
in  the  world.] 
sk  place  in  re- 

The  abuses 
le  power,  and 
ed  a  very  ge- 
been  deemed 
IS  to  the  me- 
hat  this  task 
'ouncils,  con- 
asy,  however, 
le  disposal  of 
;  and  the  un- 


PKRIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648. 


816 


successful  results  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  an'l  Basle,  hod 
taught  the  people,  that,  in  order  to  obtain  redress  for  the  abuses 
of  which  they  complained,  it  was  necessary  to  have  recours*?  to 
some  other  scheme  than  that  of  General  Councils.  This  scheme 
was  attempted  by  the  Reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who 
were  persuaded,  that,  in  order  to  restrain  the  exorbitant  power 
of  the  clerg:y,  they  ought  to  reject  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope, 
as  well  as  that  of  General  Councils ;  admitting  no  other  autho- 
rity in  ecclesiastical  matters,  than  that  of  the  sacred  scriptures, 
interpreted  by  the  lights  of  reason  and  sound  criticism. 

The  immediate  and  incidental  cause  of  this  change  in  reli- 
gion, was  tile  enormous  abuse  of  indulgences.  Pope  Leo  X., 
who  was  of  the  family  of  the  Medicis,  and  well  known  for  his 
extensive  patronage  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  having  ex- 
hausted the  treasury  of  the  church  by  his  luxury  and  bis  mu- 
nificence, had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of  indulgences,  which 
several  of  his  predecessors  had  already  adopted  as  a  means  of 
recruiting  their  finances.  The  ostensible  reason  was,  the  ba- 
silica of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  the  completion  of  which  wa.« 
equally  interesting  to  the  whole  of  Christendom.  Offices  for 
the  sale  of  indulgences  were  established  in  all  the  different 
states  of  Europe.  The  purchasers  of  these  indulgences  ob- 
tained absolution  of  their  sins,  and  exemption  from  the  pains  of 
purgatory  after  death.  The  excesses  committed  by  the  emis- 
saries who  had  the  charge  of  those  indulgences,  and  the  scan- 
dalous means  which  they  practised  to  extort  money,  brought  on 
the  schism  to  which  we  are  about  to  advert. 

Two  theologians,  Martin  Luther,  and  Ulric  Zuingle,  opposed 
these  indulgences,  and  inveighed  agtiinst  them  in  their  sermons 
and  their  writings  ;  the  former  at  Wittemberg  in  Saxony  ;  the 
other,  first  at  Einsiedeln,  and  afterwards  at  Zurich,  in  Switzer- 
land. Leo  X.  at  first  held  these  adversaries  in  contempt.  He 
did  not  attempt  to  allay  the  storm,  until  the  minds  of  men,  ex- 
asperated by  the  heat  of  dispute,  were  no  longer  disposed  to 
listen  to  the  voice  of  calmness  and  conciliation.  The  means 
which  he  subsequently  tried  to  induce  Luther  to  retract  having 
proved  abortive,  he  issued  a  thundering  Bull  against  him  (1520,) 
which,  so  far  from  abating  the  courage  of  the  Reformer,  tended, 
on  the  contrary,  to  embolden  him  still  more.  He  publicly  burnt 
the  Pope's  Bull,  together  with  tlie  Canon  Law,  at  Wittemberg 
(10th  December,)  in  presence  of  a  vast  concourse  of  doctors 
and  students  from  diflferent  nations  whom  he  had  assembled  for 
the  purpose.  From  that  moment  Luther  and  Zuingle  never 
ceased  to  preach  against  the  abuses  of  the  indulgences.  They 
completely  undermined  this  system  of  abomination,  and  even 


4\ 


ii^ 


I 
& 


i^ 


216 


CHAPTER   VII. 


attacked  various  other  dogmas  and  institutions  of  the  Romish 
church,  such  as  monastic  vows,  the  celibacy  of  the  priests,  the 
supremacy  of  the  Pope  and  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy.  These 
two  celebrated  men,  who  agreed  in  the  greater  part  of  their 
opinions,  soon  attracied  a  number  of  followers.  The  people, 
long  ago  prepared  to  shake  off  a  yoke  which  uad  been  so  op- 
pressive, applauded  the  zeal  of  the  Reformers ;  and  the  new 
opinions,  promptly  and  easily  diffused  by  means  of  the  press, 
were  received  with  enthusiasm  throughout  a  great  part  of 
Europe. 

John  Calvin,  another  Reformer,  trod  nearly  in  the  footsteps 
of  Zuingle.  He  was  a  native  of  Noyon  in  Picardy,  and  began  to 
distinguish  himself  at  Paris  in  1532.  Being  compelled  to  leave 
that  city  on  account  of  his  opinions,  he  withdrew  to  Switzerland 
(1538;)  thence  he  passed  to  Strasbourg,  where  he  was  nomi- 
nated to  the  office  of  French  preacher.  His  erudition  and  his 
pulpit  talents  gained  him  disciples,  and  gave  the  name  of  Cal- 
vinists  to  those  who  had  at  first  been  called  Zuinglians.  The 
Lutherans,  as  well  as  the  Zuinglians  or  Calvinists  in  Germany, 
were  comprehended  under  the  common  appellation  of  Protest- 
ants, on  account  of  the  Protest  which  they  took  against  the 
decrees  of  the  Diet  of  Spire  (1529,)  which  forbade  them  to 
make  any  innovations  in  religion,  or  to  abolish  the  mass,  until 
the  meeting  of  a  General  Council.  The  name  of  Lutherans 
was  applied  more  particularly  to  those  who  adhered  to  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  that  is,  the  Confession  of  F-^ith  which 
they  presented  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  at  the  famous  Diet 
of  Augsburg,  held  in  1530. 

In  this  manner  a  great  part  of  Europe  revolted  from  the 
Pope  and  the  Romish  Church,  and  embraced  either  the  doc- 
trines of  Luther,  or  those  of  Zuingle  and  Calvin.  The  half  ol 
Germany,  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Prussia,  and  Livonia, 
adopted  the  Confession  of  Augsburg ;  while  England,  Scotland, 
the  United  Provinces,  and  the  principal  part  of  Switzerland, 
declared  themselves  in  favour  of  the  opinions  of  Zuingle  and 
Calvin.  The  new  doctrines  made  likewiso  great  progress  in 
France,  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Bohemia,  Silesia,  and  Poland. 

This  revolution  did  not  convulse  merely  the  Church ;  it  in- 
fluenced the  politics,  and  changed  the  form  of  government,  in 
many  of  the  States  of  Europe.  The  same  men  who  believed 
themselves  authorized  to  correct  abuses  and  imperfections  in  re- 
ligion, undertook  to  reform  political  abuses  with  the  same  free- 
dom. New  States  sprung  up ;  and  p.inces  took  advantage  of 
these  commotions  to  augment  their  own  power,  and  authority. 
Constituting  themselves  heads  of  the  Church  and  of  the  religion 


he  Romish 
priests,  thp 

y.  These 
art  of  their 

he  people, 
been  so  op- 
nd  the  new 
f  the  press, 
eat  part  of 

he  footsteps 

nd  began  to 

led  to  leave 

Switzerland 

B  was  nomi- 

ion  and  his 

ime  of  Cal- 

lians.     The 

n  Germany, 

of  Protest- 

against  the 

ide  them  to 

mass,  until 

f  Lutherans 

lered  to  the 

F^ith  which 

famous  Diet 

d  from  the 
lier  the  doc- 

Thehalfol 
nd  Livonia, 
d,  Scotland, 
Switzerland, 
^uingle  and 
proCTess  in 
ind  Poland, 
urch ;  it  in- 
ernment,  in 
ho  believed 
;tions  in  re- 

sarne  free- 
Ivan  lage  of 
!  authority, 
the  religion 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  n.  1453 — 1648. 


217 


of  their  country,  they  shook  oflTthe  fetters  of  priostly  influence: 
while  the  clergy  ceased  to  form  a  countnrncting  or  controllinjf 
power  in  the  State.  The  freedom  of  opinion  which  characterized 
the  Protestant  faith,  awoke  the  human  mind  from  its  intellectual 
lethargy,  infused  new  energy  into  it,  and  thus  contributed  to  the 
progress  of  civilization  and  science  in  Europe.  Even  the  systems 
of  public  instruction  underwent  a  considerable  change.  The 
schools  were  reformed,  and  rendered  more  perfect.  A  multitude 
of  new  seminaries  of  education,  academies,  and  universities 
were  founded  in  all  the  Protestant  States.  This  revolution, 
however,  was  not  accomplished  without  great  and  various  calami* 
ties.  A  hierarchy,  such  as  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  sup- 
ported by  all  that  was  dignified  and  venerable,  could  not  be 
attacked,  or  shaken  to  its  foundation,  without  involving  Europe 
in  the  convulsion.  Hence  we  find  that  wars  and  factions  arose 
in  Germany,  France,  the  Low  Countries,  Switzerland,  Hungary, 
and  Poland.  The  march  of  reformation  was  every  where  stain- 
ed with  blood. 

The  means  that  were  employed  to  bring  the  quarrels  of  the 
Church  to  an  amicable  conclusion,  tended  rather  to  exasperate 
than  allay  the  mischief;  and  if  the  conferences  among  the  clergy 
of  different  persuasions  failed,  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  a 
better  agreement,  or  a  union  of  parties,  could  Iw  founded  on  the 
basis  of  a  General  Council.  The  Protestants  demanded  an  un- 
controlled liberty  for  the  Council.  They  wi.shed  it  to  be  assem- 
bled by  order  of  the  Emperor,  in  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Empire ; 
and  that  their  divines  should  have  a  voice  and  a  seat  in  its  meet- 
ings. The  P  «  was  to  submit  to  its  authority,  and  all  matters 
should  there  be  decided  according  to  the  rule  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures. These  terms  were  by  no  means  agreeable  to  the  Catho- 
lics. Paul  III.  summoned  a  Council  at  Mantua  (1537,)  and 
another  at  Vicenza  (1538 ;)  but  both  of  these  convocations  were 
ineffectual,  as  was  also  the  proposed  reform  in  the  Court  of  Rome, 
made  by  the  same  Pontiff*.  It  was  resolved  at  last,  at  the  instance 
of  the  Catholic  princes  (1542,)  to  convoke  the  Council  of  Trent, 
though  the  opening  of  it  was  deferred  till  1545. 

This  famous  Council  met  with  two  interruptions;  the  first 
took  place  in  1547,  when  the  Pope,  who  had  become  alarmed  at 
the  success  of  the  Imperial  arms,  transferred  the  Council  to  Bo- 
logna, on  pretence  that  an  epidemic  distemper  had  broken  out  at 
Trent.  All  the  prelates  of  the  Emperor's  party  remained  at 
Trent,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  their  master,  who  pro- 
tested loudly  against  the  assembly  at  Bologna,  which  neverthe- 
less held  its  ninth  and  tenth  Sessions  at  that  city.  This  latter 
Council  having  been  dissolved  by  Paul  III.  f  1^48,)  its  aflkin 


f:.i 


Wl* 


If 


CHAPTER  VII. 


318 

continued  in  a  languid  state  for  the  next  two  years,  wnen  Vope     , 
Julius  III.,  the  successor  of  Paul,  revived  it,  and  transferred  it    . 
once  more  to  Trent  (1551.)     Another  interruption  took  place  at    ■ 
the  time  when  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony,  had  made  hiniselt 
master  of  Augsburg,  and  was  marching  against  the  Emperor    j 
towards  Inspruck.     It  was  then  agreed  to  prorogue  the  Council, 
now  in  its  sixteenth  Session,  for  two  years ;  and  to  assemble 
again  at  the  end  of  that  period,  if  peace  should  happen  in  the 
mean  time  to  be  established.     At  length,  in  1560,  Pius  IV., 
summoned  the  Council,  for  the  third  and  last  time,  to  meet  at 
Trent.     The  session,  however,  did  not  commence  till  1662 ;  and 
next  year  its  sittings  were  finally  terminated. 

In  this  Council,  matters  were  not  treated  in  the  same  way  as 
they  had  been  at  Constance  and  Basle,  where  each  nation  delibe- 
rated separately,  and  then  gave  their  suffrage  in  common,  so  that 
the  general  decision  was  taken  according  to  the  votes  of  the  dif- 
ferent nations.  This  form  of  deliberation  was  not  at  all  palatable 
to  the  Court  of  Rome,  who,  in  order  to  gain  a  preponderance  in 
the  assembly,  thought  proper  to  decide,  by  a  majority  of  the  votes 
of  every  individual  member  of  the  Council.  The  Protestam 
princes  rejected  entirely  the  authority  of  this  Council ;  which, 
far  from  terminating  the  dispute,  made  the  schism  wider  than 
ever.  Its  decisions  were  even  condemned  by  several  of  the  Ca- 
tholic sovereigns.  In  France,  more  especially,  it  was  never 
formally  published,  and  they  expressly  excluded  such  of  its  acts 
of  discipline  as  they  considered  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  king- 
dom, to  the  authority  of  the  sovereign,  and  the  maxims  of  the 
Galilean  Church.  . 

It  is  nevertheless  certain  that  this  Council  was  instrumental  in 
restoring  the  tottering  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs ;  v/hich  receiv- 
ed at  the  same  time  a  new  support  by  the  institution  of  the  Order 
of  the  Jesuits.  The  founder  of  this  order  was  Ignatius  Loyola, 
who  was  bom  at  the  Castle  of  Loyola  in  Guipuscoa.  He  made 
the  declaration  of  his  vows  in  the  church  of  Montmartre  at  Pans 
(1534,)  and  obtained  from  Paul  III.  the  confirmation  of  his  new 
Society.  This  order  was  bound,  by  a  particular  vow  of  obedi- 
ence, more  intimately  to  the  Court  of  Rome ;  and  became  one  of 
the  main  instruments  of  its  enormous  power.  From  Spain  the 
Society  was  speedily  propagated  in  all  the  other  Catholic  States ; 
they  filled  cities  and  courts  with  their  emissaries;  undertook 
i  mission^  to  China,  Japan,  and  the  Indies ;  and  under  the  special 
'  protection  of  the  See  of  Rome,  they  soon  surpassed  m  credit 
and  wealth  every  other  religious  order.  _ 

In  the  midst  of  these  changes  which  took. place  in  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  matters,  we  find  a  new  system  arising  in  the  poll- 


wnen  Pope 
transferred  it 
took  place  at 
made  himself 
le  Emperor 
the  Council, 
to  assemble 
lappen  in  the 
60,  Pius  IV., 
le,  to  meet  at 
illl562;  and 

same  way  as 
nation  delibe- 
mmon,  so  that 
)tes  of  the  dif- 
It  all  palatable 
ponderance  in 
!ty  of  the  votes 
'he  Protestam 
uncil;  which, 
sm  wider  than 
sral  of  the  Ga- 
it was  never 
iuch  of  its  acts 
vs  of  the  king- 
maxims  of  the 

nstrumental  in 
;  v/hich  receiv- 
n  of  tlie  Order 
natius  Loyola, 
}a.  He  made 
nartre  at  Paris 
ion  of  his  new 
vow  of  obedi- 
became  one  of 
rom  Spain  the 
itholic  States ; 
;s;  undertook 
der  the  special 
ssed  in  credit 

:e  in  civil  and 
ig  in  the  poli- 


PESioD.  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648. 


219 


tical  government  of  Europe ;  the  conse({wence  of  those  new  ties 
and  relations  which  had  been  established  amongst  the  different 
powers  since  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Prior  to  this 
date,  most  of  the  Europpan  S»ntps  were  feeble,  because  insulated 
and  detached.  Occupied  with  their  own  particular  interests  and 
quarrels,  the  nations  were  little  acquainted  with  each  other,  and 
seldom  had  any  influence  on  their  mutual  destinies.  The  faults 
and  imperfections  inherent  in  the  feudal  system  hud  pervaded  all 
Europe,  and  crippled  the  power  and  the  energies  of  government. 
The  sovereigns,  continually  at  war  with  their  factious  and  power- 
ful vassals,  could  neither  form  plans  of  foreign  conquest,  nor  carry 
them  into  execution ;  and  their  military  operations  were  in  ge- 
neral without  unity  or  effect.  [Hence  it  happened,  that  in  the 
middle  ages,  changes  were  produced  in  the  different  States, 
which  so  little  alarmed  their  neighbours,  that  it  may  be  said 
they  were  scarcely  conscious  of  their  existence.  Such  were  the 
conquests  of  the  English  in  France,  which  might  certainly  have 
compromised  the  independence  of  Europe.] 

A  combination  of  causes  and  circumstances,  both  physical 
and  moral,  produced  a  revolution  in  the  manners  and  govern- 
ments of  most  of  the  Continental  States.  The  disorders  of 
feudal  anarchy  gradually  disappeared ;  constitutions  better  or- 
ganized were  mtroduced ;  the  temporary  levies  of  vassals  were 
succeeded  by  regular  and  permanent  armies ;  which  contributed 
to  humble  the  exorbitant  power  of  the  nobles  and  feudal  barons. 
The  consequence  was,  that  States  formerly  weak  and  exhausted, 
acquired  strength ;  while  their  sovereigns,  freed  from  the  tur- 
bulence and  intimidation  of  their  vassals,  began  to  extend  their 
political  views,  and  to  form  projects  of  aggrandizement  and 
conquest. 

From  this  period  the  reciprocal  influence  of  the  European 
States  on  each  other  began  to  be  manifest.  Those  who  were 
afraid  for  their  independence,  would  naturally  conceive  the  idea 
of  a  balance  of  power  capable  of  protecting  them  against  the  in 
roads  of  ambitious  and  warlike  princes.  Hence  those  frequent 
embassies  and  negotiations ;  those  treaties  of  alliance,  subsidies, 
and  guarantees ;  those  wars  carried  on  by  a  gene  °al  combina- 
tion of  powers,  who  deemed  themselves  obliged  to  bear  a  part 
in  the  common  cause ;  and  hence  too  those  projects  for  establish- 
ing checks  and  barriers  on  each  other,  which  occupied  the  dif- 
ferent courts  of  Europe. 

[The  system  of  equilibrium  or  the  balance  of  power,  originated 
in  Italy.  That  peninsula,  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  continent 
by  the  sea  and  the  Alps,  had  outstripped  the  other  countries  in 
the  career  of  civilization.     There  a  multitude  of  indepnndeut 


880 


CHAPTER  VII. 


States  had  been  formed,  unequal  in  point  of  power  and  extent ; 
but  none  of  them  had  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the  united 
power  of  the  rest,  or  usurp  dominion  over  them  ;  while  at  the  same 
time,  none  of  them  were  so  contemptible  in  point  of  weakness, 
as  not  to  be  of  some  weight  in  the  scale.  Hence  that  rivalry  and 
jealousy  among  them,  which  was  incessantly  watching  over  the 
progress  of  their  neighbours  ;  and  hence,  too,  a  series  of  wars 
and  confederacies,  whose  object  was  to  maintain  some  degree  ol 
equality  among  them ;  or  at  least  a  relative  proportion,  which 
might  inspire  the  weaker  with  courage  and  confidence.  Ihe 
Popes  who  were  exceedingly  active  in  these  transactions,  em- 
ployed  all  their  policy  to  prevent  any  foreign  po\yer  from  inter- 
fering, or  establishing  itself  in  Italy.  The  doctrine  of  political 
equilibrium  passed  the  Alps  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury The  House  of  Austria,  which  had  suddenly  risen  to  a 
high  pitch  of  grandeur,  was  the  first  against  which  its  efforts 

were  directed.]  .  .     ,        n  j  i  l    r  u 

This  House,  which  derived  its  origin  from  Rodolph  of  Haps- 
burg,  who  was  elected  Emperor  of  Germany  towards  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  owed  its  greatness  and  elevation  chiefly 
to  the  Imperial  dignity,  and  the  different  family  alliances  which 
this  same  dignity  procured  it.  Maximilian  of  Austria,  son  of 
the  Emperor  Frederic  III.,  married  Mary  of  Burgiindy  (1477,) 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Rash,  last  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. This  alliance  secured  to  Austria  the  whole  of  the  Low 
Countries,  including  Franche-Comte,  Flanders,  and  Artois. 
Philip  the  Fair,  the  son  of  this  marriage,  espoused  the  Infanta 
of  Spain,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Castiile.  1  hey 
had  two  sons,  Charles  and  Ferdinand,  the  former  of  whom, 
known  in  history  by  the  name  of  Charles  V.,  inherited  the  Low 
Countries  in  right  of  his  father  Philip  (1506.)  On  the  death  of 
Ferdinand,  his  maternal  grandfather  (1616,)  he  became  heir  to 
the  whole  Spanish  succession,  which  comprehended  the  king- 
doms of  Spain,  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  together  with 
Spanish  America.  To  these  vast  possessions  were  added  his 
partimonial  dominions  in  Austria,  which  were  transmitted  to 
him  by  his  paternal  grandfather  the  Emperor  Maximilian  1. 
About  the  same  time  (1619,)  the  Imperial  dignity  was  conferred 
on  this  prince  by  the  electors ;  so  that  Europe  had  not  seen, 
since  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  a  monarchy  so  powerful  as  that 

**  This  Emperor  concluded  a  treaty  with  his  brother  Ferdinand, 
by  which  he  ceded  to  him  all  his  hereditary  possessions  inGer- 
many.  The  two  brothers  thus  became  the  ftiunders  of  the  two 
principal  branches  of  the  House  of  Austria,  viz.  that  of  Sjpain, 


^m 


r  and  extent ; 
St  the  united 
le  at  the  same 
of  weakness, 
at  rivalry  and 
hing  over  the 
eries  of  wars 
ome  degree  of 
•onion,  which 
fidence.     The 
isactions,  em- 
^er  from  inter- 
ne of  political 
fifteenth  cen- 
nly  risen  to  a 
licli  its  efforts 

lolph  of  Haps- 
irds  the  end  of 
evation  chiefly 
illiances  which 
Vustria,  son  of 
'piindy  (1477,) 
Duke  of  Bur- 
lole  of  the  Low 
i,  and    Artois. 
;ed  the  Infanta 
Castille.  They 
mcr  of  whom, 
erited  the  Low 
)n  the  death  of 
lecame  heir  to 
ided  the  king- 
together  with 
ere  added  his 
transmitted  to 
Maximilian  I. 
was  conferred 
had  not  seen, 
iwerful  as  that 

ler  Ferdinand, 
!ssions  in  Ger* 
ers  of  the  two 
that  of  Spain, 


PERIOD  VI.    A.  D.  1453 — IB48. 


221 


(vhieh  began  with  Charles  V.,  (called  Charles  I.  of  Spain,)  and 
ended  with  Charles  II.  ( 1700 ;)  and  that  of  Germany,  of  which 
Ferdinand  I.  was  the  ancestor,  and  which  became  extinct  in  the 
'nnle  line  in  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  (1740.)  These  two 
brunches,  closely  allied  to  each  other,  acted  in  concert  for  the 
advancement  of  their  reciprocal  interests  ;  moreover  ihey  gained 
each  their  own  separate  advantages  by  the  marriage  connexions 
which  they  formed.  Ferdinand  I.  of  the  German  line,  married 
Anne  (1521,)  sister  of  Louis  Kin";  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
who  having  been  .slain  by  the  1  urks  at  the  battle  of  Mohacs 
(1526,)  these  two  kingdoms  devolved  to  Ferdinand  of  the  House 
of  Austria.  Finally,  the  marriage  which  Charles  V.  contracted 
with  the  Infant  Isabella,  daughter  of  Emmanuel,  King  of  Por- 
tugal, procured  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  son  of  that  marriage, 
the  whole  Portuguese  monarchy,  to  which  he  succeeded  on  the 
death  of  Henry,  called  the  Cardinal  (1580.)  So  vast  an  ag 
grandi/ement  of  power  alarmed  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  who 
began  to  suspect  that  the  Austrian  Princes,  of  the  Spanish  and 
(xerman  line,  aimed  at  universal  monarchy.  The  unbounded 
ambition  of  Charles  V.,  and  his  son  Philip  II.,  as  well  as  that 
of  Ferdinand  II.,  grandson  of  Ferdinand  I.,  tended  to  confirm 
these  suspicions  ;  and  all  felt  the  necessity  of  uniting  to  oppose 
a  barrier  to  this  overwhelming  power.  For  a  long  time  the 
whole  policy  of  Europe,  its  wars  and  alliances,  had  no  other 
object  than  to  humble  the  ambition  of  one  nation,  whose  pre- 
ponderance seemed  to  threaten  the  liberty  and  independence  of 
the  rest. 

[The  system  of  political  equilibrium,  which  from  this  period 
became  the  leading  object  of  every  European  cabinet,  until  it 
was  undermined  by  unjust  and  arbitrary  interferences,  and 
threatened  to  bury  the  independence  of  Europe  in  its  ruins,  did 
not  aim  at  maintaining  among  the  different  states  an  equality 
of  power  or  territorial  possession.  This  would  have  been  chi- 
merical. The  object  of  this  system  was  to  maintain  a  perfect 
equality  of  rights,  in  virtue  of  which  the  weakei  might  enjoy 
in  security  all  that  they  held  by  a  just  claim.  It  was  purely  a 
defensive  and  preservative  system ;  nor  did  it  affect  to  put  an 
end  to  all  wars  ;  it  was  directed  solely  against  the  ambition  and 
usurpation  of  conquerors.  Its  fundamental  principle  was  to 
prevent  any  one  slate  from  acquiring  sufHcient  power  to  resist 
the  united  efforts  of  the  others.] 

France  was  the  leading  power  that  undertook  the  task  of  re- 
gulating the  balance  against  the  House  of  Austria.  Francis  I. 
and  Henry  II.  used  every  effort  to  excite  combinations  against 
Charleo  V.     Francis  was  the  first  sovereign  in  Eiiroiw  that 


•  ♦u 


-dJ 


It 


I  < 


H^ 


S2S2 


ClIAFfER   Vll. 


entered  into  treaties  of  nllinnce  with  the  Turks  against  Austria ; 
and  in  this  way  the  Porte  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  amalgamateil 
with  the  political  system  of  Europe.  So  long  as  their  object 
was  to  subvert  the  feudal  aristocracy,  and  the  Protestant  reli- 
gion in  France,  Francis  and  Henry  were  strenuous  defenders 
of  the  Germanic  system,  and  extended  their  protection  to  Uw 
sovereigns  of  the  Protestant  States  of  the  Empire,  under  the 
persuasion  that  all  Europe  would  bend  to  the  Austriari  yoke,  if 
the  Emperors  of  that  House  should  succeed  in  rendering  theii 

Eower  absolute  and  hereditary  in  the  Empire.  Henry  IV. 
,ouis  XIII.,  and  the  Cardinals  Richelieu  and  Mazarin, adopted 
the  same  line  of  lolicy."  They  joined  in  league  with  the 
Protestant  Princes,  antl  armed  W  turns  the  greater  part  of  Eu- 
rope against  Austria,  and  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  whose 
ambitious  designs  threatened  to  subvert  the  constitution  of  the 
Empire.  This  was  the  grand  motive  for  the  famous  Thirty 
Years'  War.  which  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  treaties  of  West- 
phalia (1648,)  and  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659.)  France  succeeded, 
not  however  without  prodigious  eflbrts,  in  supporting  the  ba- 
lance against  Austria;  while  the  federative  system  of  the 
Empire,  consolidated  by  the  former  of  these  treaties,  and  gua- 
ranteed by  France  and  Sweden,  became  a  sort  of  artificial  bar- 
rier, ior  preserving  the  equilibrium  and  the  general  tranquillity 

of  Europe.  ,  .      ,        •     r- 

It  was  during  this  period  that  almost  every  kingdom  in  Eu- 
rope changed  their  condition,  and  assumed,  by  degrees,  the  form 
which  they  have  still  retained.    The  German  Empire  continued 
to  experience  those  calamities  to  which  every  government  is 
exposed,  when  its  internal  springs  have  lost  their  vigour  and 
activity.     Private  wars  and  feuds,  which  the  laws  authorized, 
were  then  regarded  as  the  chief  bulwark  of  the  national  liberty ; 
the  noblesse  and  the  petty  states  in  general,  knew  no  other  jus- 
tice than  what  the  sword  dispensed.     Oppression,  rapine  and 
violence,  were  become  universal ;  commerce  languished ;  and 
the  different  provinces  of  the  Empire  presented   one  melan- 
choly scene  of  ruin  and  desolation.     The  expedients  that  were 
tried  to  remedy  these  disorders,  the  tmces,  the  treaties  (called 
the  Peace  of  God,)  and  the  different  confederacies  of  the  Im- 
perial states,  served  only  to  palliate,  but  not  to  cure  the  evil. 
The  efforts  which  some  of  the  Emperors  made  to  establish  the 
public  tranquillitv  on  some  solid  basis,  proved  equally  abortive. 
It  was  not  until  near  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  the 
states  of  the  Empire,  impressed  with  juster  notions  of  govern- 
•nent  and  civil  subordination,  consented  to  thp  total  and  enUn 
iiboliDon  o>'  feuds  and  intestine  wars      Thi',  was  accomplished 


inst  Austria; 

amalgamated 
Is  their  object 
[rotestant  reli* 

lus  defenden 

itection  to  tlin 

re,  under  the 

strian  yoke,  if 

mdering  theii 

Henry  IV. 

tzarin,  adopted 

gue  witii    the 

er  part  of  Eu- 

nd  II.,  whose 

litution  of  the 

(imous  Thirty 

ities  of  West- 

nee  succeeded, 

rarting  the  ba- 

lysteni   of  the 

itics,  and  gua* 

'  artificial  bar- 

ral  tranquillity 

igdom  in  Eu« 
gtees,  the  form 
pirc  continued 
government  is 
!ir  vigour  and 
vs  authorized, 
itional  liberty ; 
V  no  other  jus* 
n,  rapine  and 
iguished ;  and 
d  one  mclan* 
jnts  that  were 
reaties  (called 
ies  of  the  Im» 
cure  the  evil. 
)  establish  the 
iially  abortive, 
ntury  that  the 
)ns  of  govern* 
tai  and  entire 
accomplishud 


PLRioD  VI     A.  t .  1443 — 1648L 


S2» 


under  the  reign  of  Mnxiniilian  I.,  by  the  Perpetual  PiMir. 
Prece,  drawn  up  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  in  1495.  All  violent 
means  of  redress  among  the  members  of  the  Germanic  Body 
were  rigorously  interdicted  ;  and  all  who  had  any  ^omplai^l^  to 
malce  against  each  other,  were  enjoined  to  apply  to  the  reguln- 
courts  of  justice.  This  ordinance  of  the  Public  Peace,  which 
wos  afterwards  renewed  and  enlarged  in  several  diets,  has  l>pen 
regarded,  smce  that  time,  as  one  of  the  principal  and  funda- 
mental laws  of  the  Empire. 

The  establishment  of  the  Public  Peace  rendered  a  reforma- 
tion necessary  in  the  administration  of  justice,  which  had  long 
been  in  a  languid  and  di.sordercd  state.  For  this  purpose,  the 
Imperial  Chamber,  which  sat  at  first  at  Spire,  and  was  after- 
wards transferred  to  Wetzlar,  was  instituted  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms  (1495.)  Its  object  was  to  judge  of  auy  diflerences  that 
might  arise  among  the  immediate  members  of  the  Germanic 
body ;  as  also  to  receive  any  appeals  that  might  be  referred  to 
them  from  the  subordinate  trimmals.  It  was  composed  of  a 
chief  or  head,  called  the  Judge  of  the  Chamber,  and  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  assessors  chosen  from  among  the  jurists  and 
independent  nobility.  The  institution  of  the  Aulic  Council, 
anotner  sovereign  court  of  the  Empire,  followed  soon  after  that 
of  the  Imperial  Chamber.  Its  origin  is  generally  referred  to 
the  Diet  of  Cologne  (1512.)  Of  the  same  date  also  is  the  plan 
which  they  adopted  of  dividing  the  Empire  into  ten  Circles,  as 
a  proper  expedient  for  maintaining  the  public  peace,  and  faci- 
litating the  execution  of  the  sentences  of  the  two  Imperial 
Courts.  Over  each  of  these  circles  were  placed  princes,  direc- 
tors, and  colonels,  whose  duty  it  was  to  superintend  and  com- 
mand the  troops  of  their  respective  districts. 

The  custom  of  Imperial  Capitulations  was  introduced  at  the 
time  of  the  accession  of  Charles  V.  to  the  Imperial  throne  (1519.^ 
The  Electors,  apprehensive  of  the  formidable  power  of  that 
prince,  thought  proper  to  limit  it  by  a  capitulation,  which  they 
made  him  sign  and  solemnly  swear  to  observe.  This  compact 
between  the  new  Emperor  and  the  Electors,  renewed  under  every 
subsequent  reign,  has  been  always  considered  as  the  grand  char- 
ter of  the  liberties  of  the  Germanic  body. 

The  dissensions  on  the  score  of  religion  that  happened  about 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  gave  rise  to  a  long  series 
of  troubles  and  civil  wars,  which  proved  of  advantage  to  the 
House  of  Austria,  by  the  confirmaiiou  of  their  power  in  the  Em- 
pire. The  first  of  these  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  war  of 
Smalcalden,  of  which  the  following  is  a  brief  sketch.  The  Ep- 
peror  Charles  V..  in  the  first  diet  which  he  held  at  Worms  (527,) 


•li 


1]^ 


834 


CHAPTER  VII. 


had  issued  an  edict  of  nioscription  ngain!<*  Luther  and  his  adhr* 
rents,  ordaining  that  tliey  sliould  be  treated  as  enemies  of  thi* 
Empire,  and  prosecuted  to  the  utmost  rigour  of  the  law.  The 
execution  of  this  edict  was  incessantly  urged  by  the  Emperor 
nnd  the  Pope's  legates,  until  the  whole  Empire  was  in  a  stale  nf 
combustion.  The  Catholic  princes,  at  the  mitigation  of  Cardi- 
nal Campeggio,  as^<embled  at  Katisbonne  (1624,)  and  there 
•tdopte<i  measures  of  extreme  rigour,  for  putting  the  edict  in'y 
execution  within  their  respective  states.  The  case  was  by  no 
means  the  same  with  the  princes  and  states  who  adhered  to  the 
Reformation,  or  who  gave  it  their  protection.  To  apply  the  con- 
ditions of  the  edii.t  to  them,  it  would  have  been  necessary  to 
come  to  a  civil  war,  which  the  more  pnident  members  of  the 
Germanic  body  sought  to  avoid.  This  religious  schism  was  still 
more  aggravated  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  where  the  Emperoi 
issued  a  decree,  condemning  the  Confession  of  Faith  which  the 
Protestant  princes  had  presented  to  him.  This  decree  limited  a 
time  within  which  they  were  commanded,  in  so  far  as  regarded 
the  articles  in  dispute,  to  conform  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  Thus  urged  to  extremities,  the  Protestant  leaders  de- 
termined to  assemble  at  Smalcaldcii  before  the  end  of  this  very 
year  ( 1530,)  where  they  laid  the  foundation  of  a  Union,  or  de- 
fensive alliance,  which  was  afterwards  renewed  at  different  times. 
.John  Frederic,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  Philip,  Landgrave  of 
Hesse,  declared  themselves  chiefs  of  this  Union,  In  opposition 
to  this  confederacy,  the  Catholic  princes  instituted  the  Holy 
League;  so  called  because  its  object  was  the  defence  of  the 
Catholic  religion. 

Every  thing  seemed  to  announce  a  civil  war,  when  a  new 
irruption  of  the  Turks  into  Hungary  and  Austria,  induced  the 
Catholics  to  sign,  at  Nuremberg  (1530,)  a  truce,  or  accommoda- 
tion, with  the  princes  of  the  Union ;  in  virtue  of  which,  a  peace 
between  the  states  of  the  two  religions  was  concluded,  and  ap- 
proved by  the  Emperor;  to  continue  till  a  General  Council,  or 
some  new  assembly  should  decide  otherwise.  This  peace  was 
renewed  in  various  subequent  assemblies.  The  Protestant 
princes,  however,  still  persisted  in  their  refusal  to  acknowledge 
the  authority  of  Councils  convoked  by  the  Popes ;  and  their 
confederacy  daily  receiving  new  accessions,  the  Emperor,  after 
having  made  peace  with  France,  at  Crepy  (1544,)  anrl  concluded 
an  armistice  of  five  years  with  the  Turks,  resolved  to  declare 
war  against  these  schismatics,  who,  presuming  on  their  union 
and  their  amicable  relations  with  foreign  powers,  thoiight  them- 
selves capable  of  dictating  laws  to  the  Empire.  He  issued  an 
edict  of  proscription  (1546)  against  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and 


IJL 


■m- 


ind  his  adhc- 
leinics  of  thf 
f  law.     The 
the  Emperor 
s  in  a  stale  nf 
ion  of  Cordi- 
,)  and   there 
the  edict  in'o 
so  was  by  no 
dhercd  to  the 
ipply  the  con- 
necessary  to 
embers  of  the 
hism  was  still 
the  Emperoi 
lith  which  tho 
scree  limited  a 
ir  as  regarded 
)f  the  Catholic 
int  leaders  de- 
d  of  this  very 
Union,  or  de» 
Jiflerent  times. 
Lnndjjrave  of 
In  opposition 
iited  the  Holy 
defence  of  the 

■,  when  a  new 
a,  induced  the 
or  accommoda- 
which,  a  peace 
:luded,  and  ap- 
ral  Council,  or 
This  peace  was 
rhe  Protestant 
to  acknowledge 
pes ;  and  their 

Emperor,  after 
)  and  concluded 
lived  to  declare 

on  their  union 

I,  thought  them- 

He  issued  an 

of  Saxonv  and 


Lunaiiitf  of  c'uiuuibui*.   r.  auu. 


Luther  burning  the  Pope's  Bull.     P.  21.'). 


I. 


iM 


4 
III 


PRKioD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648. 

the  Landjrrave  of  Hesse,  the  Iwo  chiefs  of  ihn  Union;   and 
hanna  entered  into  a  secret  alliance  with   Duke  Maurice,  a 
vounper  branch  of  the  family  of  Saxony,  and  a  near  relation  of 
Ihe  Elector,  he  succeeded  in  transferring  the  theatre  of  war  from 
the  Danube  to  the  Elbe.     The  Elector  being  defeated  by  the 
Emperor,  in  an  action  which  took  place  at  Mecklenburg  (1647.) 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror ;  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse 
met  with  the  name  fate  two  months  after.     The  Union  of  fc»mal. 
ralden  was  then  dissolved,  and  the  Emperor,  who  now  saw  him- 
jelf  master  of  Germany,  assembled  a  Diet  at  Aug«burg,  in  whicli 
he  acted  the  mrl  of  a  dictator.    A  large  detachment  of  his  troops, 
billeted  on  the  city,  nerved  as  his  body  guard,  wh'le  the  rest  ol 
his  army  was  encamped  in  the  neighbourhood.     At  this  die^  he 
conferred  on  Duke  Maurice  the  Electorate  of  Saxony  of  which 
he  had  deprived  his  F\«oner,  John  Frederick      The  investuure 
of  the  new  Elector  took  place  at  Augsburg  (1648  ;)  and  what 
deserves  to  be  particularly  remarked  in  this  diet  is,  that  he  bm- 
peror  entered  into  a  scheme  for  the  entire  rum  and  extirpation 
of  Protestantism,  by  compelling  the  princes  and  states  oi  the 
Reformation  to  rejoin  the  Catholic  Church.by  means  of  a  formula 
which  he  made  them  adopt,  known  by  the  name  of  ihe  hitertm; 
and  which,  by  its  preliminary  arrangement,  allowed  them  only 
the  use  of  the  communion  in  both  kinds,  and  the  "".""l^f  " 
their  priests,  until  the  whole  matter  should  be  decided  by  a 

^*The  victories  of  Charies  V.,  which  seemed  to  have  made  him 
absolute  master  of  the  Empire,  were  soon  ^ll'^^'l  ftf ^"!f'; 
which  eclipsed  all  the  former  glory  of  his  reign.     The  E^ctor 
Maurice,  though  indebted  to  him  for  his  new  dignity,  thought 
he  murht  take  advantage  of  the  distressed  condition  to  which 
that  prince  was  reduced  by  the  low  state  of  his  finances,  to  make 
a  new  attempt  to  limit  his  authority,  and  restore  the  Protestant 
relitrion.     With  this  view,  having  inlisted  some  of  the  pnnce» 
of  the  Empire  in  his  cause,  and  concluded  a  secret  treaty  with 
Henry  II.  of  France,  at  Chambord,he  marched  with  such  rapi- 
dity  against  the  Emperor,  that  he  nearly  srnrpnsed  him  at  Ins- 
nruck,  and  obliged  him  to  hare  recourse  to  the  mediation  of  his 
Cher  Ferdinand,  when  a  treaty  was  concluded  wiU.  Maurice^ 
which  was  signed  at  Passau  (lS62.)     There  the  liberty  of  h* 
Protestant  worship  was  sanctioned;  and  rt  was  agreed  that  a 
Geneml  Council  should  be  summoned  to  draw  up  the  artioles  of 
n  solid  and  permanent  peace  between  the  state,  of  both  religions. 
This  dietrwhich  was  long  retarded  by  political  events,  did  not 
Jemble  at  Augsburg  till  the  year  1^..  .There  a  definmre 
peace  was  concTuded  on  the  subject  o(  religion,  and  it  was  or- 

15 


1^.; 


il 


I 


* 

!!•• 


226 


CHAPTER  VII. 


dained  thai  both  Protestant  and  Catholic  states  should  enjoy  a 
perfect  liberty  of  worship ;  and  that  no  reunion  should  ever  be  . 
attempted  by  any  other  than  amicable  means.  The  seculari- 
zing of  the  ecclesiastical  revenues,  which  the  Protestant  princes 
had  introduced  into  their  states,  was  ratified;  but  there  was 
one  of  the  articles  of  the  treaty  which  expressly  provided,  that 
every  prelate  or  churchman,  who  renounced  his  ancient  faith  to 
embrace  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  should  lose  his  l^nefice. 
This  latter  clause,  known  by  the  name  of  Ecclesiastical  Reserve, 
did  not  pass  but  with  the  most  determined  oppositirn. 

Differences  of  more  kinds  than  one  sprung  from  this  treaty  of 
peace,— the  articles  of  which  each  party  interpreted  to  their  own 
advantage.     Hence  those  stratagems  which  at  length  occasioned 
a  new  war— that  of  the  Thirty  Years.     The  Protestant  Prmces 
and  States,  wishing  to  provide  for  their  own  security,  and  to  put 
an  end  to  those  arbitrary  measures,  of  which  they  thought  they 
had  reason  to  complain,  assembled  at  Heilbrunn  (1594,)  and 
there  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  union,  which  was  conhrmed 
in  the  assemblies  held  at  Halle,  in  Suabia,  in  the  years  1608 
and  1610.     The  chief  promoter  of  this  union  was  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  who  designed  to  use  it  as  a  check  on  the  ambition  of  the 
House  of  Austria ;  and  as  a  means  for  carrying  into  execution 
the  grand  project  which  he  meditated  with  regard  to  the  pacifi- 
cation of  Europe.     He  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Prmces 
of  the  Union,  and  determined  the  number  of  troops  to  be  furnish- 
<=(d  by  each  of  the  contracting  parties.     The  Catholic  princes  and 
States,  afraid  of  being  taken  unawares,  renewed  their  League, 
which  they  signed  at  Wurtzburg  (1609.)     The  rich  dutchy  of 
Juliers,  which  had  become  vacant  this  same  year,  was  contested 
by  several  claimants ;  and  as  Austria  was  equally  desirous  of 
possessing  it,  this  vras  made  the  occasion  of  raising  powerful 
armies  in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  Low  Countries.     A 
considerable  number  of  troops  had  already  taken  the  field,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1610,  when  the  unexpected  death  of 
Henry  IV.  disconcerted  all  their  measures.     This  changed  the 

Politics  of  the  French  court,  and  also  induced  the  Princes  of  the 
Inion  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  League,— the  articles  of 
which  were  signed  at  Munich  and  Wildstctt  (1610.) 

In  this  manner  the  resentment  of  both  parties  was  suspended 
for  the  moment ;  but  the  cause  of  their  disunion  still  remained, 
which  at  length  (1618)  kindled  a  war  that  extended  from  Bohe- 
mia over  all  Germany,  and  involved,  in  course  of  time,  a  great 
part  of  Europe.  The  history  of  this  tedious  war,  in  which  poli- 
tics had  as  great  a  share  as  zeal  for  religion,  may  k-  divided  into 
four  principal  periods,  namely,  the  Palatini,  the  Danish,  the 


'•i^mm:- 


Iiould  enjoy  a 
hould  ever  be 
The  seculari- 
estant  princes 
lut  there  was 
provided,  that 
ncient  faith  to 
3  his  benefice. 
itical  Reserve, 
lir-n. 

\  this  treaty  of 
(d  to  their  own 
gth  occasioned 
;estant  Princes 
ity,  and  to  put 
J  thought  they 
n  (1594,)  and 
was  confirmed 
le  years  1608 

Henry  IV.  of 
imbition  of  the 

into  execution 
d  to  the  pacifi- 
ith  the  Princes 
s  to  be  furnish- 
)lic  princes  and 
[  their  League, 
rich  dutchy  of 
,  was  contested 
ily  desirous  of 
ising  powerful 
Countries.  A 
the  field,  about 
pected  death  of 
is  changed  the 
;  Princes  of  the 
-the  articles  of 
)10.) 
was  suspended 

still  remained, 
Jed  from  Bohe- 
of  time,  a  great 
•,  in  which  poli- 

W  divided  into 
ihe  Danish,  the 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648. 


227 


Swedish,  and  the  French  war.  Frederick  V.  Elector  Pa  atinP. 
anT  head  of  the  Protestant  Union,  having  been  raised  to  he 
throne  by  die  Bohemian  States  (1619,)  which  had  rebelled 
aiSnst  \L  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  engaged  ma  war  w  th  that 

fnVo  hut  beiL  deserted  by  his  allies,  and  defeated  at  the  bat- 
fie  of%agieri620The  was^driven  from  Bohemia,  and  stripped 

'  a  1  hSomLioni  The  victorious  --f  Austria  soon  ex- 
Ipnded  their  conquests  over  a  great  part  of  the  Empire. 

SSI  ^ss±f^s^X^ 

of  Friedlancl,  »"«  i^^?^  j^  ,  j;^  -^^  ^nd  even  threatening 
He  Sfd  m'«  o7ti:  No^th.  Nothing  could  be  more  splen^d 
tan  thf  campaigns  of  the  Swedish  hej3  in  Ge™;^^ -^3^^^ 
victories  which  he  obtained  at  Leipsic  (1631,)  and  l^"«envioo^ ,; 
bS  having  been  slain  in  the  latter  action,  the  affairs  of  ^e 
SwedS  Sfgan  to  decline ;  and  they  were  totally  '--d  ^y  Ae 
defeat  which  they  sustained  at  Nordlingen  (16J4.)  »^ '»'?'''" 
?me  ihrElector  of  Saxony,  John  George  I.,  renounced  the  al- 
•  „«•  Svvpden  and  in  yielding  up  Lusace  to  the  Emperor, 
lirrentr/^a'seTarat"  tUy  o'f  peU  which  was  signed  at 

^'Kailuhis  period  that  France,  which  till  then  had  but  fee- 
WvsunnoJtedthr  Swedes  and  the  Protestant  Princes,  though 

fSLh  GenSi  Gaebriant,  Turenne,  .nd  .he  Duke  d'Eng^", 

k!;s^fes!:^c;sSr:^chS^:5:,t; 

=    g'tiSimore  tedious  or  raore  ^  Pl^t^^^Je^ltSstm' 
preceded  the  treaty  of  Westphalia.     Tho  prchminanes  wen 


i  I 


CBAPTEB  VII. 

signed  at  Hamburgh  in  1641 ;  but  the  opening  of  the  Confess 
at  Munster  and  Osnaburg,  did  not  take  place  till  1644.  The 
Counts  D'Avaux  and  Servien,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  France, 
shared  with  Oxenstiern  and  Salvius,  the  Swedish  Envoys,  the 
principal  glory  of  this  negotiation,  which  was  protracted  on  pur- 
pose, as  the  belligerent  powers  were  daily  expecting  to  see  the 
e7ents  of  the  war  change  in  their  favour.  It  was  not  until  the 
24th  of  October  1648,  that  the  peace  was  finally  signed  at  Mun- 
ster  and  Osnaburg. 

This  peace,  which  was  renewed  in  every  subsequent  treaty, 
and  made  a  fundamental  law  of  the  Empire,  fixed  definitively 
the  constitution  of  the  Germanic  Body.  The  territorial  rights 
of  the  states,  known  by  the  name  of  superiority— -the  privilege 
of  making  alliances  with  each  other,  and  with  foreign  powers — 
and  advising  with  the  Emperor  at  the  Diets,  in  every  thing  that 
concerned  the  general  administration  of  the  Empire,  were  con- 
firmed to  them  in  the  most  authentic  manner,  and  guaranteed 
by  the  consent  of  foreign  powers.  As  to  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
the  Religious  Peace  of  1555  was  confirmed  anew,  and  extended 
to  those  who  were  known  by  the  nanie  of  the  Reformed,  or  Cal- 
vinists.  The  state  of  religion,  the  forms  of  public  worship,  and 
the  enjoyment  of  ecclesiastical  benefices,  throughout  the  whole 
Empire,  were  regulated  according  to  the  decree,  called  TJti 
possidetis  of  the  1st  of  January  1624,  which  was  termed  the 
normal,  or  decretory  year.  In  this  treaty,  France  obtained,  by 
way  of  indemnity,  the  sovereignty  of  the  three  bishoprics,  Metz, 
Toul,  and  Verdun,  as  well  as  that  of  Alsace.  The  compensa- 
tion of  the  other  parties  interested,  was  settled  in  a  great  mea- 
sure at  the  expense  of  the  Church,  and  by  means  of  secularizing 
several  bishoprics  and  ecclesisastical  benefices. 

Besides  Pomerania  and  the  city  of  Wismar,  Sweden  got  the 
archbishopric  of  Bremen,  and  the  bishopric  of  Verden.  To  the 
House  of  Brandeburg,  they  assigned  Upper  Pomerania,  the 
archbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  the  bishoprics  of  Halberstadt,  Min- 
den,  and  Camin.  The  House  of  Mecklenburg  received,  in  lieu 
of  the  city  of  Wismar,  the  bishoprics  of  Schwerin  and  Ratzeburg. 
The  princely  abbey  of  Hirschfeld  was  adjudged  to  the  Land- 
grave of  Hesse-Cas««el,  and  the  choice  of  the  bishopric  of  Osna- 
burg, to  the  House  of  Brunswick-Luneburg.  An  eighth  Elec- 
iorate  was  instituted  in  favour  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  whom 
the  Emperor,  during  the  war,  had  divested  of  his  dignity,  which, 
with  the  Upper  Palatinate,  he  had  conferred  on  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria.  , 

The  greater  part  of  the  provinces  known  by  the  name  of  the 
t     Low  Countries,  made  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Lorraine 


!;:. 


[the  Congress 
1644.  The 
?s  of  France, 
Envoys,  ihe 
rncted  on  pur- 
(ng  to  see  the 
not  until  the 
gned  at  Mun- 

muent  treaty, 
d  definiiively 
ritorial  rights 
-the  privilege 
ign  powers — 
ery  thing  that 
ire,  were  con- 
id  guaranteed 
istical  affairs, 
and  extended 
rrmed,  or  Cal- 
;  worship,  and 
out  the  whole 
se,  called    Uti 
as  termed  the 
e  obtained,  by 
hoprics,  Metz, 
^he  compensa* 
1  a  great  roea- 
)f  secularizing 

weden  got  the 
rden.  To  the 
imerania,  the 
berstadt,  Min- 
ceivcd,  in  lieu 
nd  Ratzeburg. 

to  the  Land* 
jpric  of  Osna- 

eighth  Elec- 
ilatine,  whom 
ignity,  which, 

the  Duke  of 

i  name  of  the 
n  of  Lorraine 


■4    J.     ' 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  0.  I4fi3— 1648. 


229 


which  had  I>ecn  united  to  the  German  Empire  smce  the  tenth 
century.  The  principal  of  these  had  been  acquired  by  the  Dukes 
of  Burgtmdy,  who  made  them  over,  with  other  estates,  to  the 
House  of  Austria  (1477.)  Charles  V.  added  the  provinces  of 
Friesland,  Groningen,  and  Gueldres,  to  the  states  to  which  he 
and  succeeded  in  Burgundy.  He  united  the  seventeen  pro- 
vinces of  the  Low  Countries  mto  one  and  the  same  government ; 
and  ordered,  by  the  Pragmatic  decree  which  he  published  ( 1549,) 
th  it  they  should  never  henceforth  be  disunited.  This  same 
prince,  at  th»  diet  of  Augsbarg  (1548,)  entered  into  a  negotia- 
tion with  the  Germanic  Body,  in  virtue  of  which  he  consented 
to  put  these  provinces  under  their  protection ;  under  condition 
of  their  observing  the  public  peace,  and  paying  into  the  exche- 
quer of  the  Empire  double  the  contribution  of  an  Electorate. 
He  guaranteed  to  the  princes  of  the  Low  Countries  a  vote  and 
a  seat  at  the  Diet,  as  chiefs  of  the  circle  of  Burgundy.  These 
provinces,  moreover,  were  to  be  considered  as  free  and  indepen- 
deth  sovereignties,  without  being  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  either 
of  the  Empire  or  of  the  Imperial  Chamber,  who  were  not  au- 
thorized to  proceed  against  them,  except  when  they  were  found 
in  nt  rears  with  the  payment  of  their  contingent,  or  when  they 
infringed  the  law  of  the  public  peace. 

Charles  V.  having  transferred  these  countries  to  his  son, 
Philip  IL  of  Spain,  they  were  then  incorporated  with  the  Span- 
ish monarchy  ;  and  it  was  under  the  reign  of  this  latter  prince 
that  those  troubles  began  which  gave  rise  to  the  Republic  of  the 
United  Provinces  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  true  origin  of 
these  troubles  is  to  be  found  in  the  despotism  of  Philip  IL,  and 
in  his  extravagant  and  fanatical  zeal  for  the  Catholic  religion. 
This  prince,  the  declared  enemy  of  the  rights  and  liberties  of 
the  Belgic  Provinces,  was  mortified  to  witness  the  religious  pri- 
vileges which  they  enjoyed  ;  under  favour  of  which  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Reformation  were  daily  making  new  progress. 
Being  resolved  to  extirpate  this  new  faith,  together  with  the 
political  liberties  which  served  to  protect  it,  he  introduced  the 
tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  ( 1559,)  as  the  most  sure  and  infalli- 
ble support  of  despotism.  With  the  consent  and  authority  of 
Pope  Paul  IV.,  he  suppressed,  for  this  purpose,  the  metropolitan 
and  diocesan  rights  which  the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the 
Empire  and  of  France  had  exercised  in  the  Low  Countries  ;  he 
instituted  three  new  bishoprics  at  Utrecht,  Cambray,  and  Mech- 
lin ;  and  under  their  jurisdiction  he  put  thirteen  new  bishoprics 
which  he  had  erected,  besides  those  of  Arras  and  Tournay. 
Having  in  this  way  augmented  the  number  of  his  satellites  m 
the  assembly  of  the  States-Genera),  he  suppressed  a  great  mul- 

voL.  I.  20 


1.1 


hi4dMl^J>^M*«MM«fak. 


m 


S30  CHAPTER  VU. 

litude  of  abbeys  and  monasteries,  the  revenues  of  which  ho  ap- 
plied  to  the  endowment  of  his  newly  made  bishoprics. 

These  innovations,  added  to  the  publication  of  the  decree?  oi 
the  Council  of  Trent,  according  to  his  orders,  excited  a  very 
general  discontent.  The  repeated  remonstrances  on  the  pan 
o<  the  States,  having  produced  no  effect  on  the  inflexible  mind 
of  Philip,  the  nobility  took  the  resolution  of  formmg  a  confe- 
deracy at  Breda,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Compromise.  The 
confederates  drew  up  a  request,  which  was  addressed  to  Mar- 
garet of  Austria,  the  natural  daughter  of  Charles  V.,  and  Re- 
gent of  the  Low  Countries,  under  the  King  of  Spain.  Four 
hundred  gentlemen,  headed  by  Henry  de  Brederode,  a  descen- 
dant of  the  ancient  Counts  olf  Holland,  and  Louis  of  Nassau, 
brother  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  repaired  to  Brussels  (1566,) 
and  th-?re  presented  this  request,  which  may  be  considered  as 
the  commencement  of  the  troubles  in  the  Low  Countries.  It 
was  on  this  account  that  the  name  of  Gueux  or  Beggars  was 
given  to  the  Confederates,  which  has  become  so  famous  in  the 
history  of  these  wars. 

About  this  same  time,  the  populace  collected  in  mobs  in  seve- 
ral towns  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  fell  upon  the  churches  and 
monasteries  ;  and  having  broken  down  their  altars  and  images, 
they  introduced  the  exercise  of  the  Protestant  religion  by  force. 
The  storm,  however,  was  calmed ;  the  Catholic  worship  was 
re-established  every  where  ;  and  the  confederacy  of  the  nobles 
dissolved,  several  of  whom,  distrustful  of  this  apparent  tran- 

Juillity,  retired  to  foreign  countries.  William  Prince  of  Orange, 
,ouis  of  Nassau,  the  Counts  de  Culemburg  and  Berg,  and  the 
Count  de  Brederode,  were  in  the  number  of  these  ernigrants. 
Philip  IL,  instead  of  adopting  measures  of  moderation  and 
clemency,  according  to  the  advice  of  the  Regent,  was  deter- 
mined to  avenge,  in  the  most  signal  manner,  this  outrage  against 
his  religion  and  the  majesty  of  his  throne.  He  sent  the  famous 
Duke  of  Alba  or  Alva  into  the  Low  Countries,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  20,000  men  (1567.)  The  Regent  then  gave  in  her  re- 
signation. A  general  terror  overspread  the  country.  Vast 
numbers  of  manufacturers  and  merchants  took  refuge  in  Eng- 
land, carrying  along  with  them  their  arts  and  thei?  industry. 
Hence  the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  the  Low  Countries, 
which  had  formerly  been  the  most  flourishing  in  Europe,  fell 
entirely  into  decay. 

The  Duke  of  Alva,  immediately  on  his  arrival,  established  a 
tribunal  or  court,  for  investigating  the  excesses  that  had  been 
committed  during  these  commotions.  This  council,  which  ihe 
Flemings  called  the  "  Council  of  Blood,"  informed  against  all 


rERioD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648. 


381 


[which  ho  ap. 
Vies, 
lie  decreep  oi 
xcited  a  verv 
on  the  pan 
[flexible  mind 
ling  a  confe- 
romise.    The 
ssed  to  Mar- 
V.,  and  Re- 
Spain.     Four 
[de,  a  descen- 
is  of  Nassau, 
ussels  (1566,) 
onsidered  as 
[Countries.     It 
Beggars  waa 
famous  in  the 

mobs  in  seve- 
churches  and 
s  and  images, 
gion  by  force. 
c  worship  was 
of  the  nobles 
ipparent  tran- 
ice  of  Orange, 
Berg,  and  the 
ise  emigrants. 
>deration  and 
nt,  was  deter* 
itrage  against 
!nt  the  famous 
he  head  of  an 
fave  in  her  re- 
Lintry.      Vast 
ffuge  in  Eng- 
leii  industry. 
)w  Countries, 
I  Europe,  fell 

established  s 
lat  had  been 
il,  which  ihe 
d  against  all 


those  who  had  been  in  any  way  concerned  with  the  Gueux  or 
Bfgf,ars,  who  had  frequented  their  preachings,  contributed  to 
the  support  of  their  ministers  or  the  building  of  their  churches  t 
or  harboured  and  protected  these  heretics,  either  directly,  or  in- 
directly. Before  this  council,  whose  only  judges  were  the 
Duke  of  Alva  and  his  confidant  John  de  Vargas,  were  cited 
high  and  low,  without  distinction  ;  and  all  those  whose  wealth 
excited  their  cupidity.  There  they  instituted  proceedings  against 
the  absent  and  the  present,  the  dead  and  the  living,  and  con- 
fiscated their  goods.  Eighteen  thousand  persons  perished  by 
the  hands  of  the  executioner,  and  more  than  30,000  others  were 
entirely  ruined.  Among  the  number  of  those  illustrious  vic- 
tims of  Alva's  cruelty,  were  the  Counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  who 
were  both  beheaded.  Their  e.xecution  excited  a  general  in- 
dignation, and  was  the  signal  of  revolt  and  civil  war  throughout 
the  Low  Countries. 

The  Beggars,  who  seem<>d  almost  forgotten,  began  to  revive ; 
and  were  afterwards  distinguished  into  three  kinds.  All  the 
malcontents,  as  well  as  the  adherents  of  Luther  and  Calvin, 
were  called  simply  by  this  name.  Those  were  called  Beggars 
of  the  Woods,  who  concealed  themselves  in  the  forests  and 
marshes ;  never  sallying  forth  but  in  the  night,  to  commit  all 
sorts  of  excesses.  Lastly,  the  Maritime  or  Marine  Beggars, 
were  those  who  employed  themselves  in  piracy ;  infesting  the 
coasts,  and  making  descenis  on  the  country. 

It  was  in  this  situation  of  affairs  that  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
one  of  the  richest  proprietors  in  the  Low  Countries,  assisted  by 
his  brother  the  Counts  of  Nassau,  assembled  different  bodies  of 
troops  in  the  Empire,  with  which  he  attacked  the  Low  Coun- 
tries in  several  places  at  once  (1668.)  Failing  in  these  first 
attempts,  he  soon  changed  his  plan ;  and  associating  the  Marine 
Beggars  in  tho  cause,  he  ventured  to  attack  the  Spaniards  by 
sea.  The  Beggars,  encouraged  by  that  Prince,  and  William 
Count  de  la  Mark,  surnamed  the  Boar  of  Ardennes,  took  the 
city  of  Brille  by  surprise  (1572,)  situated  in  the  Isle  of  Voom, 
and  regarded  as  the  stronghold  of  the  new  republic  of  the  Bel- 
gic  Provinces.  The  capture  of  the  port  of  Brille  caused  a  re- 
volution in  Zealand.  All  the  cities  of  that  province,  except 
Middleburg,  opened  their  gates  to  the  Beggars ;  and  their  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  most  of  the  towns  in  Holland.  An  as- 
sembly of  the  States  of  this  latter  province  met  this  same  year 
at  Dort,  where  they  laid  the  foundation  of  their  new  republic. 
The  Prince  of  Orange  was  there  declared  Stadtholder  or  Go- 
vernor of  the  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland,  and 
Utrecht ;  and  they  agreed  never  to  treat  with  the  Spaniards,  ex- 


il 


i\ 


^ 


T» 


i 


232 


CBAFTEB  Vll. 


cent  by  common  consent.     The  public  exercise  of  the  reformed 
rengion  was  introduced,  according  to  the  form  of  Geneva. 

This  rising  republic  became  more  firmly  established  in  con- 
sequence of  several  advantages  which  the  Confederates  had 
gamed  over  the  Spaniards,  whose  troops  being  badly  paid,  at 
length  mutinied ;  and  breaking  out  into  the  greatest  disorders, 
they  pillaged  several  cities,  among  others  Antwerp,  and  laid 
waste  the  whole  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  States-General, 
then  assembled  at  Brussels,  implored  the  assistance  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange  and  thitj  Confederates.  A  negotiation  was  then 
opened  at  Ghent  (1576,)  between  the  States  of  Brussels,  and 
those  of  Holland  and  Zealand  ;  where  a  general  union,  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Pacification  of  Ghent,  was  signed.  They 
engaged  mutually  to  assist  each  other,  with  the  view  of  expelling 
the  Spanish  troops,  and  never  more  permitting  them  to  enter  the 
Low  Countries.  The  Confederates,  who  were  in  alliance  with 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England,  pursued  the  Spaniards  every 
where,  who  soon  saw  themselves  reduced  to  the  single  provinces 
of  Luxemburg,  Limburg,  and  Namur. 

They  were  on  the  point  of  being  expelled  from  these  also, 
when  the  government  of  the  Low  Countries  was  intrusted  to 
Alexander  Farnes^,  Prince  of  Parma.  Equally  distinguished  as 
a  politician  and  a  warrior,  this  Prince  revived  the  Spanish  inte- 
rests. Taking  advantage  of  the  dissensions  which  had  arisen 
among  the  Confederates  from  the  diversity  of  their  religious 
opinions,  he  again  reduced  the  provinces  of  Flanders,  Artois, 
and  Hainault,  under  the  Spanish  dominion.  He  took  the  city 
of  Maestricht  by  assault,  and  entered  into  a  negotiation  with 
the  States-General  of  the  Low  Countries  at  Cologne,  under  the 
mediation  of  the  Emperor  Rodolph  U.,  the  Pope,  and  some  of 
the  princes  of  the  Empire.  This  negotiation  proved  unsuccess* 
ful ;  but  the  Prince  of  Orange,  foreseeing  that  Ihe  general  con- 
federacy could  not  last,  conceived  the  plan  of  a  more  intimate 
union  among  the  Provinces ;  which  he  regarded  as  the  most  fit 
to  make  head  against  the  Spaniards.  He  fixed  on  the  maritime 
provinces,  such  as  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Friesland ;  and  above 
all,  on  those  whom  the  same  religious  creed,  viz.  the  Calvinistic, 
had  attached  to  the  same  interests.  The  commerce  of  Hol- 
land, and  Zealand,  and  Friesland,  began  to  make  new  progress 
daily.  Amsterdam  was  rising  on  the  ruins  of  Antwerp.  The 
flourishing  state  of  their  marine  rendered  these  provinces  for- 
midable by  sea ;  and  gave  them  the  means  not  only  of  repelling 
the  eflTorts  of  the  Spaniards,  but  even  of  protecting  the  neigh- 
bouring provinces  which  might  join  this  Union.  ^  Such  were  the 
motives  which  induced  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  form  the  special 


n 


he  reformed 
"eneva. 
|hed  in  con- 
lerates  had 
Idly  paid,  at 
Bt  disorders, 
Jrp,  and  laid 
tes>6eneral, 
if  the  Prince 
was  then 
russels,  and 
lion,  known 
ned.     They 
of  expelling 
to  enter  the 
lltance  with 
liards  every 
Vie  provinces 

these  also, 
intrusted  to 
linguished  as 
Spanish  inte- 
t  had  arisen 
eir  religious 
ders,  Artois, 
ook  the  city 
tiation  with 
e,  under  the 
ind  some  of 
I  unsuccess- 
^eneral  con- 
9re  intimate 
the  most  fit 
le  maritime 
;  and  above 
Calvinistic, 
■ce  of  Hol- 
!w  progress 
i^erp.     The 
»vinces  for- 
af  repelling 
the  neigh- 
:h  were  the 
the  S])ecial 


J! 


PBBIOD.  Vi.      A.  D.  1453 — 1648. 


iiKl 


i!onfederacy  of  the  Seven  Provinces,  the  basis  of  which  he  laid 
i)y  the  famous  treaty  of  Union  concluded  at  Utrecht  (1579.) 
That  Union  was  there  declared  perpetual  and  indissoluble ;  and 
it  was  agreed  that  the  Seven  Provinces,  viz.  those  of  Gueldres. 
Holland,  Zealand.  Utrecht,  Ovoryssel,  Friesland,  and  Groningen, 
should  henceforth  be  considered  as  one  and  the  same  Province 
Each  of  these,  nevertheless,  was  guaranteed  in  the  possession  of 
their  rights  and  privileges — that  is,  their  absolute  superiority  m 
every  thing  regarding  their  own  internal  administration. 

[We  may  remark,  however,  that  these  insurrectionary  pro- 
vinces had  not  originally  the  design  of  forming  a  republic. 
Their  intention,  at  first,  was  only  to  maintain  their  political  pri- 
vileges ;  and  they  did  not  absolutely  shake  off  the  Spanish 
authority  until  they  despaired  of  reconciliation.  Moreover,  they 
repeatedly  offered  the  sovereignty  of  their  States  to  different 
foreign  princes ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  Union  of  Utrecht  that 
the  Seven  Provinces  became  a  federal  republic.  Consequently 
every  thing  remained  on  its  ancient  footing ;  and  some  of  the 

Erovinces  even  retained  their  Stadtholders  or  governors,  at  the 
ead  of  their  administration.  Hence  that  mixture  of  monarchy, 
aristocracy,  and  democracy,  which  prevailed  in  these  countries; 
and  hence,  too,  the  feeble  tie  which  united  them  with  each  other, 
and  which  would  probably  have  speedily  broken,  if  Holland  had 
not,  by  its  riches  and  its  power,  obtained  an  influence  and  pre- 
ponderance which  maintained  the  Union.] 

The  declaration  of  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces 
did  not  take  place  till  1591 ;  when  the  Prince  of  Orange  induced 
the  States-General  to  make  a  formal  proclamation  of  it,  out  of 
revenge  for  the  furious  edicts  of  proscription  which  the  Court  of 
Spain  had  issued  against  him.  The  Prince,  however,  was  assas- 
sinated at  Delft  in  1584 ;'  and  the  Spaniards  took  advantage  of 
the  consternation  which  this  event  had  spread  among  the  Con- 
federates, to  reconquer  most  of  the  provinces  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. The  general  Confederacy  languished  away  by  degrees ; 
and  the  Union  of  Utrecht  was  the  only  one  maintained  among 
the  Seven  Provinces.  This  new  republic,  which  was  in  strict 
alliance  with  England,  not  only  made  head  against  the  Spaniards, 
but  gained  a  considerable  increase  of  strength  by  the  vast  num- 
bers of  refugees  from  the  different  Belgic  provinces,  who  took 
shelter  there ;  as  well  as  from  France,  where  the  persecution 
still  raged  violently  against  the  Protestants.  It  is  calculated 
that  after  the  taking  of  Antwerp  by  the  Prince  of  Parma  in 
1585,  above  a  hundred  thousand  of  these  fugitives  transported 
themselves  to  Holland  and  Amsterdam,  carrying  with  them  their 
wealth  and  their  industry. 

20* 


« 
1 

I 

^1 


f*r, 


^ite 


Ii 


SU4 


CHAPTER       1. 


r 


From  ihiH  dnlc  the  commerce  of  the  Confederate  Stutet  in- 
creased every  day ;  and  in  1595  they  extended  it  as  far  a«<  India 
and  the  Eastern  Seas.  The  Dutch  India  Company  wiis  estab- 
lished in  1602.  Besides  the  exchisiye  commerce  of  India,  which 
was  guaranteed  to  them  by  their  charter,  they  became  hkewise 
a  political  body,  under  the"  sovereignty  of  the  States-General  of 
the  United  Provinces.  Sunported  by  a  formidable  marine,  they 
accjuired  vast  influence  in  the  East  by  their  conquests  over  the 
Portuguese,  whom  they  dispossessed  by  degrees  of  all  their 
principal  establishments  in  India.  The  Spaniards,  finding  their 
efforts  to  reduce  the  Confederates  by  force  of  arms  ineffectual, 
set  on  foot  a  negotiation  at  Antwerp  (1609,)  under  the  media- 
tion of  Franco  and  England  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  a  truce 
of  twelve  years  was  concluded  between  Spain  and  the  United 
Provinces.  It  was  chiefly  during  this  time  that  the  Confede- 
rates extended  their  commerce  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  while 
their  marine  daily  increased  in  strength  and  importance  ;  which 
soon  raised  them  "to  llie  rank  of  being  the  second  maritime  power, 
and  gave  them  a  decisive  influence  over  the  political  affairs  of 
Europe. 

At  the  expiration  of  this  truce,  hostilities  were  renewed  with 
Spain.  The  Dutch  carried  on  the  war  for  twenty-five  years 
with  great  glory,  under  the  auspices  of  their  Stodtholders, 
Maurice  and  Henry  Frederic,  Princes  of  Orange,  who  discovered 
great  military  talents.  One  event,  which  proved  favourable  for 
the  Republicans,  was  the  war  that  broke  out  between  France 
and  Spain,  and  which  was  followed  by  a  strict  alliance  between 
France  and  the  States-General.  The  partition  of  the  Span'sh 
Netherlands  was  settled  by  this  treaty  ;  and  the  allied  powers 
entered  into  an  engagement  never  to  make  peace  or  truce  with 
Spain,  except  by  common  consent.  This  latter  clause,  however, 
did  not  prevent  the  States-Generol  from  concluding  at  Munster 
a  separate  peace  with  Spain,  to  the  exclusion  of  France  (1648.) 
By  this  peace  the  King  of  Spain  acknowledged  the  United  Pro- 
vinces as  free  and  independent  States ;  he  gave  up  to  them  all 
the  places  which  they  had  seized  in  Brabant,  Flanders  and  Lim- 
fiurg,  viz.  Bois-le-Duc,  Bergen-op-Zoom,  Breda,  and  Maestricht  •. 
as  also  their  possessions  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  in  Asia 
Africa,  and  America.  The  closing  of  the  Scheld,  which  was 
granted  in  favour  of  the  United  Provinces,  entirely  ruined  the 
city  of  Antwerp,  and  shut  out  the  Spanish  Netherlands  from  all 
maritime  commerce. 

The  feudal  system  of  the  Swiss,  which  had  originated  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  acquired  a  new  importance  towards  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth,  by  reason  of  the  success  of  the  confederates  in 


ite  States  in- 
as  far  a«  India 
ny  WI18  ostab- 
if  Indin,  which 
icame  likewise 
tes-General  of 
e  marine,  they 
uests  over  the 
s  of  all  iheir 
s,  findin{;r  their 
ns  iiit'flectual, 
cr  the  media- 
which,  a  truce 
rid  the  United 
the  Confede- 
»e  globe,  while 
irtance  ;  which 
aritimepower, 
itical  anairs  of 

renewed  with 

nly-five  years 

Stadtholders, 

who  discovered 

favourable  for 
itween  France 
lifince  between 
•f  the  Spanish 

allied  powers 
!  or  truce  with     ! 
juse,  however, 
ng  at  Munster 
France  (1648.) 
e  United  Pro- 
up  to  them  all 
ders  and  Lim- 
d  Maestricht : 
dies,  in  Asia 
d,  which  was 
ly  ruined  the 
lands  from  dl 

pnated  in  the 
varda  the  end 
'n  federates  in 


PBRtos  VI.    A.  D.  1453—1648. 

their  war  with  Charles  Duke  of  Burgundy.  This  prince,  who 
wiis  of  a  liot  and  turbulent  spirit,  was  constantly  occupied  with 
projects  of  conquest.  Taking  advantago  (if  the  ruinous  state  of 
the  finances  of  the  Archduke  Sigismund  of  Austria,  he  induced 
him  to  sell  him  the  territories  of  Brisgau  and  Alsiice,  with  the 
riffhl  ol  iipurchase  (1409.)  Peter  dc  Hagenhuch,  u  gentleman 
01  Alsace,  who  hud  been  appointed  governor  of  these  countries 
by  the  Duke,  had  oppressed  the  Austrian  subjects,  and  harassed 
the  whole  neighbouring  states ;  especially  the  Swiss.  The 
complaints  which  were  made  on  this  score  to  the  Duke,  ly^ving 
only  rendered  Hagenbach  still  more  insolent,  the  Swiss,  with 
the  concurrence  of  several  states  of  the  Empire,  paid  down,  at 
Basle,  the  sums  stipulated  in  the  contract  for  repurchasing  the 
two  provinces ;  and,  by  force  of  arms,  they  re-established  the 
Austrian  prince  in  the  possession  of  Alsace  and  Bri.sgau.  They 
even  went  so  far  as  to  institute  legal  proceedings  against  Hagen- 
bach, who  was  in  consequence  beheaded  at  Brisach  in  1474. 

The  Duke,  determined  to  avenge  this  insult,  assembled  an 
army  of  a  hundred  thousand  men,  with  which  he  penetrated 
through  Franche-Comte  into  Switzerland.  He  was  defeated  in 
the  first  action,  which  took  place  at  Granson  (1476;)  after 
which  he  reinforced  his  troops,  and  laid  siege  to  Morat.  Here 
he  was  again  attacked  by  the  Swiss,  who  killed  eighteen  thou- 
sand of  his  men,  and  seized  the  whole  of  his  camp  and  baggage. 
The  Duke  of  Lorraine,  an  ally  of  the  Swiss,  was  then  restored 
to  those  states  of  which  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  had  deprived 
him.  This  latter  prince,  in  a  great  fury,  came  and  laid  siege  to 
Nancy.  The  Swiss  marched  to  the  relief  of  this  place,  where 
they  fought  a  third  and  last  battle  with  the  Duke,  who  was  here 
defeated  and  slain  (1477.) 

These  victories  of  the  Swiss  over  the  Duke  of  Burgundvi  one 
of  the  most  powerful  princes  of  his  time,  raised  the  fame  of  their 
arms ;  and  made  their  friendship  and  alliance  courted  by  the 
first  sovereigns  in  Europe,  especially  by  France.  Their  con- 
federacy, which  had  formerly  been  composed  of  only  eight  can- 
tons, was  augmented  by  the  accession  of  two  new  states,  Friburg 
and  Soleure,  which  were  enrolled  in  the  number  of  cantons. 

From  this  time  the  Swiss  were  no  longer  afraid  to  break  the 
ties  that  bound  them  to  the  Germanic  Body,  as  members  of  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Aries.  The  Diet  of  Worms,  in  1496,  having 
granted  the  Emperor  Maximilian  succours  against  the  French 
and  the  Turks,  the  Swiss  alleged  their  immunities,  and  their 
alliance  with  France,  as  a  pretext  for  refusing  their  contingent 
of  supplies.  This  demand,  however,  was  renewed  at  the  Diet 
of  Lindau,  in  1496,  which  required  them  to  renounce  their  alii- 


'*n 


!l!l 


if 


^ 


CHAPTKB  VII- 

ance  with  Frnncc,  and  accpdc  to  tho  Lenpiie  of  Swabia ;  as  also 
to  submit  themselves  to  the  Imperial  Chnmher,  and  the  law  of 
the  public  pence ;  and  to  furnish  their  quota  for  the  support  of 
thai  Chnm()er,  and  tho  other  contributions  of  the  Empire.  All 
these  demands  were  resisted  by  the  Helvetic  Body,  who  regard- 
ed them  as  contrary  to  their  rights  and  privileges.  Meantime 
the  Grisons  had  allied  themselves  with  the  Swiss,  in  order  »o 
obtain  their  protection  under  the  existing  differences  between 
them  and  the  Tyrolese. 

The  Emperor  Maximilian  seized  this  pretext  for  making  war 
against  the  Cantons.  Being  desirous  of  vindicating  the  dignity 
of  the  Empire,  which  had  l)een  outraged  by  the  Swiss,  and  of 
avenging  the  insults  offered  to  his  own  family,  he  stirred  up  the 
League  of  Swabia  to  oppose  them  ;  and  attacked  them  in  diffe- 
rent points  at  once.  Eight  battles  were  fought  in  succession,  in 
course  of  that  campaign  ;  all  of  which,  with  one  solitary  excep- 
tion, were  in  favour  of  the  Swiss,  while  the  Imnerialists  lost  more 
than  twenty  thoiisand  men.  Maximilian  and  liis  allies,  the  Swa- 
bian  League,  then  came  to  the  resolution  of  making  their  peace 
with  the  Cantons,  which  was  concluded  at  Basle  (1499.)  Both 
parties  made  a  mutual  restitution  of  what  they  had  wrested  from 
each  other ;  and  it  was  agreed,  that  the  differences  between  the 
Emperor,  as  Count  of  Tyrol,  and  the  Grisons,  should  be  brought 
to  an  amicable  termination.  This  peace  forms  a  memorable  era 
in  the  history  of  the  Helvetic  Confederacy,  whose  independence, 
with  regard  to  the  German  Emperor,  was  from  that  time  con- 
sidered as  decided ;  although  no  mention  of  this  was  made  in  the 
treaty,  and  although  the  Swiss  still  continue",  for  some  time  to 
request  from  the  Emperors  the  confirmation  of  their  immunities. 
Two  immediate  cities  of  the  Empire,  those  of  Basle  and  Schaufjf- 
hausen,  took  occasion,  from  the&e  latter  events,  to  solicit  their 
admission  into  the  Confederacy.  They  were  received  as  allies, 
under  the  title  of  Cantons  (1601 ;)  and  the  territory  of  Appenzel, 
which  was  admitted  in  like  manner  (1613,)  formed  the  thirteenth 
and  last  Canton. 

The  alliance  which  the  Swiss  had  kept  up  with  France,  since 
the  reigns  of  Charles  VII.  and  Louis  XI.,  tended  greatly  to  se- 
cure the  independence  of  the  Helvetic  Body.^  This  alliance, 
which  Louis  XI.  had  made  an  instrument  for  humbling  the 
power  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  never  but  once  broken,  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  on  account  of  the  Holy  League,  into 
which  the  Swiss  were  drawn  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Bishop  of 
Sion  (1512.)  The  French  were  then  expelled  from  the  Milan- 
ese territory  by  the  Swiss,  who  placed  there  the  Duke  Maximi- 
lian Sforza.     It  was  in  gratitude  for  this  service,  that  the  duke 


IJi. 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453— 164S. 


237 


fabia ;  aa  also 

id  the  low  of 

[»e  support  of 

"empire.     All 

I,  who  regard- 

Mean»iinn 

IS,  in  order  to 

ices  between 

'  making  war 
g  the  dignity 
Swiss,  and  of 
stirred  up  the 
them  in  difTe- 
succession,  in 
olitary  excep- 
ists  lost  more 
lies,  the  Swa- 
ip  their  peace 
1499.)     Both 
wrested  from 
s  between  the 
lid  be  brought 
nemornble  era 
independence, 
hat  time  con- 
is  made  in  the 
some  time  to 
r  immunities, 
and  Schauff- 

0  solicit  their 
ived  as  allies, 
of  Appenzel, 
:he  thirteenth 

France,  since 
greatly  to  se- 
rhis  alliance, 
umbling  the 
ce  broken,  in 
League,  into 
le  Bishop  of 

1  the  Milan- 
ike  Maximi- 
lat  the  duke 


reded  to  the  Swiss,  by  it  treaty  which  was  concluded  at  Bnsle, 
the  four  bailiwicks  of  Lugano,  Locarno,  iMeiidrisio,  and  Vul< 
Maggio,  whii'h  he  disincinbered  from  tiie  Milaiiois.  Though 
con(,uer  )r«  nt  llie  battle  of  Novura,  »he  SwisM  experienced  n  san- 
guinary defeat  at  Marignano;  when  they  judged  it  for  their  in- 
terest to  renew,  their  alliance  with  France  (1>313.)  A  treaty  o( 
perpetual  pcuce  was  .signed  at  Friburg  between  these  two  States 
(1(316,)  which  was  soon  after  followed  by  a  new  treaty  of  alli- 
ance, concluded  with  Francis  I.  at  Lucerne  (1621.)  and  regularly 
renewed  under  the  s»ibse(iuent  reigns. 

The  change  which  took  place  in  religion,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  extended  its  influence  to  Switzerland, 
where  it  kin  Jled  the  flame  of  civil  discord.  Four  cantons,  those 
of  Zurich,  Berne,  Schaufrhausen.nnd  Basle,  renouncing  entirely 
the  Romish  faith,  had  embraced  the  doctrines  of  Zuingle  and 
Calvin  ;  while  two  others,  viz.  Claris  and  Appenzel,  were  divi- 
ded between  the  old  and  the  new  opinions.  The  Reformation 
having  likewise  found  its  way  into  the  common  bailiwicks,  the 
Catholic  Cantons  rose  in  opposition  to  it  (1531 ;)  denying  liber- 
ty of  conscience  to  the  inhabitants.  Hence,  a  war  arose  be- 
tween the  Cantons  of  the  two  religions  ;  which,  however,  was 
terminated  the  same  year  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  guaranteeing  to 
such  parishes  within  the  bailiwicks  as  had  embraced  the  new 
doctrines,  the  liberty  of  still  adhering  to  them.  The  same  revo- 
lution extended  to  Geneva,  whose  inhabitants  had  declared  so- 
lemnl}'  in  favour  of  the  reformed  worship,  and  erected  themselves 
into  a  free  and  independent  republic  (1534.)  The  church  of 
Geneva,  under  the  direction  of  Calvin,  became  the  centre  and 
citadel  of  the  Reformation ;  while  the  academy  founded  in  that 
city,  produced  a  vast  number  of  theologians  and  celebrated  scho 
lurs.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  duke  of  Savoy  planned  the 
blockade  of  Geneva,  to  enforce  certain  ancient  rights  which  he 
claimed  over  that  city ;  but  the  Bernese  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  Genevans,  in  virtue  of  the  treaties  of  common  citizenship 
which  subsisted  between  them.  This  Canton  having  entered 
into  alliance  with  Francis  I.,  declared  war  against  the  duke  of 
Savoy  (1536  ;)  and  in  less  than  three  months  took  from  him  the 
Pays  de  Vaud.  Being  desirous  of  interesting  their  neighbours 
the  Friburgcrs  in  their  cause,  they  invited  them  to  take  posses- 
sion of  all  those  places  that  might  suit  their  convenience ;  and 
it  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  city  of  Friburg  acquired  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  its  territory.  These  acquisitions  were  confirmed  to 
the  two  Cantons,  by  the  treaty  which  the  Bernese  concluded  at 
Ijausanne  with  the  duke  of  Savoy  (1564.) 

The  German  Empire  from  time  to  time  renewed  its  preton- 


i  I 


In 


ill. 


CIUPTKII  VII. 


'-I 


■ionri  on  Switzerland,  and  thr  Impcrinl  Chamber  usurped  hu 
occnsionni  jiiriiHdictioii  over  one  or  other  of  the  Cnmons.  Nc- 
gotintioim  for  n  ^'encrnl  peace  haviiijj  commenced  in  Munster 
and  Osnahiirg,  the  thirteen  Cantons  sent  their  minister  or  envoy 
to  wntch  over  tlie  interests  of  the  Helvetic  Body  at  that  congress ; 
and  they  obtained,  through  the  intervention  of  France  and  Swe- 
den, that  in  one  of  the  articles  of  the  treaty  it  shouhl  be  decla- 
red, that  the  city  of  Basle,  and  the  other  Swiss  Cantons,  were  in 
possession  of  full  liberty,  and  independent  of  the  Empire,  and 
in  no  respect  subject  to  its  tribunals. 

In  Italy,  the  authority  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  which  had 
silently  declined  during:  ibe  preceding  centuries,  langiiished 
more  and  more  under  the  long  and  feeble  reign  of  Frederic  III. 
At  length  it  was  reduced  to  the  mere  ceremony  of  coronation, 
and  the  simple  exercise  of  some  honorary  and  feudal  rights,  such 
as  the  investitures  which  the  Imperial  Court  continued  to  grant 
to  the  vassals  of  Lombardy.  Although  the  Imperial  dignity  im« 
plied  the  royalty  of  Italy,  which  was  considered  as  indissolubly 
united  to  it,  nevertheless  it  was  the  custom  that  the  Kings  of 
Germany  should  have  themselves  crowned  separately.  Kings  of 
Italy  at  Milan,  and  Emperors  at  Rome.  Frederic  III.,  having 
had  certain  reasons  for  avoiding  his  coronation  at  Milan,  received 
from  the  hands  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  in  his  own  capital,  the  two 
crowns  of  Italy  and  Kome.  Maximilian  I.,  being  prevented  by 
the  Venetians  from  repairing  to  Italy  for  his  coronation  (1608,) 
WHis  content  to  take  the  title  of  Emperor  Elect,  which  his  succes- 
sors in  the  Empire  have  retained  till  the  present  time.  Charles 
V.  was  the  last  Emperor  to  whom  the  Pope,  Clement  VII.,  ad- 
ministered that  double  coronation  of  King  of  Italy  and  Emperor, 
at  Bologna,  in  1530. 

The  Popes,  the  Kings  of  Naples,  the  Dukes  of  Milan,  and  the 
Republics  of  Venice  and  Florence,  were  the  principal  powers 
that  shared  among  them  the  dominion  of  Italy  towards  tne  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  continual  wars  which  these  states 
waged  with  each  other,  added  to  the  weakness  of  the  German 
Emperors,  encouraged  foreign  powers  to  form  plans  of  aggran- 
dizement and  conquest  over  these  countries.  The  Kings  of 
France,  Charles  VUl..  Louis  XII.,  and  Francis  I.,  led  away  by 
a  mania  for  conquest,  undertook  several  expeditions  into  Italy, 
for  enforcing  their  claims  either  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  or 
the  dutchy  of  Milan.  They  were  thwarted  in  their  schemes  by 
the  Kings  of  Spain,  who,  being  already  masters  of  Sicily  and 
Sardinia,  thought  it  behoved  them  also  to  extend  their  views  to 
the  Continent  of  Italy.  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  deprived  the 
French  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  (1600.)  His  successor,  Charles 


usurped  ru 
Anions.  Ne- 
ll I  Munster 
'ter  or  envoy 
Imi  congre»8 ; 
icp  nnd  Swp. 
Ji\A  be  dccla« 
tons,  were  in 
Empire,  and 

y,  which  had 
,   languished 
Frederic  III. 
)f  coronation, 
rights,  such 
lucd  to  grant 
«l  dignity  im. 
I  indi.sjiolubly 
the  Kings  of 
ely,  Kings  of 
'  ni.,  having 
ilan,  received 
ipital,  the  two 
prevented  by 
intion  (1508,) 
-h  his  succes* 
ne.     Charles 
ent  VII.,  ad- 
M  Emperor, 

ilan,  and  the 
cipal  powers 
ards  the  end 
I  these  states 
the  German 
s  of  aggran- 
^>e  Kings  of 
led  away  by 
IS  into  Italy. 
r  Naples,  or 
schemes  by 
f  Sicily  and 
eir  views  to 
eprived  the 
Bor,  Charles 


rKRinp  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1048. 


23(^ 


v..  expelled  them  from  the  Milniiois,  mid  obliged  rriuu'ix  \.,  by 
the  treaties  of  Madrid  (l.^iH,)  Cmnbray  (1529,)  and  Cr^pj 
(1644,)  to  f!;ivo  up  his  pretensions  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
and  the  dulrhy  of  Milan  From  this  time  the  Spaniard?  werr 
the  predoniinaling  power  in  Iluly  for  more  ilmn  a  hundred  yoart. 

In  the  midst  of  tliese  revolutions  there  arose  three  new  prin- 
cipalities within  that  kingdom ;  those  of  Florence,  Purina,  and 
Malta.  The  Repiibiii'  of  Florence  held  a  distinguished  rank  in 
Italy  during  the  fifteenth  century,  both  on  account  of  the  flour- 
ishing state  of  its  commerce,  and  the  Inrgf!  exlrnt  of  its  territory, 
which  comprehended  the  greater  pari  of  Tuscany,  and  gave  to 
this  Republic  the  means  of  holding  the  balance  between  the 
other  powers  of  Italy.  The-  opulent  family  of  the  Medici  here 
exercised  a  hisjh  degree  of  influence ;  they  ruled  not  by  force 
but  by  their  munificence,  and  ttic  judicious  use  which  they  madi' 
of  their  great  riches.  The  credit  and  popularity  of  the  Medici, 
excited  envy  and  persecution  against  them,  an(f  caused  them  to 
be  several  tunes  banished  from  Florence.  They  were  expelled 
from  this  latter  place  at  the  same  time  that  Pope  Clement  VII., 
who  was  of  this  family,  was  besieged  by  the  Imperialists  in  Rome 
(1<527.)  That  Pontifl",  in  makint;  his  peace  with  Charles  V.,  ob- 
tained his  consent  that  the  Medici  should  be  re-established  at 
Florence,  in  the  state  in  which  they  were  before  their  last  ban- 
ishment. The  Emperor  even  promised  the  Pope  to  give  Alex- 
der  de  Medici  his  natural  daughter  in  marriage,  with  a  consid- 
erable dowry.  The  Florentines,  however,  having  shown  some 
reluctance  to  receive  the  Medici,  their  city  was  besieged  by  the 
Imperial  army,  and  compelled  to  surrender  by  capitulation  (1530.) 

The  Emperor,  by  a  charter  dated  at  Augsburg  on  the  28th  of 
August  following,  preserved  to  the  city  of  Florence  its  ancient 
republican  forms.  Alexander  de  Medici  was  declared  governor- 
in-chief  of  the  state ;  but  this  dignity  was  vested  in  himself  and 
his  male  descendants,  who  could  only  enjoy  it  according  to  the 
order  of  primogeniture.  He  was  authorized,  moreover,  to  con- 
struct a  citadel  at  Florence,  by  means  of  which  he  afterwards 
exercised  an  absolute  power  over  his  fellow-citizens.  As  for 
the  ducal  dignity  with  which  the  new  Prince  of  Florence  was 
vested,  it  properly  belonged  to  the  dutchy  of  Painja,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  which  the  Emperor  haa  conferred  on  him. 

Alexander  de  Medici  did  not  long  enjoy  his  new  honours. 
He  was  universally  abhorred  for  his  cruelties,  and  assassinated 
by  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  one  of  his  own  near  relations  (1637.) 
His  successor  in  the  dutchy  was  Cosmo  de  Medici,  who  annexed 
to  the  territory  of  Florence  that  of  the  ancient  republic  of 
Sienna,  which  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  had  conquered,  and 


fi 


*'l, 


Slit 


m 


»trkt^imUmtitM>m 


340 


UUAPTER   VU. 


conferred  on  his  son  Philip  II.  in  name  of  the  Empire  (1664.) 
This  latter  prince  being  desirous  of  seducing  Cosmo  from  his 
alliance  with  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  France,  with  whom  the 
Spaniards  were  at  war,  granted  him  the  investiture  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Sienna,  as  a  mesne-tenure  holding  of  the  crown  of 
Spam,  by  way  of  equivalent  for  the  considerable  sums  which 
he  had  advanced  to  Charles  V,  while  he  was  carrying  on  the 
siege  of  Sienna.  In  transferring  the  Siennois  to  the  Duke, 
Philip  reserved  for  himself  the  ports  of  Tuscany,  such  as 
Porto  Ercole,  Orbitello,  Telcmone,  Monte-Argentaro,  St.  Ste- 
fano,  Longone,  Piombino,  and  the  whole  island  of  Elba,  with 
the  exception  of  Porto  Ferrajo.  By  the  same  treaty,  Cosmo 
engaged  to  furnish  supplies  to  the  Spaniards,  for  th«  defence  of 
Milan  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

At  length  the  Medici  obtained  the  dignity  of  Grand  Dukes, 
on  occasion  of  the  difference  that  had  risen  between  them  and 
the  Dukes  of  Ferrara,  on  the  subject  of  precedency.  The  Pope 
terminated  this  dispute,  by  granting  to  Cosmo  the  title  of  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  with  the  royal  honours  (1569.)  The  Em- 
peror, however,  took  it  amiss  that  the  Pope  should  undertake  to 
confer  secular  dignities  in  Italy ;  thus  encroaching  on  a  right 
which  he  alleged  belonged  only  to  himself,  in  virtue  of  his 
being  King  of  Italy.  The  quarrels  which  this  affair  had  oc- 
casioned between  the  Court  of  Rome  and  the  Empire,  were 
adjusted  in  1576,  when  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II.  granted  to 
Francis  de  Medici,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Cosmo,  the  dig- 
nity of  Grand  Duke,  on  condition  that  he  should  acknowledge 
it  as  a  tenure  of  the  Empire,  and  not  of  the  Pope. 

Among  the  number  of  those  republics  which  the  Visconti  of 
Milan  had  subdued  and  overthrown  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
were  those  of  Parma  and  Placentia.  They  had  formed  a  de- 
pendency of  the  dutchy  of  Milan  until  1512,  when  Louis  XII.. 
having  been  expelled  from  the  Milanois  by  the  Allies  of  the 
Holy  League,  these  cities  were  surrendered  by  the  Swiss  to 
Pope  Julius  II.,  who  laid  some  claim  to  them,  as  making  part 
of  the  dowry  of  the  famous  Countess  Matilda.  The  Emperor 
Maximilian  ceded  them  to  the  Pope  by  the  treaty  of  peace  which 
he  made  with  him  in  1512.  Francis  I.  took  these  cities  again 
from  the  court  of  Rome,  when  he  reconquered  the  dutchy  of 
Milan  (1515  ;)  but  this  prince  having  also  been  expelled  from 
the  Milanois  (1521,)  the  Pope  again  got  possession  of  Parma 
and  Placentia,  in  virtue  of  the  treaty  which  he  had  concluded 
with  Charles  V.,  for  the  re-establishment  of  Francis  Sforza  in 
the  dutchy  of  Milan.  These  cities  continued  to  form  part  of 
the  Eccleisiastical  States  until  1645.  when  th^y  were  dismem- 


tznioD  VI.    A.  D.  1453—1648. 


241 


mpire  (1564.) 
smo  from  his 
ith  whom  the 
ire  of  the  ter- 
the  crown  of 
sums  which 
rrying  on  the 
to  the  Duke, 
any,  such  as 
taro,  St.  Ste- 
of  Elba,  with 
reaty,  Cosmo 
thp!  defence  of 

Grand  Dukes, 
2en  them  and 
y.  The  Pope 
title  of  Grand 
I.)  The  Em- 
i  undertake  to 
ing  on  a  right 

virtue  of  his 
affair  had  oc- 
Empire,  were 

II.  granted  to 
!osmo,  the  dig- 
[  acknowledge 

he  Visconti  of 
eenth  century, 
.  formed  a  de- 
en  Louis  XII., 
Allies  of  the 
the  Swiss  to 
s  making  part 
The  Emperor 
of  peace  which 
>se  cities  again 
the  dutchy  of 
expelled  from 
sion  of  Parma 
had  concluded 
mcis  Sforza  in 
o  form  part  of 
weie  dismem* 


bered  from  it  by  Paul  III.,  who  erected  them  into  dutchies,  and 
conferred  them  on  his  son  Peter  Louis  Farnese,  and  his  heirs- 
male  in  the  order  of  primogeniture  ;  to  be  held  under  the  title 
of  fiefs  of  the  Holy  See,  and  on  condition  of  paying  an  annual 
tribute  of  nine  thousand  ducats. 

This  elevation  of  a  man  whose  very  birth  seemed  a  disgrace 
to  the  pontiff,  gave  universal  offence.  The  new  Duka  of  Parma 
soon  rendered  himself  so  odious  by  his  dissolute  life,  his  crimes 
and  scandalous  excesses,  that  a  conspiracjr  was  formed  against 
him ;  and  he  was  assassinated  in  the  citadel  of  Placentia  in 
1547.  Ferdinand  Gonzaga,  who  was  implicated,  as  is  alleged  in 
this  assassination,  then  took  possession  of  Placentia  in  name  of 
the  Emperor ;  and  it  was  not  till  1557  that  Philip  II.  of  Spain  re- 
stored that  city,  with  its  dependencies,  to  Octavius  Farnese,  son 
and  successor  of  the  murdered  prince.  The  house  of  Farnese 
held  the  dutchy  of  Parma  as  a  fief  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States, 
until  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  in  1731. 

The  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  after  their  expulsion 
from  the  Holy  Land,  had  retired  to  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  and  from 
thence  to  Rhodes,  in  1310,  of  which  they  had  dispossessed  the 
Greeks.     They  did  not  maintain  possession  of  this  place  longer 
than   1523,  when  Soliman  the  Great  undertook  the  siege  of 
Rhodes,  with  an  army  of  two  hundred  thousand  men,  and  a 
fleet  of  four  hundred  sail.     The  Knight?  boldly  repulsed  the 
different  attacks  of  the  Turks ;  but  being  entirely  dependent 
on  their  own  forces,  and  receiving  no  succour  from  the  powers 
of  Christendom,  they  were  compelled  to  capitulate,  after  an  ob- 
stinate defence  of  six  months.     Leaving  Rhodes,  these  Knights 
took  shelter  in  Viterbo,  belonging  to  the  States  of  the  Church, 
where  they  were  cordially  received  by   Pope  Clement  VII. 
There  they  remained  until  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  granted 
them  the  Isle  of  Malta,  which  became  their  principal  residence 
(1^0.)     That  prince  ceded  to  them  the  islands  of  Malta  and 
Gozzo,  with  the  city  of  Tripoli  in  Africa,  on  condition  of  hold- 
ing them  from  him  and  his  successors  in  the  kingdom  of  Sicily, 
as  noble  fiefs,  frank  and  free,  without  any  other  oWigation  thra 
the  annual  gift  of  a  falcon,  in  acknowledgment  of  their  hold- 
ing  under  the  crown,  and  presenting  to  the  King  of  Sicily  three 
of  their  sul^ects,  of  whom  he  was  to  choose  one,  on  each  va- 
cancy of  the  bishopric  of  Malta.     Charles  V.  added  another 
clause,  that  if  ever  the  Order  should  leave  Malta  and  fix  their 
residence  elsewhere,  that  island  should  revert  to  the  King  of 
Sicily.     The  Knights  of  St.  John  continued  in  the  sovereignty 
of  Malta  and  Gozzo  till  1798;  but  they  lost  Tripoli,  in  1561, 
which  was  taken  from  them  bv  the  Turks, 
i  16 


t'% 


849 


CHAPTER  vn. 


i: 


A  memorable  revolution  happened  at  Genoa,  about  the  beffiP-     . 
r,i,wSe  sixteenth  century.     That  republic,  after  having  or  a 
"onf  time  formed  part  of  the  dutchy  "J  M.  an  recovered  its  a  - 
dent  independence  about  the  time  when  the  French  and  Spa.  - 
Srds  disputed  the  sovereignty  of    ta  y.  and  the  conquest  of  th 
Milanois.     Expelled  by  the  Imperialists  from  the  city  of  Geno^ 
in  1522,  the  F .-ench  had  found  means  to  repossess  it  (1527,)  witJ. 
he  ai^tance  of  the  celebrated  Andrew  Do"«^J.  "gj^enoe^ 
who  had  been  in  the  service  of  Francis  I.     This  distm^ished 
admiral,  supplanted  by  favourites,  and  maltrea  ed  by  the  court, 
abandoned  ^he  cause  of  France  in  the  following  year,  and  es 
noused  that  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.        „„     ,  ,  .  , 

^  The  French  then  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Nap  es,  which  was     , 
reduced  to  the  lust  extremity,  and  on  the  point  of  s""ender,ng,     , 
when  Doria,  having  hoisted  the  Imperial  fl.g,  set  sail  for  Naples 
with  the  gt^lleys  under  his  command,  and  threw  abundance  o 
provisions^nto  the  besieged  city.     The  French  army,  now  cut 
Eff  fiom  all  communication  by  sea,  soon  began  to  experience 
those  calamities  from  which  the  Imperialists  had  just  been  de- 
Uvered      Their  whole  troops  being  destroyed  by  famine  and  con- 
agYousdisease,the  expedition  to  Naples  feU  to  the  grovmd,andth^^ 

affairs  of  the  French  in  Italy  were  totally  nuned.     It  is  alleged 
£  Charles  V.,  to  recompense  Doria  for  this  important  service, 
offered  him  the  sovereignty  of  Genoa;  and  that,  ^-^eadof  ac- 
i     cepting  this  honour,  that  great  man  stipulated  for  the  liberty  ot 
his  Sntry,  whenever  it  should  be  delivered  from  the  yoke  of 
I     Franr  ^Courting  the  glory  of  being  the   iberator  of  his  native 
city,  he  sailed  directly  for  Genoa,  of  which  he  made  himself 
'     master,  in  a  single  night,  without  shedding  one  drop  of  blood 
SSai     The  French  garrison  retired  to  the  citadel,  and  were 
oblieed  to  capitulate  for  want  of  provisions.        ^  _    ,         ... 
E   expe\lition  procured  Doria  the  title  of  Father  «f  his 
Country,  which  was  conferred  on  him  by  a  decree  of  the  Senate 
It  was>  his  advice  that  a  committee  of  twelve  persons  was 
chosen  to  organize  a  new  scheme  of  government  for  the  republ^. 
A  recrister  was  drawn  up  of  all  those  families  who  were  to  com- 
pose the  Grand  Council,  which  was  destined  to  exercise  the 
sunreme  power.     The  Doge  was  to  continue  in  office  ten  years , 
anS  great  care  was  taken  to  remove  those  causes  which  had  pre- 
viously  excited  factions  and  intestine  disorders.      Hence  the 
establishment  of  the  Genoese  aristocracy,  whose  forms  have 
since  been  preserved,  with  some  few  modifications  which  were 
imrodS  after^vards,  in  consequence  of  certain  dissensions 
which  had  arisen  between  the  ancient  and  the  new  nobility. 
Venice,  the  eldest  of  the  European  republics,  had  reached  lh« 


R4S. 


vrr^rrrvrV^.^' 


ut  the  begip- 
having  for  a 
vered  its  aii- 
ch  and  Span* 
inquest  of  the 
ity  of  Genoa 
(1527,)  witli 
oble  Genoese, 
distinguished 
by  the  court, 
year,  and  es 

es,  which  was 

surrendering, 

ail  for  Naples, 

abundance  of 

army,  now  cut 

to  experience 

just  been  de- 

kmine  and  con- 

ground,  and  the 

.     It  is  alleged 

portant  service, 

,  instead  of  ac- 

»r  the  liberty  of 

m  the  yoke  of 

or  of  his  native 

made  himself 

drop  of  blood 

tadel,  and  were 

Father  of  his 
e  of  the  Senate, 
ve  persons  was 
for  the  republic. 

0  were  to  com- 
to  exercise  the 
)ffice  ten  years , 

1  which  had  pre- 
s.  Hence  the 
me  forms  have 
)ns  which  were 
ain  dissensions 
iw  nobility, 
had  reached  the 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  14^3 — 1648. 


243 


zenith  of  its  greatness  about  the  end  of  th^  fifteenth  century. 
The  vast  extent  of  its  commerce,  si  n^orted  by  a  powerful  ma- 
rine, the  multiplied  sources  of  its  industry,  and  the  monopoly 
of  the  trade  in  the  East,  had  made  it  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  formidable  States  in  Europe.  Besides  several  ports  on 
the  Adriatic,  and  numerous  settlements  which  they  had  in  the 
Archipelago,  and  the  trading  towns  on  the  Levant,  they  gained 
ground  more  and  more  on  the  continent  of  Italy,  where  they 
formed  a  considerable  territory.  Guided  by  an  artful  and  en- 
terprising policy,  this  Republic  seized  with  marvellous  avidity 
every  circumstance  which  favoured  its  views  of  aggrandizement. 
On  the  occasion  of  their  quarrels  with  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  they 
obtained  possession  of  the  province  of  Polesino  de  Rovigo,  by  a 
treaty  which  they  concluded  with  that  prince  in  1484. 

Afterwards,  having  joined  the  League  which  the  powers  of 
Italy  had  opposed  to  Charles  VIII.  and  his  projects  of  conquest 
they  refused  to  grant  supplies  to  the  King  of  Naples  for  the  re- 
covery of  his  kingdom,  except  by  his  consenting  to  yield  up 
the  cities  of  Trani,  Otranto,  Brindisi,  and  Gallipoli.  Louis  XIL, 
being  res'^lved  to  enforce  his  claims  on  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  and 
wishing  to  gain  over  this  Republic  to  his  interest,  gave  up  to 
them,  by  the  treaty  of  Blois  (1499,)  the  town  of  Cremona,  and 
the  whole  country  lying  between  the  Oglio,  the  Adda,  and  the 
Po.  On  the  death  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  (1503,)  they  took 
that  favourable  opportunity  of  wresting  from  the  Ecclesiastical 
States  several  towns  of  Romagna  ;  among  others,  Rimini  and 
Faenza. 

Of  all  the  acquisitions  which  the  Venetans  made,  the  most 
important  was  that  of  Cyprus.  That  island,  one  of  the  most 
considerable  in  the  Mediterranean,  had  been  conquered  from  the 
Greeks  by  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  King  of  England,  who  sur- 
rendered it  to  Guy  of  Lusignan  (1192,)  the  last  king  of  Jeru- 
salem, in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  hi"?  kingdom.  From  Guy 
of  Lusignan  descended  a  long  line  of  Cypiioi  kings  ;  the  last  of 
whom,  John  III.,  left  an  only  daughter,  named  Charlotte,  who 
succeeded  him  in  that  kingdom,  and  caused  her  husband,  Louis 
of  Savoy,  to  be  also  crowned  king.  There  still  remained  a  Das- 
tard son  of  John  III.,  called  James,  who  was  protected  by  the 
Sultan  of  Egyp»,  to  whom  the  kings  of  Cyprus  were  tributaries, 
and  who  succeeded  in  expelling  Charlotte  and  her  husband,  the 
Prince  of  Savoy,  from  the  throne  (1460.)  James,  who  was  de- 
sirous of  putting  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  Venetians, 
married  Catherine  Cornaro,  dnughier  of  Marco  Corneille,  a  pa- 
trician of  Venice.  The  Sen>ite,  in  honour  of  this  marriage, 
iidopted  Catherine,  and  declared  her  daughter  of  St.  Mark  or 


-1 


*tl:, 


i,S,  «W  ^-■■J}ij^''ii'-'' 


JWSi" 


III  > 


244 


CHAPTKB  VII. 


the  Republic.    James  died  in  1473.  leaving  a  P^'J^Jj^^"' ~J 

thus  drying  up  the  principal  source  «»  ^t^eir  , 

activity  01  ine  ronuguc  ^^  whpre  in  course  of  time 

obtained  a  firm  settlement  in  the  East,  where  in  co 

Eastern  commerce.   ,  ^^^^^'^f/ ,1"%!°"^^^^   had  inspired  them 
attended  the  undertakings  of  %«  7"^'^'^;,^,7  opportunity  of 

with  a  passion  [-  -J-J^Lir  ne  gCi  "^^^^^^ 

making  encroachments  on  "^^'r  "^'S"         ;  ^         „    „  them- 

nu  irkties  of  peace  mth  h»  ''Sf^'^ZiC  ^^»«l<''««>  °' 


PERIOD  VI.      A.  D.  1453 — 1648. 


MA 


Isthumous  son, 
[The  Republic 
own  inherit- 
)f  James,  and 
jtire  to  Venice, 
le  Senate,  who 
,  in  Trevisano, 
the  investiture 

d  by  a  reverse 

1  to  accelerate 

received  a  ter- 

to  India  round 

;e  of  the  East ; 

ilth,  as  well  as 

id  they  put  in 

commercial  en- 

ainst  them,  first 

kish  Emperors, 

supplies.     The 

abstacles.  They 

1  course  of  time 

ion,  in  place  of 

ns  of  India  ;  and 

m  in  this  field  of 

e  which  so  long 

1  inspired  them 

y  opportunity  of 

d  sometimes  for- 

iwn  upon  them- 

il  States  of  Italy. 

s  League,  which 

XII.,  Ferdinand 

ncluded  at  Cam- 

rritoryon  Terra 

ver  the  republi- 

uch  a  rapid  suc- 

(vere  struck  with 

;n  infallibly  lost, 

he  Pope  and  the 

e  of  the  French 

concluded  sepa- 

ivas  the  Emperor 

n  consequence  of 

;ed  with  a  total 


overthrow,  lost  only,  in  course  of  the  war,  the  territory  of  Cre- 
mona and  Ghiera  d'Adda,  with  the  cities  and  ports  of  Romagna 
and  Apulia.  But  this  loss  was  far  surpassed  by  that  which  they 
experienced  in  their  finances,  their  commerce  and  manufactures, 
on  account  of  the  expensive  efTorts  which  they  were  obliged  to 
make  in  resisting  their  numerous  enemies. 

The  ruin  of  this  Republic  was  at  length  completed  by  the 
prodigious  increase  of  the  power  of  the  Ottomans,  who  took  from 
them,  by  degrees,  their  best  possessions  in  the  Archipelago  and 
the  Mediterranean.  Dragged  as  it  were  in  spite  of  themselves, 
into  the  war  of  Charles  V.  against  the  Turks,  they  lost  four- 
teen islands  in  the  Archipelago ;  among  others  Chios,  Patmos, 
^gina,  Nio,  Stampalia,  and  Paros ;  and  were  obliged,  by  the 
peace  of  Constantinople  (1540,)  to  surrender  to  the  Turks  Mai- 
vasia  and  Napoli  di  Romagna,  the  only  two  places  which  re- 
mained to  them  in  the  Morea. 

The  Turks  also  took  from  them  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  the  finest 
of  their  possessions  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Sultan  Selim 
II.,  being  determined  to  conquer  that  place,  attacked  it  with  a 
superior  force  (1570,)  although  the  Venetians  had  given  him  no 
ground  for  hostilities.  He  made  himself  master  of  the  cities  of 
Nicosia  and  Famagusta ;  and  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
whole  island,  before  the  succours  which  the  King  of  Spain  and 
the  Pope  had  granted  to  the  Venetians,  could  join  their  fleet. 
On  the  approach  of  the  Christian  army,  the  Turkish  fleet  re- 
tired within  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  where  they  were  attacked  by 
the  allies  under  the  command  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  a  natural 
son  of  Charles  V.  The  Christians  gained  a  complete  victory 
(1571.)  The  whole  Turkish  fleet  was  destroyed,  and  the  Con- 
federates took  immense  booty.  The  news  of  this  defeat  struck 
terror  into  the  city  of  Constantinople,  and  made  the  Grand  Sig- 
nior  transfer  his  court  to  Adrianople.  The  Christians,  however, 
reaped  no  advantage  from  their  victory.  A  misunderstanding 
arose  among  the  Confederates,  and  their  fleets  dispersed  without 
accomplishing  any  thing.  The  Venetians  did  not  return  to  the 
isle  of  Cyprus ;  and  knowing  well  that  they  could  not  reckon  on 
any  efTectual  aid  on  the  part  of  their  allies,  they  determined  to 
make  peace  with  the  Turks  (1573.)  By  this  treaty  they  left 
the  Porte  in  possession  of  Cyprus,  and  consented  to  pay  it  a  sum 
of  300,000  ducats,  to  obtain  the  restitution  of  their  ancient 
boundaries  in  Dalmatia.  From  this  epoch,  the  republic  of 
Venice  dates  its  entire  decay.  It  was  evident,  that  it  must 
thenceforth  resign  its  pretensions  as  a  leading  power,  and  adopt 
a  system  of  neutrality  which  might  put  it  in  condition  to  main- 
tain peace  with  its  neighbours. 


fn 


M«vr,yi..j»it>ta;;i^iim«|Bri  ni  'fif  \n 


S46 


1 1 
•I 

ii 


CHAPTER  VU. 


England,  as  we  have  mentioned  above,  had  been  the  nval  of 
France,  while  the  latter  now  became  the  rival  of  ^ust"a-  This 
rivalry  commenced  with  the  marriage  of  Maximilian  of  Austria, 
to  Mary,  daughter  anu  heiress  of  Charles,  last  Duke  of  Burgi*- 
dy ;  by  which  the  house  of  Austria  succeeded  to  the  whole  do- 
minions of  that  Prince.  The  Low  Countries,  which  at  that 
time  were  the  principal  emporium  for  the  manufactures  and  com- 
merce of  Europe,  formed  a  part  of  that  opulent  succession. 
Louis  XL,  King  of  France,  was  unuble  to  prevent  the  marriage 
of  the  Austrian  Prince  with  the  heiress  of  Burgundy  ;  but  he 
took  advantage  of  that  event  to  detach  from  the  territories  of 
that  princess  whatever  he  found  convenient.  He  seized  on  the 
dutchy  of  Burgundy  as  a  vacant  fief  of  his  crown,  as  well  as  the 
seigniories  of  Auxerrois,  Maconnois,  Bar-sur-Seine,  and  the 
towns  on  the  Somme ;  and  these  different  countries  were  pre- 
served to  France  by  the  treaties  of  peace  concluded  at  Arras 
(1482)  and  Senlis  (1493.)  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  rivalry 
and  bloody  wars  between  France  and  Austria.  The  theatre  of 
hostilities,  which,  under  Louis  XL  had  been  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, was  transferred  to  Italy,  under  Charles  Vlll.,  Louis  All., 
and  Francis  L  From  thence  it  was  changed  to  Germany,  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  IL 

In  Italy,  besides  this  rivalry  between  the  two  powers,  there 
was  another  motive,  or  pretext,  for  war,  viz.  the  claims  of  France 
on  the  kingdom  of  Naples  and  the  dutchy  of  Mikn.  The  claim 
of  Louis  XI.  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  had  devolved  to  him 
with  the  county  of  Provence,  which  he  inherited  m  virtue  of  the 
will  of  Charles,  Count  of  Provence,  and  the  last  male  descen- 
dant of  the  house  of  Anjou  (1481.)  Charles  VIII.,  the  son  and 
succe.sor  of  Louis  XI.,'urgea  on  by  youthful  ambition,  was  de- 
termined to  enforce  this  claim.  He  undertook  an  expedition 
into  Italy  (1494,)  and  took  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  INaples 
without  striking  a  blow.  But  being  opposed  by  a  foririidable 
confederacy  of  the  Italian  princes,  with  Maximilian  at  their  head, 
he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  conquests  with  the  same  tacility 
he  had  made  them ;  and  he  was  fortunate  in  being  able  to  eflect 
his  retreat,  by  the  famous  victory  which  he  gained  over  the  al- 
lies near  Foronuovo,  in  the  dutchy  of  Parma. 

The  claim  to  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  was  founded  on  the  con- 
tract  of  marriage  between  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  grandfa- 
ther of  Louis  XII.,  and  Valentine  of  Milan  That  contract  pro- 
vided, that  failing  heirs-male  of  John  Galeas,  Duke  of  Milan, 
the  dutchy  should  fall  to  Valentine,  and  the  children  of  her 
marriage  with  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Louis  XII.  claimed  the 
righu  of  Valentine,  his  grandmother,  in  opposition  to  the  princes 


vi.-*.*,- .'..  T;A<tfe'>-*t'.'v«*«*«-.*>s*^' 


PERIOD  VI.       A.  D. 


1453—1648, 


247 


en  the  nval  of 
Lustria.  This 
an  of  Austria, 
ke  of  Burgift- 
the  whole  do- 
which  at  thai 
lures  and  com- 
nt  succession. 
t  the  marriagfi 
pindy ;  but  he 
e  territories  of 
i  seized  on  the 
,  as  well  as  the 
Seine,  and  the 
:ries  were  pre- 
luded at  Arras 
I  of  the  rivalry 
The  theatre  of 
he  Low  Coun- 
[I.,  Louis  XII., 
0  Germany,  in 

»  powers,  there 
aims  of  France 
m.  The  claim 
evolved  to  him 
in  virtue  of  the 
3t  male  descen- 
II.,  the  son  and 
ibition,  was  de- 
f  an  expedition 
jdom  of  Naples 
)y  a  formidable 
m  at  their  head, 
le  same  facility 
ig  able  to  effect 
[led  over  the  ai- 
led on  the  con- 
ns, the  grandfa- 
lat  contract  pro- 
Duke  of  Milan, 
children  of  her 
Al.  claimed  the 
m  to  the  princes 


ol  the  family   of  Sforza,   who   had   taken   possession   of    he 
dutchv  of  Milan,  on  the   extinction  of  the  male-he.rs  ol  the     , 
Vi  conti  wh  ch  happened  in  1447.     The  different  expedmons     , 
which     e  undertook  into  Italy,  both  for  the  conquest  of  M.Ian 
Td  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  met  with  no  better  success  than     | 
ibut  of  his  predecessor  had  done;  in  consequence  of  a  new     j 
League,  called  the  Holy  League,  which  Pope  Juhus  II.  raised     1 
a2st  hWn,  and  into  which  he  drew  the  Emperor  Max.m.Uaiu 
the  K  ng   0   Arragon  and  England,  with  the  Venetians  and  he 
Swit     Louis  XII.  lost  all  the  advantages  o    h.s  conquests 
The  kiuffdom  of  Naples  fell  under  the  power  of  Ferdinand  the 
iathol^  and  the  family  of  Sforza  were  reinstated  in  the  dutchy 

'^TheTe'  Italian  wars,  which  were  renewed  at  different  times 
under  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  co.t  France  much  blood  and  im- 
mense  sums.  In  this  struggle  she  was  forced  to  succumb,  and 
Sis Ibound  himself,  by  the  treaty  of  Crepy,  to  abandon  his 
claims  on  Italy  in  favour  of  Charles  V.  The  kingdom  of  Na- 
oles  and  the  dutchy  of  Milan  remained  incorporated  w.  h  the 
Cn'sh  monarchies.  Francis  I.,  nevertheless  had  the  glory  of 
arSnVthe  progress  of  his  rival,  and  effectually  counterbalan- 
S'  a  ;ower  whk,  at  that  time,  made  all  Europe  tremble. 

Henrv  II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Francis  I.,  adopted  a  new 
lin"  of  policy.     He  attacked  the  House  of  Austria,  in  Cxermany ; 
h^Jin.  en teLd  into  a  league  with  Maurice,  EleCor  of  Saxony, 
und  the  Protestant  princes  of  the  Empire,  to  oppt>%Charles  V 
Tha  league,  which  was  ratified  at  Chambord  (1552,)  procured 
for  Sy  I  .  possession  of  the  bishoprics  of  Metz,  foul,  and 
Verdun ;  Ld  he  even  succeeded  in  forcing  the  Emperor  to  raise 
the  sie-;  of  Metz,  which  that  prince  had  undertaken  about  the 
end  of  the  year  1552.     A  truce  of  five  years  was  agreed  on  be- 
tween  hese  two  sovereigns  at  Vaucelles  ;  but,  m  the  course  of 
a  few  months,  the  war  was  renewed,  and  Philip  II.,  who  had 
succeeded  hi    father,  Charles  V.,  induced  his  queen,  Mary  of 
■     EnXd,  to  join  in  it.     Among  the  events  of  this  war,  the  most 
remarkable  are  the  victory  of  St.  Quentin,  gained  by  the  Span- 
X(1557,)  and  the  conquest  of  the  <^ity«f  Calais,  by  Francis 
Duke  of  Guise  ;  the  last  possession  of  the  English  in  France 
nsw  ^     The  death  of  Queen  Mary  prepared  the  way  for  a 
ieaS'lhrch  was  signed  at  Chateau-Jambresis  (1559,)  between 
France  England,  and  Spain.     The  Duke  of  Savoy  obtained 
fhere  L  Stution  of  his  estates,  of  which  Francs  I.  had  de- 
nrived  him  in  1536.     Calais  remained  annexed  to  France. 
^Tserie™  if  wars,  both  civil  and  religious,  broke  out  underthc 
feeble  reigns  of  the  three  sons  and  successors  of  Henry  11.     1  he 


!  ■; 


■f@iMI?= 


H48 


CHAPTER  Vn. 


great  influence  of  the  Guises,  and  the  factions  which  distracted 
•he  court  and  the  state,  were  the  true  source  of  hostihties,  though 
religion  was  made  the  pretext.  Francis  II.  having  espoused 
Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland,  the  whole  power  and  authority 
.>f  the  government  passed  into  the  hands  of  Francis,  Duke  of 
Uuise,  and  the  Cardinal  de  Lorraine,  his  brother,  who  were  the 
queen's  maternal  uncles.  The  power  which  these  noblemen  en- 
joyed excited  the  jealousy  of  Anthony,  King  of  Navarre,  and 
his  brother  Louis,  Prince  of  Conde,  who  imagined  that  the  pre- 
cedency in  this  respect  was  due  to  them  as  princes  of  the  blood, 
in  preference  to  the  Lorraine  family,  who  might  be  considered 
as  strangers  in  France.  The  former  being  Calvinists,  and 
having  enlisted  all  the  leaders  of  that  party  in  their  cause,  it  was 
not  difficult  for  the  Lorraine  princes  to  secure  the  interest  of  aU 
the  most  zealous  Catholics. 

The  first  spark  that  kindled  these  civil  wars,  was  the  conspi- 
racy  of  Amboise.  The  intention  of  the  conspirators  was  to 
seize  the  Guises,  to  bring  them  to  trial,  and  throw  the  mantle- 
ment  of  affairs  into  the  hands  of  the  princes  of  the  blood.  Ihe 
conspiracy  having  been  discovered,  the  prince  of  Cond6,  who 
was  suspected  of  being  at  its  head,  was  arrested  ;  and  he  would 
have  been  executed,  had  not  the  premature  death  of  Francis  11. 
happened  in  the  meantime.  The  queen-mother,  Catherine  de 
Medici,  who  was  intrusted  with  the  regency  during  the  minority 
of  Charles  IX.,  and  desirous  of  holding  the  balance  between  the 
two  parties,  set  Conde  at  liberty,  and  granted  the  Calvinists  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion,  in  the  suburbs  and  parts  lying 
out  of  the  towns.  This  famous  edict  (January  1562)  occasion- 
ed the  first  civil  war,  the  signal  of  which  was  the  massacre  of 
Vassy  in  Champagne.  j     •  u 

Of  these  wars,  there  have  been  commonly  reckoned  eight 
under  the  family  of  Valois,  viz.  four  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX., 
and  four  in  that  of  Henry  III.  The  fourth,  under  Charles  lA., 
began  with  the  famous  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  authorized 
and  directed  by  the  King  (1572.) 

It  is  of  some  importance  to  notice  here  the  Edict  of  Factjwa- 
tian  of  Henry  III.,  of  the  month  of  May  1676.  The  new  pri- 
vileges which  this  edict  granted  to  the  Calvinists,  encouraged 
the  Guises  to  form  a  league  this  same  year,  ostensibly  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  Catholic  religion,  but  whose  real  object  was 
the  dethronement  of  the  reigning  dynasty,  and  the  elevation  of 
the  Guises.  The  Duke  of  Alen5on,  only  brother  of  Henry  Ui., 
being  dead,  and  the  King  of  Navarre,  who  professed  the  Gai- 
vinistic  faith,  having  become  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown,  the 
chiefs  of  the  Catholic  League  no  longer  made  a  secret  of  thetr 


li=: 


icil  distracted 
lities,  though 
ing  espoused 
and  authority 
icis,  Duke  of 
who  were  the 
noblemen  en- 
Navarre,  and 
I  that  the  pre* 
J  of  the  blood, 
be  considered 
alvinists,  and 
r  cause,  it  was 
interest  of  all 

as  the  conspi- 
rators was  to 
7  the  manM[e- 
e  blood.  The 
f  Cond^,  who 
and  he  would 
of  Francis  II. 
Catherine  de 
g  the  minority 
ce  between  the 
Calvinists  the 
nd  parts  lying 
562)  occasion- 
le  massacre  of 

eckoned  eight 
Df  Charles  IX., 
sr  Charles  IX., 
ew,  authorized 

let  of  Pacifiea' 
The  new  pri- 
sts, encouraged 
ensibly  for  the 
real  object  was 
;he  elevation  of 
r  of  Henry  III., 
"essed  the  Cal- 
I  the  crown,  the 
.  secret  of  their 


PERIOD  VI.      A.  D.  146^—1648. 

measures.  They  concluded  a  formal  alliance  (IS-S-l)  with  Philip 
n  of  Spain,  for  excluding  the  Bourbous  from  the  throne  of 
Fmnce.  Henry  III.  was  obliged,  by  the  Leaguers,  'o  recom- 
mence  the  war  against  the  Calvinists;  but  perce.vmg  that  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  and  the  Cardinal  his  ^'^o'^er,  took  every  occ^ 
sion  to  render  his  government  od.ous,  he  caused  th^'"  ^"'^  to  ^ 
assassinated  at  Blois  (1688,)  and  threw  h'^^^lf  on  the  rotec 
tion  of  the  King  of  Navarre.  In  conjunction  wuh  that  I -mce, 
he  undertook  the  siege  of  Paris,  during  which  he  wa-s  lumself 
assassinated  at  St.  Cloud,  by  a  Jacobm  of  the  name  of  James 

^'SyiS  of  Valois  ended  with  Henry  III.,  after  having 
occupied  the  throne  for  two  hundred  and  sixty-one  y.^/"-    ^  jj" 
this  dynasty  the  royal  authority  had  gamed  cons  derably,  both 
by  the^annexation  of  the  great  fiefs  to  the  "ovvn-lands,  and  by 
the  introduction  of  regular  armies,  which  put  an  end  to  the  feu- 
dal  power.     Louis  xf.  was  chiefly  instrumental  m  bringmg  the 
'IE  under  subjection,  and  putting  an  end  to  the  cruelt.es 
and  oppressions  of  anarchjr.     If  these  changes,  however,  contr,- 
CJ\o  public  order,  it  fs  nevertheless  true  that  the  national 
Sberty  suSered  by  them  ;  that  the  royal  authority  da>ly  received 
new  augmentations ;  and  that,  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Lou  s  XII., 
it  was  considered  as  high  treason  to  speak  of  the  "e'^e^s.ty  of 
assembhng  the  States-General.   The  practice  of  these  assemblies, 
Crve  "was  renewed  under  the  successors  of  that  P"nce;  they 
even  beckme  frequent  under  the  last  kings  of  the  house  of  Va bis, 
who  convoked  them  chiefly  with  the  view  of  demanding  supp  les. 
Francis  I  augmented  his  influence  over  the  clergy  by  the  con- 
SXt  whicKe  concluded  with  Leo  X.  (1516,)  in  virtue  of 
which  he  obtained  the  nomination  to  all  vacant  prelatures  ;  leav- 
ing  to  the  Pope  the  confirmation  of  the  prelates,  and  the  libeity 

°^  S^rac?of  VaSs  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Bourbons,  who 
were  descended  from  Robert  Count  of  Clermont,  younger  son  of 
St  Louis.  Henry  IV.,  the  first  king  of  this  dynasty,  was  related 
in  the  twenty-first  degree  to  Henry  III.,  his  m.mediate  predeces- 
sor That  prince,  who  was  a  Calvinist,  the  more  easily  reduced 
the  party  of  the  League,  by  publicly  abjuring  nis  religion  at  St. 
DeX  He  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Spaniards,  who  were 
alUes  of  the  League,  at  V^rvins;  and  completely  t/anquilized 
Se  kingdom  by  the  famous  edict  of  Nantes,  whicUe  published 
in  favour  of  th ^reformed  religion.  By  that  edict  he  ^arameed 
o  the  Protestants  perfect  liberty  of  conscience,  and  the  public 
exercise  of  their  worship,  with  the  privilege  of  filling  all  offices 
of  trust :  but  he  rendered  them,  at  the  same  time,  a  piece  of  dis- 


ll 


in 


»► 


m 


fc 


,.i. 


service,  by  L'mnling  ihciu  lorfcMieil  pliu-es,  under  the  nnrne  of  places 
of  .sfiurity.  By  thus  fosU-rin^  a  .xpiril  of  party  uiul  inttctii.e 
fnrtio.i,  h.-  furni.lKMl  a  plausil.!.-  prt-fxl  to  thi-ir  advt;r«.irie8  for 
gradually  uiideriiiinir.^,' tin-  edict,  ami  (iually  proscnbn.g  the  .-x- 
er{i>e  of  the  ri-formed  rfli),Mori  in  France. 

That  "reat  princ<;,  after  having  established  iho  iranquilhty  ot 
his  liiii.'dom  at  lion.e  and  il.road,  encouraged  arts  and  manufac- 
ture- ami  put  the  administration  of  his  finances  into  admirable 
order,  was  assassinated  hy  Hnvaillac  (1610,)  at  the  very  moinent 
when  he  was  employed  in  exiruling  the  grand  scheme  which  ho 
had  projected  for  the  pacilicalion  of  Kurope.    Cardinal  Kichelicu, 
when  he  assumed  the  reins  of  government  under  Louis  Alll., 
had  nothing  so  niflch  at  heart  as  the  expulsion  of  the  talvinisls 
from  their  strongholds.     This  he  a.-complis!ied  hy  means  of  the 
three  wars  which  he  waged  against  them,  and  by  the  famous 
siege  of  liochcUe,  which  he  reduced  in  1()28.     That  great  states- 
man next  employed  his  policy  against  the  house  of  Austria,  whose 
preponderance  gave  umbrage  to  all  Euroi-e.     He  took  the  op- 
nort'ii'itv  of  the  vacant  succession  of  Mant.ia  to  espouse  the  cause 
of  the  Ouke  of  Nevers  against  the  Courts  oT  Vienna  and  Mad- 
rid, who  supported  the  Duke  of  Guasialla;  and  maintained  his 
protege  in  the  dutchy  of  Mantua,  by  il>e  treaties  ol  peace  which 
were  concluded  at  Katisbon  and  Querasque  (1631.)     Having 
afterwards  joined  Sweden,  he  made  war  against  the  tvyo  branches 
of  Austria,  and  on  this  occasion  got  possession  of  the  places  which 
•  he  Swedes  had  seized  in  Alsace. 

Louis  XIV.  was  only  four  years  and  s.wen  months  old  when 
he  succeeded  his  father  (1643.)     The  queen-mother,  Anne  of 
Austria,  assumed  the  regency.     She  appointed  Cardinal  Ma- 
zarin   her  prime   minister,  whose  administration,   during  the 
minority  of  the  King,  was  a  scene  of  turbulence  and  distrac- 
tion.    The  same  external  policy  which  had  directed  the  minis- 
try of  Richelieu,  was  followed  by  his  successor.     He  prose- 
!-uted  the  war  against  Austria  with  vigour,  in  conjunction  wuh 
Sweden,  and  their  confederates  in  Germany.     By  the  peace 
which  was  concluded  with  the  Emperor  at  Munster,  besides 
the  three  bishoprics  of  Lorraine,  France  obtained  the  Land- 
graviate  of  Lower  and  Upper  Alsace,  SungaA  ,  and  the  pre- 
fecture of  the  ten  Imperial  cities  of  Alsace.     Spcin  was  ex- 
cluded from  this  treaty  ;  and  the  war  continued  betw-een  that 
kingdom  and  France  until  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  by  which 
the  counties  of  Roussillon  and  Conflans  were  ceded  to  France, 
as  well  as  several  cities  in  Flanders,  Hainault,  and  Luxembourg. 
Spain,  which  had  long  been  divided  into  several  States,  and 
a  stranger  as  it  were  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  became  all  of  a  sud 


L- 


=JJ 


'■•-VjSJ 


tiE,'?ft?is:  s-tta^ 


Inntiieofplaces 

uiui  intestine 

lidvtTsmries  for 

:ril>ing  tlie  ex* 

tranquillity  of 
and  nianufac- 
into  admirable 
('  very  nionicnt 
lenie  wliich  ho 
inai  Kichelicu, 
r  Louis  XIII., 
°  the  Calvinists 
V  means  of  the 
ny  the  foJiious 
nt  great  states- 
A\ijitria,  whose 
le  took  the  op- 
pouse  the  cause 
LMinu  and  Mud- 
maintained  his 
of  peace  which 
1631.)     Having 
lie  two  branches 
he  places  which 

onths  old  when 
other,  Anne  of 
J  Cardinal  Ma- 
on,  during  the 
ce  and  distrac- 
ictcd  the  minis- 
or.  He  prose- 
onjunction  wich 
By  the  peace 
[unster,  besides 
ned  the  Land- 
,  and  the  pre- 
Spain  was  ex- 
;d  between  that 
mees,  by  which 
3ded  to  France, 
d  Luxembourg. 
etal  States,  and 
me  all  of  a  sud 


TBRIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  Ill 

den  a  formidable  power,  turning  the  political  Imlance  in  her  own 
favour.  This  elevation  was  the  work  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic, 
a  prince  born  lor  grtnit  exploits  ;  of  a  profound  and  fertile  geniuK . 
but  tarni.<iliing  \m  bright  (|ualitie.s  by  perlidy  and  unbouiideri 
ambition.  He  was  heir  to  the  throne  of  Arragon,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  greatnes.t  by  his  marriage  with  Isaliella 
(1469,)  sister  to  Henry  VI.  last  King  of  Castillt!.  That  match 
united  the  kingdoms  of  Costille  and  Arragtm,  which  were  the 
two  principal  Chri.xiian  States  in  Spain.  Henry  of  Castille  hud 
left  a  daughter  named  Jane,  but  she  U'ing  considered  as  illegi- 
timate by  the  Castillians,  the  throne  was  conferred  on  I.suliella 
and  her  husband  Ferdinand  (1174.)  The  Infanta  June,  in  order 
to  enforce  her  claims,  betrothed  herself  to  Aljihonso  V.  King  of 
Portugal ;  but  that  prince  In-ing  defeated  by  Ferdinand  at  the 
battle  of  Toro  (1476,)  was  obliged  to  renounce  Caslille  und  hia 
marriage  with  the  Infanta. 

At  the  accession  of  Isabella  to  the  throne  of  Cnstille,  that 
kingdom  was  a  prey  to  all  the  miseries  of  anarchy.  The  abuses 
of  the  feudal  system  were  there  maintained  by  violence  and  in- 
justice. Ferdinand  deinoli.<lied  the  fortresses  of  the  nobles  who 
mfe-stcd  the  country ;  he  gav<!  new  vigour  to  the  laws ;  liberated 
the  people  from  the  oppression  of  the  great ;  und,  under  pretence 
of  extirpating  the  Jews  anti  Mahometans,  he  estublished  the 
tribunal  of  the  Innuisition  (147S,)  which  spread  universal  terror 
by  its  unheard  ol  cruelties.  Torfpiemada,  a  Dominican,  who 
was  appointed  grand  Inquisitor  (1483,)  burnt  in  the  space  of  four 
years  near  6000  individuals. 

The  Moors  still  retained  the  kingdom  of  Grenada.  Ferdinand 
took  advantage  of  their  dissensions  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  it, 
in  which  he  succeeded,  after  a  vigorous  war  of  eighteen  years. 
Abo  Abdeli,  the  last  King  of  Grenada,  fled  to  Africa.  An  edict, 
which  was  published  immediately  after,  ordered  the  expul- 
sion of  all  the  Jews  ;  about  an  hundred  thousand  of  whom  fled 
from  Spain,  and  took  shelter,  some  in  Portugal,  and  others  in 
Africa.  Ferdinand  did  not  include  the  Moors  in  this  proscrip- 
tion, whom  he  thought  to  gain  over  to  Christianity  by  means  of 
persecution ;  but  having  revolted  in  the  year  1500,  he  then  al- 
lowed them  to  emigrate.  It  was  this  bhnd  and  headlong  zeal 
that  procured  Ferdinand  the  title  of  the  Catholic  King,  which 
Popo  Alexander  III.  conferred  on  him  and  his  successors  (1493.) 
That  prince  also  augmented  his  power  by  annexing  to  his  crown 
the  Grand  Mastership  of  the  Military  Orders  of  Calatrava,  Al- 
cantara, and  St.  James  of  Compostellu. 

Every  thing  conspired  to  aggrandize  Ferdinand ;  and  as  if  the 
Old  World  had  not  been  sufficient,  a  New  one  was  opened  to 


^i«iiiwjiiii»  >-ii>hi"|,ia^lT.-;pM'i'*«i*»«tr»l 


«« 


OnAPTKI    VII. 


^i. 


Dim  by  the  diacovpry  of  Amcrira.     Ho  wait  heir,  by  the  father'^ 
Hide,  to  the  kiriffdomn  of  Arrn^^on,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia.     Hr 

!rnt  possefinion  of  Castillo  by  liin  mnrriu(re,  and  of  Uronadu  by 
brcc  of  arriiM ;  so  thai  nothing  was  wanting  except  Novarre  to 
unite  all  Spain  under  his  dominion.  The  Holy  League,  which 
Poiw  Julius  II.  had  organized  ai^ainst  Louis  All.  (1611,)  fur- 
nished him  with  n  pretext  for  seizing  that  kingdom.  Entering 
into  an  alliance  with  the  Pojm?,  he  concerted  with  the  King  of 
England  to  invade  Guiennu,  on  which  the  English  had  Home 
ancient  claims.  They  demanded  of  the  King  of  Navarre  that 
he  should  make  common  cause  with  the  allies  of  the  Holy 
League  against  Louis  XII.     That  princi',  however,  wishing  to 

C reserve  neutrality,  they  prcscribi^d  conditions  so  severe,  that  he 
ad  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  seek  protection  in  France. 
Ferdinand  then  obtained  possession  of  all  that  part  of  Navarre 
which  lay  beyond  the  Pyrenees.  Twelve  years  before  that  time 
Ferdinand  had,  by  the  treaty  of  Grenada,  planned  with  Loui? 
XII.  the  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Noples.  Frederic  of  Ar- 
ragon  was  then  deprived  of  that  kingdom,  ond  his  States  were 
divided  between  the  two  allied  kings  ;  but  Ferdinand  having 
soon  quarrelled  with  Louis  XII.  as  to  their  respective  boundaries, 
this  was  made  a  pretext  for  expelling  the  French  from  Naples, 
which  was  agoin  united  to  the  Spanish  monarchy,  in  the  years 
1503  and  1505. 

Charles  I.  of  Austria,  grandson  of  Ferdinand,  and  his  succes- 
sor in  the  Spanish  monarchy,  added  to  that  crown  the  Low 
Countries  and  Franche-Comte,  which  he  inherited  in  right  of 
his  father  Philip  of  Austria,  and  his  grandmother  Mary  of  Bur- 
gundy. He  added  likewise  the  kingdoms  of  Mexico  and  Peru 
on  the  continent  of  America,  and  the  dutchy  of  Milan  in  Italy, 
in  which  he  invested  his  son  Philip,  after  ha\  ing  repeatedly  ex- 
pelled the  French  in  the  years  1522  and  1525. 

These  were  all  the  advantages  he  derived  from  his  wars 
against  Francis  I.,  which  occupied  the  greater  part  of  his 
reign.  Blinded  by  his  animosity  against  that  Prince,  and  by  his 
ruling  passion  for  war,  he  only  exhausted  his  kingdom,  and  im- 
paired his  true  greatness.  Charles  resigned  the  Spanish  mo- 
narchy to  his  son  Philip  II.,  which  then  comprehended  the  Low 
Countries,  the  kingdoms  of  Naples,  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  the 
dutchyof  Milan,  and  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America.  The 
peace  of  Chateau  Cambresis,  which  Philip  II.  signed  in  1559, 
after  a  long  war  against  France,  may  be  regarded  as  the  era  of 
Spanish  greatness.  To  the  states  which  were  left  him  by  his 
father,  Philip  added  the  kingdom  of  Portugal,  with  the  Portu- 
gUAse  possessions  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  America ;  but  this  was  the 


tJie  father'n 
nrdiriia.     Hr 
Oronadii  by 
it  Navnrre  lo 
[eogue,  which 
(1511,)  fur- 
Entering 
the  King  of 
ah  had  some 
Navnrre  that 
of  the  Holy 
T,  wishing  to 
icvere,  that  he 
on  in  Fronce. 
irt  of  Navarre 
fore  that  time 
d  with  Louif 
rt'deric  of  Ar» 
is  States  were 
linand  having 
ve  boundarieft, 
^  from  Naples, 
r,  in  the  years 


ind  his  succeS' 
own  the  Low 
ed  in  right  of 
Mary  of  Bur- 
xico  and  Peru 
Vlilan  in  Italy, 
repeatedly  ex- 

rom  his  wars 
r  part  of  his 
ice,  and  by  his 
Ifdom,  and  im- 
i  Spanish  mo* 
inded  the  Low 
Sardinia,  the 
imerica.  The 
gned  in  1569, 
I  as  the  era  of 
iA  him  W  his 
ith  the  F'ortu* 
It  this  was  the 


the  ('(nircilcnitfn  of  iln'  Low  (,'fMiiilrii'K,  I' 
r(|ui|ipfil  II  r<iriiii(liiMi-  llrrt,  known  hy  tlii' 


l>RRion  vt.     A,  f).  14/13—1648.  M 

tcrinlnatioti  of  his  prosperity.  IIi-<  riisxn  nCtir  tli.il  wtxi^  only  ■ 
«ut'ii'N>ion  (if  iiiinrorinncN.  Hifi  ri'voliin;,'  (|f.«ii(itifin  excited  thu 
Beii^iikiiN  III  inMirrei'tioti,  iind  ^fnvti  liirtli  to  ilic  n  |iiililii'  of  the 
Uniti'd  i'riivinci'i!.     I'jlizaln;tli  of  Kiij,'land  linvlrii,'  joined  with 

"liilip,  out  of  revenge, 
.iiinie  ef  llie  Inrinci* 
ble  Armada,  v,\\w\\  was  composed  of  l.'JO  veHvels  of  ctiorinous 
size,  niuiined  will.  iiO.OOO  sofdierN,  exclusive  of  Miilois,  and  arin» 
ed  with  1360  pieces  ofcuiinon.  On  euterinj,'  tiie  ('liiiniicl  they 
were  defeated  by  the  English  (yist  of  July  l.lsH,)  and  the  grcatef 
part  of  them  destroyed  by  a  storia. 

From  this  calamity  may  be  dated  the  decline  of  the  Spanish 
monarchy,  which  wum  exhausted  by  its  expensive  wars.  Philips 
At  his  death,  left  an  enormous  debt,  and  the  whole  glory  of  the 
Spanish  nation  perished  with  him.  The  reigns  of  his  feeble 
successors  are  only  remarkable  for  their  disasters.  Philip  IIL 
did  irreparable  injury  to  his  crown  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors 
or  ftloreocoes  (1610,)  which  lost  Spain  nearly  a  million  of  her 
industrious  subjects.  Nothing  can  eciunl  the  misfortunes  which 
•he  experienced  under  the  reign  of  Philip  IV.  During  the  war 
which  he  had  to  support  against  France,  the  Catalans  revolted, 
and  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  that  Crown  (164(\) 
Encouraged  by  their  example,  the  Portuguese  likewise  shook 
off  the  yoke,  and  replaced  the  House  of  Braganza  on  their 
throne.  Lastly,  the  Neapolitans,  harassed  by  the  Duke  d'Oli- 
varez,  prime  minister  of  Philip  IV.  revolted,  and  attempted  to 
form  themselves  into  a  republic  (1647.)  These  reverses  on  the 
part  of  Spain  added  to  the  number  of  her  enemies.  The  famous 
Cromwell  having  entered  into  an  alliance  with  France  (1655,) 
dispossessed  the  Spaniards  of  Jamaica,  one  of  their  richest  set* 
dements  in  America. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Portugal  had  reach- 
ed a  high  pitch  of  elevation,  which  she  owed  to  the  astonishing 
progress  of  her  navigation  and  her  commerce.  John  II.,  whose 
fleets  first  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  augmented  the  royal 
authority,  by  humbling  the  exorbitant  and  tyrannical  power  of 
the  grandees.  In  the  diet  which  was  asseniolcd  at  Evora,  he 
retracted  the  concessions  which  his  predecessors  had  made  to 
the  nobles,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Crown.  He  abolished  the 
power  of  life  and  death,  which  the  lords  exercised  over  their 
vassals,  and  subjected  their  towns  and  their  territories  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  officers  appointed  by  the  King.  The  nobles,  who 
were  displeased  at  these  innovations,  having  combined  in  de- 
fence of  their  privileges,  and  chosen  the  Duke  of  Braganza  for 
their  leader,  John,  without  being  disconcerted  by  this  opposition, 


T 


'iU--  ^■^--  4.u^,mi^^.ajUi;ia;aia'..:j"  .-'j;."  a  -xv^i  v.  •: 


984  CHAPTER  vn. 

liad  ihe  Duke  brouglit  to  a  trial,  and  his  liead  cut  off,  while  his 
brother  was  hanjied  in  effigy.  This  example  of  severity  intiroi- 
dated  the  grandees,  and  made  them  submit  to  his  authority. 
The  most  brilliant  era  of  Portugal  was  that  of  Emmanuel  and 
John  III.,  who  reigned  between  the  years  1495  and  1567.  It 
was  under  these  two  Princes  that  the  Portuguese  formed  their 
powerful  empire  in  India,  of  which  nothing  now  remains  but 

the  ruins.  .      r   vi 

The  glory  of  Portugal  suffered  an  eclipse  under  the  feeble 
reign  of  Sebastian,  grandson  and  immediate  successor  of  John. 
That  Prince,  who  came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  three  years, 
had  been  brought  up  by  the  Jesuits,  who  instead  of  instructing 
him  in  the  important  arts  of  governmeuv,  had  given  hini  the 
education  of  a  monk.  They  had  inspirec  him  with  a  dislike 
for  matrimony,  but  with  a  decided  attachment  for  the  crusades. 
Muley  Mahomet,  King  of  Morocco,  having  lequested  his  assist- 
ance  against  his  uncle  Moluc,  who  had  dethroned  him,  Sebas- 
tian undertook  an  expedition  into  Africa  in  person,  carrying  with 
him  the  flower  of  his  nobility.  A  bloody  battle  was  fought  near 
Alcavar,  in  tha  kingdom  of  Fez  (1578,)  where  the  Portuguese 
sustained  a  complete  defeat.  Sebastian  was  slain ;  and,  what  is 
sufficiently  remarkable,  his  enemy  Moluc  died  a  natural  death 
during  the  action,  while  Muley  Mahomet  was  dvowned  in  the 
flight. 

[During  the  reign  of  this  king,  every  thing  had  fallen  mto 
decay ;  even  the  character  of  the  nation  had  begun  to  degenerate. 
The  spirit  of  chivalry  which  had  distinguished  them,  was  ex- 
changed for  mercantile  adventures,  which  even  infected  the 
higher  classes ;  while  avarice,  luxury,  and  effeminacy,  brought 
on  a  universal  corruption.  The  governors  of  their  colonies  in- 
dulged in  all  sorts  of  violence  and  injustice.  They  seized  the 
more  lucrative  branches  of  commerce.  The  military  force, 
which  Emmanuel  and  John  III.  had  kept  up  in  India,  was 
neglected.  The  clergj'  usurped  the  whole  wealth  of  the  colo- 
nies, and  exercised  an  absolute  power  by  means  of  the  Inquisition, 
which  was  no  where  more  terrible  than  at  Goa.] 

As  Sebastian  had  never  been  married,  the  throne  passed  at 
his  death  to  Henry  the  Cardinal,  his  grand  uncle  by  the  father's 
side,  who  was  already  far  advanced  in  life.  Perceiving  his  end 
approach,  and  that  his  death  would  involve  the  kingdom  in  con- 
fusion, he  summoned  an  assembly  of  the  States  at  Lisbon  (1579,) 
in  order  to  fix  the  succession. '  The  States  appointed  eleven 
cwmntissioners,  who  were  to  investigate  the  claims  of  the  diffe- 
rent candidates  for  the  crown.  Philip  11.  of  Spain,  who  \yas  one 
of  this  number,  did  not  pay  the  least  regard  to  the  decision  of 


I: 


P 


■y  ,i?^,^'  vi'ff^pmTZ'>-'^~'> 


off,  while  his 
irerity  intiroi- 
is  authority, 
imunuel  and 
id  1567.  It 
formed  their 
remains  hut 

er  the  feehle 
ssor  of  John. 
■  three  years, 
)f  instructing 
ven  him  the 
vith  a  dislike 
the  crusades, 
ted  his  assist- 
[  him,  Sebas- 
carrying  with 
IS  fought  near 
e  Portuguese 
;  and,  what  is 
natural  death 
owned  in  the 

ad  fallen  into 
to  degenerate, 
hem,  was  ex- 
infected  the 
nacy,  brought 
ir  colonies  in- 
ey  seized  the 
nilitary  force, 
n  India,  was 
h  of  the  colo- 
\ie  Inquisition, 

one  passed  at 
by  the  father's 
?iving  his  end 
iigdom  in  con« 
jishon  (1579.) 
lointed  eleven 
IS  of  the  diffe* 
I,  who  was  one 
he  decision  of 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648. 


255 


I 


,h.  <;.-tPs  No  sooner  had  he  learned  the  death  of  Henry  ( 1580,) 
t  ?!!;«!  the  Duke  of  Alva,  at  the  head  of  an  army,  to  take 
'^''"  ^irofXiTal  Thfe  Duke  defeated  the  troops  of  his 
possession  ol  mtugai.      ^"«  .  ^    da  mants,  who 

then^all  commerce  with  Po^t^S^^'-.      ,  .    ,  •   evnectalion.     The 
TKo»  PrJnnp  however,  was  deceived  m  nis  expetiauuu. 
That  f  rince,  '^•'r^7'V.V,;«  Inrritive  branch  of  their  industry, 

attempted  to  form  »!«™™'Viw  „uh  them;  »eat  Banlatn, 
XZ'XIT^Z-  SttJ™£h  f„;^  i"  favour  oC  the 
'^fj^'^i  by  this  6,st  success,  the  D«o=h  unde.took  to  de- 

™ilTe"&s.  of  their  ^'P^^^^ZT^ZltS. 
^he  --qu«»' **  thejj  m.  e^  ,^^  .^^, 

SS^^Sre  they  /mSth.  city  of  Bata,ia,  ?kf,!-»™ 

independence.     It  was  w""  ""  revenues  dissipated,  their 

marine  were  disoriranized,  their  crown  re  venues  u      v 


rH^^BfWc?^,?x.:5^pi»Fiv=- 


ymigL^!i-i!iimmMi?!.'k,ASM^v^'i^  H"j 


mmm. 


IP- 


266 


CHAPTER  Tir. 


nobility  precltidea  irom  the  management  of  afTairs,  and  the  ni*- 
tion  exhausted  by  exorbitant  assessments. 

The  revolt  of  the  Catalans,  which  happened  in  1640,  at  length 
determined  the  Portuguese  to  shake  off  the  Spanish  yoke.  A 
conspiracy  was  entered  into  by  some  of  the  grandees,  in  concert 
with  the  Duke  of  Braganza,  which  broke  out  on  the  1st  Decem- 
ber that  same  year.  On  that  day,  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  conspirators,  to  the  number  of  about  four  hundred,  re- 
paired by  different  routes  to  the  palace  of  Lisbon,  where  the 
vice-queen,  Margaret  of  Savoy,  and  dowager  of  Mantua,  resided, 
with  Vasconcellos  the  Secretary  of  State,  who  exercised  the 
functions  of  Prime  Minister  of  the  kingdom.  Part  of  them  dis- 
armed the  guard  of  the  palace,  while  others  seized  Vasconcel- 
los, who  was  the  only  victim  that  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  public 
vengeance.  They  secured  the  person  of  the  vice-queen,  and 
took  measures  to  protect  her  from  insult  or  violence.  The  con- 
spirators then  proclaimed  the  Duke  of  Braganza  King,  under 
the  title  of  John  IV.  That  prince  arrived  at  Lisbon  on  the  6th 
of  December,  and  his  inauguration  took  place  on  the  15th.  It 
is  not  a  little  surprising  that  this  revolution  became  general  m 
eight  days  time,  and  that  it  was  not  confined  merely  to  Portugal, 
but  extended  even  to  India  and  Africa.  Every  where  the  Por- 
tuguese expelled  the  Spaniards,  and  proclaimed  the  Duke  of 
Braganza.  The  city  of  Ceuta  in  Africa,  was  the  only  town  of 
which  the  Spaniard:^  found  means  to  retain  possession. 

John  IV.  was  descended  in  a  direct  line  from  Alphonso,  I'a- 
tural  son  of  John  the  Bastard,  who  was  created  Duke  of  Bra- 
ganza. The  first  care  of  this  new  King  of  Portugal,  on  his  ac- 
cession to  the  throne,  was  to  convene  an  assembly  of  the  States 
at  Lisbon,  in  order  to  make  them  acknowledge  his  right  to  the 
crown.  The  States,  conformably  to  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
kingdom,  declared  that  Catherine,  daughter  of  the  infant  Don 
Edward,  and  grandmother  of  King  John,  having  become  the 
true  and  legitimate  heiress  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Henry 
'he  Cardinal,  her  grandson  John  IV.  was  entitled  to  the  repos- 
session of  those  rights  of  which  that  princess  had  been  unjustly 
deprived  by  the  Spaniards.  The  better  to  establish  himself  on 
the  throne,  John  concluded  treaties  of  peace  with  France,  the 
United  Provinces,  the  Netherlands,  and  Sweden  ;  but  confining 
his  whole  ambition  to  maintaining  the  ancient  limi*s  of  the  king- 
dom, he  remained  completely  inactive  with  regard  to  Snain, 
which,  being  overpowered  by  numerous  enemies,  was  quiie  in- 
capable of  carrying  on  the  war  with  vigour  against  Portugal 
The  truce  and  alliance  which  that  Prince  had  entered  into  with 
the  Dutch,  did  not  prevent  these  republicans  froro  contmuing 


|i  and  the  nu- 

•40,  at  length 
|ish  yoke.     A 
ies,  in  concert 
le  1st  Decem- 
in  the  morn- 
hundred,  re- 
on,  where  the 
ntua,  resided, 
exercised  the 
t  of  them  dis- 
id  Vasconcel- 
to  the  public 
;e-queen,  and 
ce.     The  con- 
King,  under 
•on  on  the  6th 
the  15th.     It 
Tie  general  m 
Y  to  Portugal, 
'here  the  Por- 
the  Duke  of 
!  only  town  of 
jsion. 

Alphonso,  )'a- 
Duke  of  Bra- 
:al,  on  his  ac-     | 
of  the  States     I 
is  right  to  the     j 
al  laws  of  the 
le  infant  Don 
;  become  the 
lath  of  Henry 
to  tile  repos- 
)een  unjustly 
ih  himself  on 
France,  the 
l)'U  confiniiig 
'  of  the  king- 
rd  to  Snnin, 
ras  q-me  in- 
st  ronugal 
ed  into  with 
I  continuing 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  i453— 1618. 


897 


their  conquests  in  India ;  yrhere,  in  process  of  time,  ihey  strip 
ped  the  Portuguese  of  their  finest  settlements. 

England,  long  before  this  time,  had  emerged  from  the  state  of 
turbulence  and  desolation  into  which  she  had  been  plunged  by 
the  destructive  wars  of  the  two  Rr  les.  A  new  family,  that  of 
the  Tudors,  had  mounted  the  throne;  Henry  VII.,  who  was  its 
founder,  claimed  the  crown  in  right  of  his  mother  Margaret 
Beaufort,  alleged  heiress  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  or  the  Red 
Rose ;  and  raised  an  insurrection  against  Richard  III.,  the  last 
King  of  the  House  of  York.  This  prince  being  defeated  and 
slain  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth  (1485,)  Henry,  who  was  then 
proclaimed  King  of  England,  united  the  titles  or  claims  of  the 
two  Roses,  by  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  dau^ter  of  Edward 
IV.,  and  heiress  of  York,  or  the  White  Rose.  The  country  be- 
ing thus  restored  to  tranquillity  after  thirty  years  of  civil  war, 
every  thing  assumed  a  more  prosperous  appearance.  Agricul- 
ture and  commerce  began  to  flourish  anew.  Henry  applied 
himself  to  the  restoration  of  order  and  industry.  He  humbled 
the  factious  nobles,  and  raised  the  royal  autnority  almost  to  a 
state  of  absolute  despotism. 

The  reformatiom  of  religion  in  England  began  in  the  reign  of 
his  son  Henry  VIII.  That  Prince,  who  was  of  a  very  capricious 
character,  vacillating  continually  between  virtue  and  vice,  ap- 
peared at  first  as  the  champion  of  Popery,  and  published  a  treatise 
against  Luther,  which  procured  him,  from  the  Court  of  Rome, 
the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith.  But  a  violent  passion,  which 
he  had  conceived  for  Anne  Boleyn,  having  induced  him  to  attempt 
a  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Arragon,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic,  he  addressed  himself  for  this  purpose  to  Pope  Clement 
VII.,  alleging  certain  scruples  of  conscience  which  he  felt  on  ac- 
count of  his  marriage  with  Catherine,  who  was  within  the  de- 
grees of  affinity,  prohibited  in  the  sacred  Scriptures.  The  Pope 
being  afraid  to  dirjplease  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  who  was  the 
nephew  of  Catherine,  thought  proper  to  defer  judgment  in  this 
matter ;  but  the  King,  impatient  of  delay,  caused  his  divorce  to 
be  pronounced  by  Thomas  Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
{\SdQ,)  and  immediately  married  Anne  Boleyn. 

The  sentence  of  the  Archbishop  was  annulled  by  the  Pope, 
who  published  a  threatening  bull  against  Henry.  This  incensed 
the  King,  who  caused  the  Papal  authority  in  England  to  be  abro- 
gated by  the  Parliament,  and  installed  himself  in  the  capacity  of 
supreme  head  of  the  English  Church  (1534 ;)  a  title  which  was 
couVrred  on  him  by  the  clergy,  and  confirmed  by  the  Parliament. 
He  also  introduced  the  oath  of  supremacy,  in  virtue  of  which  all 
who  were  employed  in  offices  of  trust,  were  obliged  to  acknow- 

17 


1  . 


253 


CHAPTKE  Til. 


ledge  nim  as  head  oFthe  Church.  A  court  of  High  Commission 
was  established,  to  judge  ecclesiastical  causes  in  name  of  the 
king,  and  from  whose  sentence  there  was  no  appeal.  The  con- 
vents or  monasteries  were  suppressed,  and  their  revenues  confis- 
cated to  the  crown  (1536-1539.)  Henry  even  became  a  dogma- 
tist in  theology' ;  and  discarding  the  principles  of  Luther,  as  well 
as  those  of  Calvin  and  Rome,  he  framed  a  religion  according  to 
his  own  fancy.  Rejecting  the  worship  of  images,  relics,  purga- 
tory, monastic  vows,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  he  gave  his 
sanction,  by  the  law  of  the  Six  Articles,  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
real  presence,  the  communion  in  one  kind,  the  vow  i;,'  chastity, 
the  celibacy  of  the  priests,  the  mass,  and  auricular  confession ; 
inflicting  very  severe  penalties  on  all  who  should  deny  or  disobey 
one  or  other  of  these  articles. 

This  monarch,  who  was  the  first  of  the  English  kings  that 
took  the  title  of  King  of  Ireland  (1542,)  was  involved  in  the  dis- 
putes which  then  embroiled  the  Continental  powers ;  but  instead 
of  holding  the  balance  between  France  and  Austria,  he  adhered 
in  general  to  his  friend  and  ally  Charles  V.  against  France. 
This  conduct  was  regulated  less  by  politics  than  by  passion,  and 
the  personal  interest  of  his  minister  Cardinal  Wolsey,  whom  the 
Emperor  had  attached  to  his  cause,  by  the  hope  of  the  papal  tiara. 

The  religion  which  Henry  had  planted  in  England,  did  not 
continue  after  hia  death.  Edward  VI.,  his  son  and  immediate 
successor,  introduced  pure  Calvinism  or  Presbyterianism. 
Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Catherine  of  Arragon,  on 
her  accession  to  the  throne,  restored  the  Catholic  religion  (1553,) 
and  likewise  received  the  new  legate  of  the  Pope  into  England. 
She  inflicted  great  cruelties  on  the  Protestants,  many  of  whom 
were  burnt  at  the  stake ;  among  others,  Cranmer,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  the  Bishops  of  London  and  Worcester. 
With  the  view  of  more  firmly  establishing  the  Catholic  religion 
m  her  dominions,  she  espoused  Philip,  presumptive  heir  to  the 
Spanish  monarchy  ( 1554.)  The  restrictions  with  which  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament  fettered  his  contract  of  marriage  with  the  Queen, 
80  displeased  that  prince,  that,  finding  himself  without  poorer  or 
authority,  he  speedily  withdrew  from  England.  Mary's  reign 
lasted  only  five  years :  she  was  succeeded  by  her  sister  Eliza- 
beth (1558,)  daughter  of  Kenry  VIII.,  by  Anne  Bo'cyri.  This 
princess  once  more  >ibrogated  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  and 
claimed  to  herself  the  supriime  administration,  both  spiritual 
and  temporal,  within  her  kingdom.  Though  .she  adopted  the 
Calvinistic  principles  in  every  thing  regarding  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church,  she  retained  many  of  the  Romish  ceremonies,  and 
the  ffovemment  of  Bishops.     It  was  this  that  gave  rise  to  the 


1 


Commission 
name  of  the 
il.  The  con- 
[venues  confis- 
ime  a  dogma- 
lUther,  as  well 
according  to 
,  relics,  purga- 
)e,  he  gave  hiN 
loctrine  of  the 
w  i^f  chastity, 
ar  confession ; 
ny  or  disobey 

ish  kings  that 
red  in  the  dis- 
rs ;  but  instead 
ia,  he  adhered 
"fainst  France. 
)y  passion,  and 
sey,  whom  the 
[the  papal  tiara, 
gland,  did  not 
ind  immediate 
■esbyterianism. 
f  Arragon,  on 
eligion  (1553,) 
into  England, 
lany  of  whom 
r,  Archbishop 
id  Worcester, 
tholic  religion 
ive  heir  to  the 
^hich  the  Eng- 
ith  the  Queen, 
houtponrer  or 
Mary's  reign 
sister  Eliza- 
^'cyn.    This 
10  Pope,  and 
iwth  spiritual 
adopted  the 
!  doctrines  of 
emonies,  and 
I'e  rise  to  the 


PEPioD  VI.     K.  D.  1453 — 1648. 


distinction  between  the  English  or  High  Church,  and  the  Cal' 
vanistic  or  PreshyteriaJi. 

About  the  time  when  the  High  Church  par'y  rose  in  England, 
a  change  of  religion  took  place  in  Scotland,  protected  by  Queen 
Elizabeth.  The  regency  of  that  kingdom  was  then  vested  in 
the  Queen -dowager,  Mary  of  Lorraine,  the  widow  of  James  V., 
and  mother  of  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland  and  France. 
That  princess,  who  was  guided  solely  by  the  councils  of  her 
brothers  of  Lorraine,  had  introduced  a  body  of  French  troops  to 
repress  the  follow  rs  of  the  new  doctrines,  who  had  formed  a 
new  league,  under  the  name  of  the  Congregation.  These,  re- 
inforced by  the  Catholic  malecontents,  who  were  apprehensive 
of  falling  under  a  foreign  yoke,  took  the  resolution  of  applying 
for  assistance  to  the  English  Queen,  which  it  was  by  no  means 
difficult  to  obtain.  Elizabeth  readily  foresaw,  that  so  soon  as 
Francis  became  master  of  Scotland,  he  would  attempt  to  enforce 
Mary's  claims  to  the  throne  of  England,  grounded  partly  on  the 
assumption  of  her  being  illegitimate.  A  considerable  number  of 
English  troops  were  then  marched  to  Scotland,  and  having 
formed  a  junction  with  the  Scottish  malecontents,  they  liesieged 
tiie  French  in  the  town  of  Leith,  near  Edinburgh.  The  latter 
were  soon  obliged  to  capitulate.  By  the  Tticles  signed  at  Leith 
(1560,)  the  French  and  English  troops  were  to  evacuate  Scot- 
land ;  Francis  IL  King  of  France,  and  his  wife  Mary  Stuart, 
were  to  renounce  the  titles  and  arms  "f  the  sovereigns  of  Eng- 
land, which  they  had  assumed ;  while  a  Parliament  was  to  be 
assembled  at  Edinburgh  for  the  pacification  of  the  kingdom. 

The  parliament  which  met  soon  after,  ratified  the  Confession 
of  Faith,  drawn  t.p  and  presented  by  the  Presbyterian  ministers. 
The  Presbyterian  worship  was  introduced  into  Scotland;  and 
ihe  parliament  even  went  so  far  as  to  prohibit  :he  exercise 
of  the  Catholic  religion.  Mary  Stuart,  on  her  return  to  Scot- 
land (1561,)  after  the  death  of  her  husband  Francis,  was  obliged 
to  acquiesce  in  all  these  changes  ;  and  it  was  with  difficulty  she 
was  allowed  the  liberty  of  having  a  Catholic  chapel  attached  to 
her  court.  This  unfortunate  princess  was  afterwards  accused 
of  having  caused  the  assassination  of  Henry  Darnley,  her  se- 
cond husband  ;  and  being  obliged  to  fly  the  country,  she  took 
shelter  in  Englnnd  (1568,)  where  she  was  arrested  and  impri- 
soned by  order  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  After  a  captivity  of  nine- 
teen years  ?'.  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  beheaded  (18th  Feb. 
1587,)  as  an  accomplice  in  the  different  plots  which  had  been 
formed  against  the  life  of  her  royal  relative. 

The  troubles  which  the  reformation  of  religion  had  excited  in 
Scotland,  extended  also  to  Ireland.     A  kind  of  corrupt  feudal 


260 


CHAPTEn  VII. 


•^'sicm  had  prevailed  originally  in  that  island,  which  Henry  II. 
had  not  been  able  to  extirpate.  The  English  proprietors,  who 
wore  vassals  of  tho  crown,  and  governed  by  the  laws  of  Eng- 
'and,  possessed  nearly  one-third  of  the  whole  country;  while 
iho  rest  of  the  island  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Irish  proprietors, 
who,  nltho\igh  they  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  Eng- 
lish kings,  preserved  nevertheless  the  language  and  manners  of 
iheir  native  land ;  and  were  inclined  to  seize  every  opportunity 
af  shaking  off  the  English  yoke,  which  they  detested.  Hence 
a  continued  series  of  wars  and  feuds,  both  among  the  Irish 
themselves,  and  against  the  English,  who  on  their  part  had  no 
other  object  than  to  extend  their  possessions  at  the  expeii'-e  of 
the  natives.  The  kings  of  England,  guided  by  an  injudicious 
policy,  for  several  centuries  exhausted  their  resources  in  perpetual 
wars,  sometimes  against  France,  sometimes  against  Scotland, 
and  sometimes  against  their  own  subjects,  without  paying  the 
least  attention  to  Ireland,  of  which  they  appear  to  have  known 
neither  the  importance  nor  the  effectual  advantages  which  they 
might  have  reaped  from  it  by  means  of  a  wise  administration. 
The  progress  of  agriculture  and  industry  became  thus  completely 
impracticable;  a  deep-rooted  hatred  was  established  between 
the  islanders  and  the  Englif<h,  who  in  fact  seemed  two  distinct 
nations,  enemies  of  each  other,  and  forming  no  alliances  either 
by  marriage  or  reciprocal  inlerconrse. 

The  resentment  of  the  Irish  against  the  English  government 
was  aggravated  still  more,  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  by 
the  vigorous  measures  that  were  taken,  subsequently  to  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  to  extend  to  Ireland  the  laws  framed  in  Eng- 
land against  the  court  of  Kome  and  the  Catholic  clergy.  A 
general  insurrection  broke  out  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1596,) 
the  chief  instigator  of  which  was  Hugh  O'Neal,  head  of  a  clan 
in  the  province  of  Ulster,  and  Earl  of  Tyrone.  Having  gained 
over  the  whole  Irish  Catholics  to  his  cause,  he  planned  an  ex- 
tensive conspiracy,  with  the  design  of  effecting  the  entire  expul- 
sion of  the  English  from  the  island.  Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain, 
supplied  the  insurgents  with  troops  and  ammunition  ;  and  Pope 
Cieinnnt  VIII.  held  out  ample  indulgences  in  favour  of  those 
who  should  enlist  under  the  banners  of  O'Neal,  to  combat  the 
English  heretics.  This  insurgent  chief  met  at  first  with  con- 
siderable success  ;  he  defeated  the  English  in  a  pitched  battle, 
and  maintained  his  ground  against  i!  •;  Earl  of  Essex,  whom 
Elizabeth  had  despatched  to  the  islanc.  with  a  formidable  army. 
The  rebels,  however,  ultimately  failed  in  their  enterprise,  after 
a  sanguinary  war  which  lasted  seven  years.  Charles,  Lord 
Mountjov-  governor  of  Ireland,  drovs  the  insiirgents  to  their  last 


ich  Henry  IF, 
iprietors,  who 
laws  of  Eng. 
iiintry;  while 
sh  proprietors, 
!y  of  the  Eng. 
id  manners  of 
ry  opportiinitv 
sted.     Hence 
ong  the  Irish 
r  part  had  no 
he  expe;]-e  of 
in  injudicious 
es  in  perpetual 
inst  Scotland, 
lit  paying-  the 
to  have  known 
res  which  they 
idministration. 
Inis  completely 
ished  between 
pd  two  distinct 
illiances  either 

sh  government 
Reformation,  by 
tly  to  the  reign 
ramod  in  Eng. 
'lie  clergy.     A 
zabeth  (1596,) 
head  of  a  clan 
Having  gained 
lanned  an  ex-     \ 
\  entire  expul-     I 
Ciiig  of  Spain, 
on ;  and  Pope 
vour  of  those 
to  combat  the 
Trst  with  con- 
pitched  battle, 
Essex,  whom 
nidable  army, 
terprise,  after 
Jharlcs,  Lord 
s  to  their  last 


-JS*«4  '--.^■*»«»=..(  ,H4i^- 


PBRIOD  VI.       A.  D.   1453-  ■  164&<. 


261 


recesses,  and  had  the  glory  of  achieving  the  entire  reduction  of 
the  island.  " 

The  maritime  greatness  of  England  began  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth.  That  Princess  gave  new  vigour  to  industry  and 
commerce  ;  and  her  eflbrts  were  seconded  by  the  persecuting 
zeal  of  the  French  and  Spanish  governments.  The  numerous 
refugees  from  France  and  the  Netherlands,  found  a  ready  asy- 
lum in  England,  under  the  protection  of  Elizabeth  ;  and  her 
kingdom  became,  as  it  were,  the  retreat  and  principal  residence 
of  their  arts  and  manufactures.  She  encouraged  and  protected 
navigation,  which  the  English,  by  degrees,  extended  to  all  parts 
of  the  globe.  An  Englishman,  named  Richard  Chancellor, 
having  discovered  the  route  to  Archangel  in  the  Icy  Sea  (1555,) 
the  Czar,  John  Basilowitz  II.,  granted  to  an  Engl-nh  company 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  trading  with  Russia  ^1569.)  The 
commerce  of  the  English  with  Turkey  and  the  Levant,  which 
began  in  1579,  was  likewise  monopolized  by  a  Company  of  mer- 
chants. Francis  Drake,  a  distinguished  navigator,  and  the  rival 
of  Magellan,  was  the  first  Englishman  that  performed  a  voyage 
round  the  world,  between  1577  and  1580.  The  intercourse  be- 
tween England  and  the  East  Indies  began  in  1591 ;  and  the 
East  India  Company  was  instituted  in  1600.  Attempts  were 
also  made,  about  the  same  time,  to  form  settlements  in  North 
America  ;  and  Walter  Raleigh,  who  had  obtained  a  charter  from 
the  Queen  (1584,)  endeavoured  to  found  a  colony  in  that  part 
of  the  American  Continent,  now  called  Virginia,  in  compliment 
to  Elizabeth.  That  colony,  however,  did  not,  properly  speak- 
ing, take  root  or  flourish  till  the  reign  of  James  I.  The  compe- 
tition with  Spain,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Invincible  Armada 
of  Philip  II.,  by  the  combined  fleets  of  England  and  Holland, 
gave  a  new  energy  to  the  English  marine,  the  value  of  which 
they  had  learned  to  appreciate,  not  merely  in  guarding  the  in- 
dependence of  the  kingdom,  but  in  securing  the  prosperity  of 
their  commerce  and  navigation. 

The  House  of  Tudor  ended  in  Queen  Elizabeth  (1603,)  after 
having  occupied  the  throne  of  England  about  a  hundred  and 
eighteen  years.  It  was  replaced  by  that  of  the  Stuarts.  James 
VI.,  King  of  Scotland,  son  of  Mary  Stuart,  and  Henry  Darnley, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  and  took  the  title  ot  King  of 
Great  Britain,  whu  'i  iiis  successors  still  retain.  This  prince  de- 
rived his  right  to  the  crown,  from  the  marriage  of  his  great  grand- 
mother, Margaret  Tudor,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  with  James 
IV.  of  Scotland.  Vain  of  his  new  elevation,  and  fond  of  pre- 
rogative, James  constantly  occupied  himself  with  projects  for 
augmenting  his  royal  power  and  authority  in  England  ;  and  by 


262 


CHAPTER  VII. 


!l 


instilling  these  principles  into  his  son,  he  became  the  true  arehi* 
tect  of  all  the  subsequent  misfortunes  of  his  house. 

Charles  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  James,  seldom  convened 
the  Parliament ;  and  when  they  did  assemble,  he  provoked  them 
by  the  measures  he  proposed,  and  was  then  obliged  to  dissolve 
them.  Being  entirely  guided  by  his  ministers  Laud,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  Earle  of  Strafford  and  Hamilton,  and 
his  Queen,  Henrietta  of  France,  he  ventured  to  levy  taxes  and 
impositions  without  the  advice  of  Parliament.  This  conduct 
on  the  part  of  the  King  produced  a  general  discontent.  The 
flames  of  civil  war  began  to  kindle  in  Scotland,  where  Charles 
had  introduced  Episcopacy,  as  more  favourable  than  Presbyte- 
rianism  to  royalty.  But  the  Scottish  nobility,  having  formed  a 
confederacy,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Covenant,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  their  ecclesiastical  liberties,  abolished  Episcopacy 
(1638,)  and  subsequently  took  up  arms  against  the  King.  The 
Parliament  of  England,  under  such  circumstances,  rose  also 
against  Charles  (1641,)  and  passed  an  act  that  they  should  not 
be  dissolved  without  previously  obtaining  redress  for  the  com- 
plaints of  the  nation.  This  act,  which  deprived  the  King  of  his 
principal  prerogative,  proved  fatal  to  the  royal  dignity.  A  trial 
was  instituted  by  the  Parliament  against  the  King's  ministers. 
The  Earl  of  Strafford  and  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  were 
beheaded  ;  and  Charles  had  the  weakness  to  sign  the  death-war 
rant  of  his  faithful  servants. 

The  Presbyterians  soon  became  the  prevailing  party,  and  ex- 
eluded  the  Bishops  from  the  Upper  House.  The  management 
of  affairs  fell  then  into  the  hands  of  the  House  of  Commons  ; 
Episcopacy  was  abolished  ;  and  the  Parliament  of  England  ac- 
ceded to  the  Scottish  Covenant.  War  now  broke  out  between 
the  King  and  the  Parliament ;  a  battle  was  fought  near  York, 
m  which  the  latter  ws '  victorious  (1644.)  Charles,  seeing  his 
aflliiirs  ruined,  took  the  determination  to  throw  himself  into  the 
arms  of  the  Scots  (1646,)  who,  he  supposed,  might  still  retain 
an  affection  for  the  race  of  their  ancient  Kings.  He  soon  found 
reason,  however,  to  repent  of  this  step  ;  the  Scots  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  sell  him  to  the  English  Parliament  for  a  sum  of  X400,000, 
Sterling,  which  they  found  necessary  for  the  payment  of  their 
troops. 

A  new  revolution,  which  soon  after  happened  in  the  Parlia- 
ment, completed  the  ruin  of  the  King.  The  Presbyterians,  or 
Puritans,  who  had  suppressed  the  E])iscopaliims,  were  crushed, 
in  their  turn,  by  the  Independents.  These  latter  were  a  sort  of 
fanatics,  who  aJmiued  no  sulxirdination  whatever  in  tho  Church, 
entertained  a  perfect  horror  for  royalty,  and  were  inclined  for  u 


'lis 


pe  true  aichi- 

[oin  convened 
'ovoked  them 
d  to  dissolve 
Laud,  Arch- 
lamilton,  and 
vy  taxes  and 
This  conduct 
ontent.     The 
'here  Charles 
inn  Presbyte- 
injr  formed  a 
for  the  main- 
1  Episcopacy 
'  King.     The 
:ts,  rose  also 
ey  should  not 
!  for  the  com« 
ic  King  of  his 
nily.     A  trial 
g's  ministers, 
nterbury  were 
he  death-war 

party,  and  ex- 
management 
»f  Commons  ; 
England  ac- 
!  out  between 
It  near  York, 
5s,  seeing  hig 
iselfinto  the 
Jit  still  retain 
e  soon  found 
did  not  hesi- 
of  £400,000, 
nent  of  their 

1  the  Parlia- 
)yterians,  or 
ere  crushed, 
ere  a  sort  of 
tho  Church, 
■dined  for  a 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648. 


963 


republican  or  democratic  form  of  government.  The  head  and 
soul  of  this  faction  was  the  famous  Oliver  Cromwell,  who,  with 
great  dexterity,  made  it  an  engine  for  raising  himself  to  the 
sovereign  authority.  The  whole  power  of  the  Legislature  fell 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Independent  party ;  who,  by  one 
act,  expelled  sixty  members  from  the  House  of  Commons.  The 
Parliament,  now  completely  under  their  dominion,  appointed  a 
commission  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  persons,  whom  they  vested 
with  power  to  try  the  King.  In  vain  did  the  Upper  House 
oppose  this  resolution ;  in  vain  did  the  King  object  to  the  Judges 
named  by  tho  House ;  the  commission  proceeded,  and  pronounced 
the  famous  sentence,  by  virtue  of  which  Charles  was  beheaded 
on  the  30th  of  January  1649.  His  family  were  dispersed,  and 
saved  themselves  by  night. 

The  revolutions  m  the  North  of  Europe,  about  the  period  of 
which  we  now  speak,  were  not  less  important  than  those  which 
agitated  the  West  and  the  South.  These  arose  chiefly  from 
the  dissolution  of  the  Union  of  Calmar,  and  the  reformation  in 
religion  ;  both  of  which  happened  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  Union  of  Calmar,  between  the  three 
kingdoms  of  the  North,  had  been  renewed  several  times ;  but, 
being  badly  cemented  from  the  first,  it  was  at  length  irreparably 
broken  by  Sweden.  This  latter  kingdom  had  been  distracted 
by  intestine  feuds,  occasioned  by  the  ambition  and  jealousy  of 
the  nobles,  which  continued  durmg  the  whole  reign  of  Charles 
VIII.,  of  the  House  of  Bonde.  Afler  the  death  of  that  Priivx 
(1470,)  the  Swedes,  without  renouncing  the  Union,  had  regu- 
larly appointed  as  administrators  of  the  kingdom,  from  the  ye'\r 
1471  till  1520,  three  individuals  of  the  family  of  Sture,  viz. 
Steno  Sture,  called  the  Old,  Suante  Sture  and  Steno  Sture, 
called  the  Young. 

Meantime,  John,  King  of  Denmark,  and  son  of  Christian  I., 
had  governed  the  three  kingdoms  since  1497,  when  Steno  Sture 
the  elder  had  resigned,  until  1501,  when  he  resumed  the  admin- 
istration. At  length,  however.  Christian  II.,  son  of  John,  made 
war  on  Steno  Sture,  surnamed  the  Young,  with  a  view  lo 
enforce  the  claims  which  he  derived  from  the  act  of  union. 
Being  victorious  at  the  battle  of  Bogesund,  where  Sture  lost 
his  life,  he  succeeded  in  making  himself  acknowledged  by  the 
Swedes  as  king,  and  was  crowned  at  Stockholm  (1520.)  Within 
a  short  time  after  this  ceremony,  he  violated  the  amnesty  which 
he  had  publicly  announced ;  and  to  gratify  the  revenge  of  Gusta- 
VU8  Trolle,  Archbishop  of  Upsal,  whom  the  Swedes  had  deposed, 
he  caused  ninety-four  of  the  most  distinguished  personages  in  the 
kingdom  to  be  arrested,  and  publicly  Iteheaded  at  Stockholm 


l!^' 


-tI 


;li 


III!  ? 


964 


CHAPTER  VII. 


This  massacre  caused  a  revolution,  by  which  Sweden  recover- 
ed its  ancient  stntc  of  independence.  Gustavus  Vasa  put  liim- 
sotf  at  the  head  of  ihe  Dalecarlians,  ambitious  to  become  the 
liberator  of  his  countiy  (1521.)  He  was  declared  Regent,  and 
two  years  after,  King  of  Sweden.  The  example  of  the  Swedes 
was  soon  followed  by  the  Danes,  who,  indignant  at  the  excesses 
and  cruelties  of  Christian  II.,  deposed  him,  and  conferred  their 
crown  on  Frederic,  Duke  of  Holstein,  and  paternal  uncle  to  that 
prince.  Christian,  after  having  long  wandered  about  the  Low 
Countries,  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Dunes,  and  remained  in 
captivity  the  rest  of  his  days.  The  Kings  of  Denmark  having 
renewed,  from  time  to  time,  their  pretensions  to  the  Swedish 
throne,  and  still  continued  the  three  crowns  on  their  escutcheon, 
several  wars  broke  out  on  this  subject  between  the  two  nations ; 
and  it  was  not  till  the  peace  of  Stettin  (1570,)  that  the  Danes 
acknowledged  the  entire  independence  of  Sweden. 

Denmark  then  lost  the  ascendency  which  she  had  so  long 
maintained  in  the  North.  The  government  of  the  kingdom  un* 
derwent  a  radical  change.  A  corrupt  aristocracy  rose  on  the 
ruins  of  the  na'ional  liberty.  The  senate,  composed  wholly  of 
the  nobles,  usurped  all  authority ;  they  overruled  the  election  of 
the  kings,  and  appropriated  to  themselves  the  powers  of  the 
States-General,  wnich  they  had  not  convoked  since  1536  ;  they 
encroached  even  on  the  royal  authority,  which  was  curtailed 
more  and  more  every  day  ;  while  the  prerogatives  of  the  nobility 
were  extended  by  the  conditions  which  the  Senate  prescribed  to 
the  kings  on  their  accession  to  the  crown.  The  reformation  of 
religion  took  place  in  Denmark,  in  the  <"-  '^n  of  Frederic  I.,  the 
successor  of  Christian  II.  That  prince  empioyed  an  eloquent 
preachar,  named  John  Tausen,  and  several  other  disciples  of 
Luther,  to  promulgate  the  Protestant  doctrines  in  his  kingdom. 
In  a  diet  held  at  Odensee  (1527,)  the  King  made  a  public  pro- 
fession  of  the  new  faith ;  and,  in  apite  of  the  remonstrances  of 
the  bishops,  he  passed  a  decree,  in  virtue  of  wliich,  liberty  of 
conscience  was  established,  and  permission  granted  to  the  priests 
and  monks  to  marry.  These  articles  were  renewed  in  another 
diet,  assembled  at  Copenhagen  (1530;)  where  the  King  ratified 
tho  Confession  of  Faith  presented  to  him  by  the  Protestant  min- 
isteis,  similar  to  what  had  taken  place  the  same  year  at  the  diet 
of  Augsburg. 

At  length  Christian  III.  who  was  elected  in  1634,  brought 
these  changes  in  religion  to  a  close.  The  bis'.iops,  during  the 
last  interregnum,  had  done  every  thing  to  dtop  the  progress  of 
the  Reformation.  The  King,  desirous  of  annihilating  their 
temporal  power,  colluded  with  the  principal  no\>ility  to  have  all 


^ 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  n.  1163 — 1648. 


26fi 


|den  recover* 
i»a  put  liim- 
become  the 
Regent,  and 
the  Swedes 
[the  excesses 
ferred  their 
uncle  to  that 
out  the  Low 
remained  in 
nark  having 
he  Swediuh 
escutcheon, 
two  nations ; 
t  the  Danes 

had  80  long 
kingdom  un* 

rose  on  the 
ed  wholly  of 
le  election  of 
awers  of  the 
!  1536 ;  they 
'as  curtailed 
f  the  nobility 
prescribed  to 
iformation  of 
jderic  I.,  the 
an  eloquent 

disciples  of 
is  kingdom. 
I  public  pro- 
nstrances  of 
h,  liberty  of 

0  the  priests 

1  in  another 
^ing  ratified 
testant  min- 
r  at  the  diet 

34,  brought 
during  the 
progress  of 
;ating  their 
to  have  all 


the  bishops  in  thn  kinpdotn  ariosted  ;  iiiul  hiivinj^  then  assem- 
bled n  meciinjj  of  the  States  iit  ('opcnhiii^cn,  lie  abolished  Epis- 
copacy, and  suppressed  the  public  oxon'iso  of  the  Ciillinlic  reli- 
gion. The  cnstles,  fortresses,  and  vast  donuiins  of  the  prelates 
were  annexed  to  the  crown ;  and  the  oilier  benefices  niul  reve- 
nues of  the  clerify  were  appropriated  to  the  support  of  the  minis- 
tors  of  religion,  public  schools,  and  the  poor.  The  inonk.s  and 
nuns  wore  left  at  liberty,  either  to  quit  their  convents,  or  remain 
there  during,'  their  lives.  The  bishops  were  roplnccd  by  super- 
intendents, the  nomination  of  whom  was  vested  in  the  King; 
while  each  congregation  retained  the  privilege  of  choosing  its 
own  pastors.  From  Denmark  this  revolution  passed  to  Norway, 
which  at  that  time,  on  account  of  having  joined  the  party  of 
Christian  II.,  who  was  deposed  by  the  Danes,  lost  its  indepen- 
dence, and  was  declared  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark. 

The  House  of  Oldenburg,  which  had  occupied  the  throne  of 
Denmark  since  1448,  was  separated  in  the  reign  of  Christian 
HI.  into  two  powerful  branches,  viz.  the  Royal,  descended  from 
that  prince  ;  and  the  family  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  descended  from 
his  brother  the  Duke  Adolphus.  This  latter  branch  was  after- 
wards divided  into  three  others,  viz.  those  of  Russia,  Sweden 
and  Holslcin-Oldenburg.  As  the  law  of  primogeniture  was  not 
establishLd  in  the  dutchies  of  Sleswirk  and  Holstein,  which  had 
fallen  into  the  succession  of  the  House  of  Oldenburg,  the  Kings 
of  Denmark  soon  found  themselves  under  the  necessity  of  divi- 
ding these  dutchies  among  the  younger  princes  of  their  family. 
The  treaty  of  partition,  which  was  entered  into  (1644)  between 
Christian  III.  and  his  brother,  had  been  preceded  by  a  treaty  of 
perpetual  union,  annexing  these  dutcnies  to  the  kingdom,  and 
mtended  to  preserve  the  throne,  which  was  elective,  in  the  House 
of  Oldenburg ;  as  well  as  to  prevent  any  portion  of  these  two 
dutchies  from  falling  into  the  possession  of  strangers.  The 
union  was  to  endure  as  long  as  the  descendants  of  Frederic  I. 
reigned  in  Denmark.  They  promised  to  settle,  by  arbitration, 
whatever  difTerences  might  arise  between  the  states  of  the  union , 
to  afTord  each  other  mutual  succour  against  every  external  ene- 
my ;  and  to  undertake  no  war  but  by  common  consent. 

The  treaty  of  1644  which  regulated  this  partition,  made  seve- 
ral exceptions  of  matters  that  were  to  be  managed  and  adminis- 
tered in  common ;  such  as,  the  customs,  jurisdiction  over  the 
nobles,  the  bishops,  and  certain  cities.  This  gave  rise  to  a  sort 
of  copartnership  of  power,  common  to  all  the  princes  of  the  union. 
Every  thing  regarding  either  the  general  safety  as  stipulated  in 
the  treaty,  or  the  exercise  of  these  privileges  included  in  the  ex 
c«ptioDS,  was  to  be  discn    i-d  and  settled  by  unanimous  consent ; 


I 


1  ; 


\:i:TK**:-mtr^ 


■  M  immimnmn 


u 


SM6 


CHAPTEH  VII. 


and  for  litis  {lurpoHc  ii  council  of  roffency,  an  exchequeri  and 
coniinun  coiirtrt  wuru  L>!<tabliAlicil.  This  union  and  conimunily 
of  ri^fhls  were  folioWL-d,  us  ii  imturnl  consequt-nct',  by  loiig  and 
destructive  feuds  l)t't\\oi.'n  tix;  Kings  of  Denniiirk  and  thu  Dukus 
of  Hoistcin-Uottorp,  in  whicii  the  other  powers  of  the  North 
were  also  iinnliculed. 

Christian  IV.,  gran.I-ion  of  Christian  III.,  was  distinguished 
not  more  by  the  superiority  of  his  talents,  than  by  the  indefati- 
gable zeal  with  which  he  applied  himself  to  every  department  of 
the  admit: i  ; ration.  It  wus  in  his  reign  that  the  Danes  extend- 
ed their  commerce  us  far  as  Indio.  He  founded  the  first  Diinish 
East  Iirli.i  Company  (1616,)  who  formed  a  settlement  in  T.un- 
quebar  (<!i  the  Coromandel  coast,  which  had  been  ceded  to  them 
by  the  Kaiah  of  Tanjore.  Various  maimfactories  of  silk  stuffs, 
paper,  and  arms,  were  constructed,  and,  several  towns  built  un- 
der the  auspices  of  Christian  IV.  The  sciences  were  also  much 
indebted  to  him  ;  ic  .'ave  a  new  lustre  to  the  University  of  Co- 
penhagen, and  fou'i  Itl  the  Academy  of  Soroe  in  Zealand,  be- 
sides a  number  of  co  !eges.  If  he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  wars 
against  Sweden  and  Austria,  it  must  be  ascribed  to  the  norrow 
h.nits  of  his  power,  to  the  influence  of  the  aristocratic  spiru  and 
ol  the  feudal  regime  which  still  prevailed  in  Denmark.  He 
Ruccoi  Jed,  however,  in  excluding  the  Swedes  from  acc^'ss  to  the 
Icy  Sea,  which  opened  them  a  way  to  the  coasts  of  Lapland,  by 
obtaining  possession,  at  the  peace  of  Siorod  (1613,)  of  that  part 
of  Lapland  which  extends  along  the  Northern  and  Icy  Seas, 
from  Titisfiord  to  Waranger  and  Wardhuys.  The  disputes  con- 
cerning  the  three  crowns  was  settled  by  the  same  treaty,  in  sucb 
a  way  that  both  sovereigns  were  permitted  to  use  ihem,  without 
authorizing  the  King  of  Denmark  to  lay  any  claim  to  the  Swe- 
dish crown. 

Sweden,  which  had  long  r^.aintained  a  struggle  against  Deii> 
mark,  at  length  acquired  such  a  preponderance  over  her  as  to 
threaten,  more  than  once,  the  entire  subversion  of  the  throne. 
This  preponderance  was  the  achievement  of  two  great  men,  who 
rose  in  the  period  we  now  speak  of,  viz.  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  his 
grandson  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Gustavus  Vasa  was  not  merely 
the  liberator,  but  the  restorer  of  his  country.  Elevated  to  the 
throne  by  the  free  choice  of  the  nation,  he  gave  Sweden  a  power 
and  an  influence  which  it  never  had  before.  Every  thing 
under  him  assumed  a  new  aspect,  the  government,  the  religion, 
the  finances,  the  commerce,  the  agriculture,  the  sciences  and  the 
morals  of  the  Swedes.  Instead  of  the  assemblies  of  the  nobles, 
formerly  in  use,  and  destructive  of  the  national  liberty,  he  sub- 
stituted Diets  composed  of  the  different  orders  of  the  State,  the 


Jj 


chequer.  aiiiJ 
(1  cummunity 
,  by  lonif  find 
id  thi!  Dukes 
of  the  North 

distinguished 
the  indefali- 
department  of 
)anes  extend- 
le  first  D;inish 
ncnt  in  Tan- 
ceded  to  them 
of  silk  stufTs, 
)wns  built  UH" 
ere  also  much 
versity  of  Co- 
I  Zealand,  be- 
fill  in  his  wars 
to  the  norrow 
alic  spini  and 
lenniark.     He 
[1  access  to  the 
of  Lapland,  by 
i,)  of  that  part 
and  Icy  Seas, 
c  disputes  con- 
treaty,  in  such 
ihem,  without 
m  to  the  Swe- 

B  against  Den^ 
over  her  as  to 
of  the  throne, 
jreat  men,  who 
9  Vasa,  and  his 
vas  not  merely 
llevated  to  the 
weden  a  power 
Every  thing 
It,  the  religion, 
ciences  and  the 
s  of  the  nobles, 
liberty,  he  sub- 
f  the  State,  the 


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Pt 


PERIOD  VI.      A.  D.  1453 — 1648. 


267 


nobility,  the  clergy,  the  citizens,  and  the  peasantry.  By  this 
means  hp  acquired  a  new  influence,  of  which  he  took  advantage 
to  humble  the  power  of  the  church  and  the  nobles,  which  had 
lon^  been  a  source  of  oppression  to  Sweden. 

The  reformation  of  religion,  which  then  occupied  every  mind, 
appeared  to  Gustavus  a  very  proper  expedient  to  second  his 
views,  and  introduce  a  better  order  of  things.  On  his  accession 
to  the  throne,  he  authorized  the  two  brothers  Olaus  and  Lau- 
rentius  Petri,  to  preach  publicly  at  Stockholm  the  doctrines  of 
Luther,  and  did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  accelerate  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Reformation  in  his  kingdom.  The  bishops,  who 
were  apprehensive  for  their  benefices  and  their  authority,  having 
drawn  the  greater  part  of  the  nobility  over  to  their  interest,  the 
king,  in  the  presence  of  a  Diet  of  the  four  orders  assembled  at 
Westeras,  took  the  determination  of  formally  abdicating  the 
crown.  This  step  threw  the  Diet  into  a  state  of  consternation, 
and  encouraged  the  two  lower  orders,  the  citizens  and  peasants, 
to  declare  themselves  loudly  for  the  King.  The  bishops  and 
nobles  were  obliged  to  comply ;  and  the  King,  resuming  the 
reins  of  government,  succeeded  in  overruling  the  deliberations 
of  the  Diet.  By  the  authority  of  a  decree,  he  annexed  the  strong 
castles  of  the  bishops  to  the  demesnes  of  the  crown,  and  retrench- 
ed from  their  vast  possessions  whatever  he  judged  convenient. 
The  prelates  at  the  same  time  were  excluded  from  the  senate ; 
the  ties  that  bound  them  to  the  Court  of  Rome  were  broken ; 
and  they  were  enjoined  henceforth  to  demand  confirmation  from 
the  King,  and  not  from  the  Pope.  The  revenues  of  the  clergy 
in  general,  and  those  of  the  convents,  were  left  at  the  free  dis- 
posal of  the  king,  and  the  nobles  were  permitted  to  bring  forward 
whatever  claims  they  could  adduce  over  lands  granted  to  these 
convents  by  their  ancestors.  There  was  nothing  now  to  retard 
the  march  of  reformation.  The  Lutheran  religion  was  introdu- 
ced universally  into  Sweden,  and  that  event  contributed  not  a 
little  to  exalt  the  royal  authority. 

Gustavus  secured  the  hereditary  succession  of  the  crown  in 
favour  of  his  male  descendants.  The  States,  anxious  to  obvi- 
ate the  troubles  and  disorders  which  the  demise  of  their  kings 
had  oi\en  produced,  regulated  the  succession  by  an  act  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Hereditary  Union.  It  was  passed  at  Ore- 
bro  (1540,)  and  ratified  anew  by  the  States  assembled  at  Wes- 
teras. The  Union  Act  was  renewed  at  the  Diet  of  Nordkoping, 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  (1604,)  when  the  succession  was 
extended  to  females. 

The  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  son  of  Charles  IX., 
raised  the  glory  of  Sweden  to  its  height.    The  virtues  and 


1 1 


li 


ha 
"  .1 


MB 


I,   I 
■,'1 


26S 


CHAPTER  VII. 


energies  of  that  prince,  the  sagacity  of  his  views,  the  admirablt 
order  which  he  introduced  into  every  branch  of  the  administra- 
tion, endeared  him  to  his  subjects  ;  while  his  mihtary  exploits, 
and  his  superiority  in  the  art  of  war,  fixed  upon  him  the  admi- 
ration of  all  Europe.  ...,,. 

Gustavus  brought  the  wars,  which  he  had  to  sustain  against 
the  different  powers  of  the  North,  to  a  most  triumphant  coi^lu- 
sion.  By  the  peace  which  he  concluded  at  Stolboya  with  Rus- 
sia (1617,)  he  obtained  possession  of  all  Ingria,  Kexholm,  and 
Russian  Carelia ;  and  even  cut  that  Empire  off  from  all  com- 
munication with  Europe  by  the  Gulf  of  Finland  and  the  Baltic 
Sea  His  success  was  not  less  brilliant  in  his  campaigns  against 
Sigismund  III.,  King  of  Poland,  who  persisted  m  contesting 
with  him  his  right  to  the  crown  of  Sweden.  He  took  from  the 
Poles  the  whole  of  Livonia,  with  a  part  of  Prussia ;  and  kept 
possession  of  these  conquests  by  the  six  years  truce  which  he 
concluded  with  the  latter  at  Altmark  (1629.) 

It  was  about  this  time  that  Sweden  began  to  occupy  a  distin- 
imished  place  among  the  powers  of  Europe ;  and  that  she  was 
called  on  to  take  the  lead  in  the  League  which  was  to  protect 
the  Princess  and  States  of  the  Empire  against  the  ambition  of 
Austria.  Gustavus,  who  was  in  alliance  with  France,  under- 
took a  task  as  difficult  as  it  was  glorious.  In  the  short  space  of 
two  years  and  a  half,  he  overran  two-thirds  of  Germany  with 
his  victorious  arms.  He  vanquished  Tilly  at  the  famous  battle 
of  Leipsic  (1631,)  and  extended  his  conquests  from  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  to  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  Every  thing  yield- 
ed  before  him,  and  every  place  opened  its  gates  to  him.  ihis 
ereat  prince,  who  had  made  war  a  new  art,  and  accustomed  his 
army  to  order,  and  a  system  of  tactics  never  before  known,  per- 
ished at  the  memorable  battle  of  Lutzen  (1632 )  which  the 
Swedes  gained  after  his  death,  in  consequence  of  the  skillul  dis- 
positions he  had  formed. 

This  war  was  continued  under  the  minority  of  Queen  Lhns- 
tina,  his  daughter  and  heir.  It  was  still  carried  on,  although 
the  Swedes  had  undertaken  a  new  war  against  Denmark,  with 
the  view  of  disengaging  themselves  from  the  mediation  which 
Christian  IV.  had  undertaken  between  the  Emperor  and  Swe- 
den, al  the  congress  which  was  to  meet  at  Munster  and  Usna- 
burg.  The  result  of  that  war  was  completely  to  the  advamage 
of  Sweden,  which  gained  by  the  peace  of  Bromsbro  (1646)  the 
freedom  of  the  Sound,  as  also  the  possession  of  the  provinces 
and  islands  of  Jamptland,  Heriedalen,  Gothland,  Oesel,  and  Hal- 
land.  Lastly,  the  peace  of  Westphalia  secured  to  Sweden  con- 
siderable possessions  on  the  southern  coast  of  ahe  Baltic  &ea. 
such  as  Wismar,  Bremen  and  Verden.  and  part  of  Pomerania. 


T^V 


e  admirable 
administra- 
iry  exploits, 
the  admi- 

tain  against 
lant  conclu- 
a  with  Rus- 
ixholm,  and 
om  all  com- 
d  the  Baltic 
igns  against 
1  contesting 
ok  from  the 
and  kept 
:e  which  he 

ipy  a  distin- 
hat  she  was 
IS  to  protect 
ambition  of 
ance,  under- 
lort  space  of 
jrmany  with 
imous  battle 
n  the  shores 
thing  yield- 
him.  This 
:ustomed  his 
known,  per- 
)  which  the 
e  skilful  dis- 

(ueen  Chris- 
on,  although 
nmark,  with 
ation  which 
r  and  Swe- 
'.T  and  Osna- 
e  advantage 
0  (1645)  the 
he  provinces 
sel,  and  HaU 
Sweden  con- 
Baltic  Sea. 
Pomerania. 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648. 


SM9 


The  power  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  which  hud  been  greatly 
reduced  during  the  preceding  period,  by  the  defection  of  a  part 
of  Prussia,  was  completely  annihilated  in  the  North,  in  conse- 
(j'lence  of  the  changes  introduced  by  the  reformation  of  religion. 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  grandson  of  the  Elector  Albert  Achilles 
on  his  elevation  to  the  dignity  of  Grand  Master  of  the  Order, 
tliought  himself  obliged  to  withdraw  from  Poland  that  fealty  and 
homage  to  which  the  Knights  had  bound  themselves  by  the 
treaty  of  Thorn  in  1466.  This  refusal  furnished  matter  for  a 
war  between  them ;  which  began  in  1519,  and  ended  in  1521, 
by  a  truce  of  four  years ;  at  the  expiration  of  which  the  Grand 
Master,  who  saw  the  doctrines  of  Luther  disseminated  in  Prus* 
sia,  and  who  had  himself  imbibed  these  principles  in  Germany, 
found  means  to  settle  all  differences  with  the  King  of  Poland, 
by  a  treaty  which  he  concluded  with  him  at  Cracow  (1521.) 
He  there  engaged  to  do  homage  and  fealty  to  the  cro^vn  of  Po- 
land, which  he  had  refused ;  and  Sigismund  I.,  who  was  his 
maternal  uncle,  granted  him  Teutonic  Prussia,  with  the  title  of 
Dutchy.  as  a  hereditary  fief,  both  for  himself  and  his  male-heirs, 
and  for  his  brothers  of  the  House  of  BrandenburgandFranconia, 
and  their  feudal  heirs ;  reserving  the  right  of  reversion  in  favour 
of  Poland,  failing  the  male-descendants  of  these  princes. 

The  Teutonic  Knights  thus  lost  Prussia,  after  having  possess- 
ed it  for  nearly  three  hundred  years.  Retiring  to  their  pos- 
sessions in  Germany,  they  established  their  principal  residence 
at  Mergentheim  in  Franconia,  where  they  proceeded  to  the  elec- 
tion of  a  new  Grand  Master,  in  the  person  of  Walter  de  Cron- 
berg.  The  Poles,  in  getting  rid  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  whom 
they  had  regarded  with  jealousy,  and  substituting  the  House  of 
Brandenburg  in  their  place,  never  dreamed  of  adopting  an  enemy 
still  more  dangerous,  who  would  one  day  concert  the  ruin  and 
annihilation  of  their  country. 

Immediately  after  the  treaty  of  Cracow,  the  new  Duke  of 
Prussia  made  a  public  profession  of  the  Lutheran  religion,  and 
married  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Denmark.  This  princess 
dying  without  male  issue,  he  married  for  his  second  wife  a  prin- 
cess of  the  Brunswick  family,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Albert 
Frederic,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  dutchy  of  Prussia.  The 
race  of  these  new  dukes  of  Prussia  (1568,)  as  well  as  that  of 
Franconia,  which  should  have  succeeded  them,  appearing  to  be 
nearly  extinct,  Joachim  II.,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  obtained 
from  the  King  of  Poland  the  investiture  of  Prussia,  in  fief,  con- 
junctly with  the  reigning  dukes.  This  investiture,  which  was 
renewed  in  favour  of  several  of  his  successors,  secured  the  suc- 
cession of  that  dutchy  in  the  electoral  family  of  Brandenburg;  to 


:t^ 


i-mmM-i 


'Sv 


!! 


1 

*. 

1 

'     ' 

J;  ;  1 1    i 

*> 

1 

*^^„ 


270 


CHAPTER   Vn. 


whom  it  devolved  on  the  death  of  Albert  Frederic  (1618,)  who 
left  no  male  descendants.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  Elector 
John  Sigismund,  who  had  been  coinvested  with  him  in  the 
dutchy.  That  prince,  who  iiad  married  Anne,  eldest  daughter 
of  Albert  Frederic,  obtained  likewise,  in  right  of  that  princess, 
part  of  the  succession  of  Juliers,  viz.  the  dutchy  of  Cleves,  the 
counties  of  Marck  and  Ravensberg,  which  had  been  adjudged 
to  the  house  of  Brandenburg,  by  the  provisional  act  of  partition 
concluded  at  Santern  (1614,)  and  converted  into  a  definitive 
treaty  at  Cleves.  The  grandson  of  John  Sigismund,  the  Elector 
Frederic  William,  was  a  prince  of  superior  genius,  and  the  true 
founder  of  the  greatness  of  his  family.  Illustrious  in  war  as  in 
peace,  and  respected  by  all  Europe,  he  acquired  by  the  treaty  of 
Westphalia,  a  part  of  Pomerania,  the  archbishopric  of  Magde- 
burg under  the  title  of  a  dutchy,  with  the  bishoprics  of  Halber- 
stadt,  Minden,  and  Camin,  und,cr  the  title  of  principalities.  His 
son  Frederic  was  the  first  King  of  Prussia. 

[The  Teutonic  Knights  had  nearly  lost  Livonia  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century ;  but  that  province  was  saved  by 
the  courage  and  talents  of  the  Provincial  Master,  Walter  de 
Plattenberg.  The  Grand  Duke  Iwan,  or  John  III.,  having 
threatened  Livonia  with  an  invasion,  Plattenberg  concluded  a 
defensive  alliance  at  Walik  (1501,)  with  Alexander  II.,  Grand 
Duke  of  Lithuania,  and  the  bishops  of  that  country.  After  havmg 
assembled  troops  to  the  number  of  14,000  men,  he  defeated  the 
Russian  army,  which  was  40,000  strong,  at  Maholm  ;  a  second 
victory,  which  he  gained  with  the  same  number  of  troops  over 
100,000  Russians  at  Pleskow  (1502,)  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
exploits  in  the  history  of  the  North.  Next  year  he  concluded  a 
truce  of  six  years  with  the  Livonian  Order,  which  was  afterwards 
renewed  for  fifty  years. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  Walter,  the  Provincial  Master,  taking 
advantage  of  the  distresses  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  and  urging 
the  repeated  succours  which  he  had  furnished  them  against  the 
Poles,  purchased  from  them  his  own  independence,  and  that  of 
his  Order  ;  but  a  recent  author  (Le  Comte  de  Bray)  has  shown 
that  this  was  not  exactly  the  case.  By  a  first  agreement  signed 
at  Koningsberg  (1520,)  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  who  was  then 
only  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  confirmed  to  the 
Knights  of  Livonia  the  free  right  of  electing  a  chief  of  their  ovvn 
number,  promising  to  sustain  the  individual  whom  they  should 
nominate.  He  secured  them  the  possession  of  the  whole  sove- 
reignty of  Reval  and  Narva ;  the  countries  of  Altentirken,  Jer- 
vfn,  and  Wierland  ;  as  also  the  town  and  castle  of  Wesenberg, 
with  their  dependencies.  This  agreement  was  revived  and 
rnlified  by  *  second,  siarned  at  Grobin  (1625.)  when  it  was  for- 


■^t"  -  ^----1-,- 


^Mmik  iitAf^itimtt^mamieaM 


h* 


ic  (1618,)  who 
by  the  Elector 
Ln  him  in  the 
Idest  daughter 
'  that  princess, 
of  Cieves,  the 
been  adjudged 
ict  of  partition 
lo  a  definitive 
nd,  the  Elector 
IS,  and  the  true 
IS  in  war  as  in 
by  the  treaty  of 
iric  of  Magde- 
rics  of  Halber- 
cipalities.   His 

la  at  the  begin- 
5  was  saved  by 
ler,  Walter  de 
n  III.,  having 
rg  concluded  a 
ider  II.,  Grand 
{.  After  having 
he  defeated  the 
lolm  ;  a  second 
of  troops  over 
le  most  famous 
he  concluded  a 
was  afterwards 

Master,  taking 
^hts,  and  urging 
lem  against  the 
nee,  and  that  of 
ray)  has  shown 
Teement  signed 

who  was  then 
)nfirmed  to  the 
lief  of  their  own 
om  they  should 
the  whole  sove- 
lltentirken,  Jer- 
!  of  Wesenberg, 
IS  revived  and 
vhen  it  was  for- 


PBRion  VI.    A.  D.  1453 — 1648. 


2/1 


mally  stipulated,  that  the  relations  between  the  Knights  of  Li- 
vonia and  the  Teutonic  Order  should  be  maintained  as  they  w«»re. 
and  that  the  Livonians  should  continue  to  regard  the  Grand 
Master  as  their  true  head,  and  render  him  homage  ami  obe- 
dience. They  were  forbidden  to  solicit  from  the  Emperor  ot 
the  Pope  any  privilege  inconsistent  with  their  allegiance,  it  ap- 
pears, consequently,  that  Walter  de  Plattenberg  did  not  purcha.-e 
the  independence  of  his  Order,  but  that  he  regarded  those  ties 
which  existed  between  it  and  the  Teutonic  Order  as  broken, 
when  Albert  of  Brandenburg  was  declared  Duke  of  Prussia.  He 
next  renewed  those  connexions  with  the  German  Empire,  which 
had  existed  since  the  thirteenth  century  ;  and  was  declared  bj 
Charles  V.  (1527)  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  having  a  vote  and  a 
seat  in  the  Diet. 

It  was  during  the  mastership  of  Plattenberg  that  the  Lutheran 
Joctiines  penetrated  into  Livonia,  where  they  made  rapid  pro- 
gress, especially  in  the  cities.  Waller  dexterously  turned  the 
disturbances  caused  by  the  opposition  of  the  clergy  to  the  new 
tenets,  into  an  occasion  for  establishing  his  authority  over  all 
Livonia  and  Esthonia,  which  the  Order  had  formerly  shared 
with  the  bishops.  The  citizens  of  Kiga  acknowledged  him  as 
their  only  sovereign,  and  expelled  the  archbishop.  The  bur- 
gesses of  Revel  followed  their  example.  The  clergy  were  so 
frightened  at  these  movements,  that  the  archbishop  of  Riga,  and 
the  bishops  of  Dorpat,  Oesel,  Courland  and  Revel,  formally  sub- 
mitted to  the  Order.  The  clergy  themsel  ves  soon  after  embraced 
the  reformed  religion.] 

The  dominion  of  the  Knights  Sword-bearers,  had  continued 
in  Livonia  until  the  time  of  the  famous  invasion  of  that  country 
by  the  Czar,  John  Basilovitz  IV.  That  prince,  who  had  laid 
open  the  Caspian  Sea  by  his  conquest  of  the  Tartar  kingdoms  of 
Casan  and  Astrachan,  meditated  also  that  of  Livonia,  to  obtain 
a  communication  with  Europe  by  the  Baltic.  Gotthard  Kettler, 
who  was  then  Grand  Master,  finding  himself  unable  to  cope 
with  an  enemy  so  powerful,  implored  first  the  assistance  of  the 
Germanic  Body,  of  which  he  was  a  member ;  but  having  got 
nothing  but  vague  promises,  he  next  addressed  himself  to  Sigis- 
inund  Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  and,  m  concert  with  the  arch- 
bishop of  Riga,  he  concluded  with  that  prince  a  treaty  of  sub- 
mission at  Wilna  (1561;)  in  virtue  of  which,  the  whole  of 
Livonia,  with  Esthonia,  Courland  and  Semigallia,  comprising 
not  only  what  was  still  in  the  possession  of  the  Order,  but  those 
parts  which  had  boon  seized  by  the  enemy,  were  ceded  to  the 
crown  of  Poland  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  on  condi- 
tion that  the  use  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  should  be  pre- 
erved  on  the  same  footing  as  it  then  was,  and  that  all  orders  of 


h  ,n 


fc 


ife'iiii 


1 


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, 

'   ■'    '\ 

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If 

Sr^ 

■kf^ 

-1.' 
j 

■    i 

rfTfiriiiiiiiitiyiiiMiBaMWii^ 


I 


!l 


272  ciiArTER  f  II. 

the  Smte  should  be  maintained  in  iheir  goods,  properties,  rights, 
nrivilejres  and  immunities.  .  „      .     „•  j 

^  By  this  same  treaty,  Courland  and  Sem.galha  were  reserved 
:.,  G^.tthard   K.nlcr,  the  last  Grand  ^Ia«V"\°f  ,V';'°7\i^ 
....joyed  by  himself  a.ul  his  heirs-male  with  the  title  of  dulchy. 
a.id  as  a  Hef  of  the  king  and  crown  of  Poland.     The  new  Duke, 
•m  taking  the  oath  of  f.delitv  to  the  King  of  Poland,  solemnly 
lu.d  aside  all  the  badges  of  his  former  dignity.     He  mamed 
Anne,  daughter  to  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schewerin    a,,d 
Uans^itted  the  dutchy  of  Courland  to  his  male-descendants 
who  did  not  become  extinct  until  the  eighteenth  century.     Ihe 
Order  of  Livonia  was  entirely  suppressed,  as  were  also  the 
archbishoprics  of  Riga,  and  the  bishoprics  under  its  jurisdiction. 
The  revolution  in  Livonia  caused  a  violent  commotion  among 
the  nowers  of  the  North,  who  were  all  eager  to  share  m  the 
plunder.     While  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Order  was  m  treatv 
Skh  Poland,  the  city  of  Revel,  and  the  nobles  of  Esthonia,  left 
V  hout  aid,  nnd  oppressed  bv  the  Russians,  put  themselves  undei 
he  protect  on  of  feric  XlV.,  King  of  Sweden,  who  obtaineo 
possession  of  that  province.     The  Isle  of  Oese  ,  on  the  co„  r  7. 
and  the  district  of  Wyck  in  Esthonia,  were  sold  to  Frederic  11. 
King  of  Denmark,  by  the  last  bishop  of  the  island,  who  also 
cedc?l  to  him  the  bisLpric  and  district  of  P.lten  m  Courland 
Poland  at  first  held  the  balance,  and  maintained  Livonia  against 
fhe  Russ  ans,by  the  peace  which  she  concluded  with  that  power 
at  Kievorova-Horca  (1582.)     A  struggle  afterwards  ensued  be- 
Uveen  Poland  and  Sweden  for  the  same  object,  which  was  not 
finally  terminated  until  the  peace  of  Oliva  (1660.) 

rIS    during  the  period  of  which  we  now  treat,  assumed 

an  aspect  entirdy  nevv.      She  succeeded  '".throwing  ofT  Ae 

yoke  li  the  Moguls,  and  began  to  act  a  conspicuous  part  on  he 

Iheatre  of  Europe.      The  Horde  of  Kipzach,  called  also  the 

S,  0   the  Gdden  Horde,  had  been  greatlv  exhausted  by  its 

territor  al  losses,  and  the  intestine  wars  whicf  followed ;  wmle 

the  Grand  Dukes  of  Moscow  gained  powerful  accessions  by  Uie 

union  of  several  of  these  petty  principa hties,  which  had  for  a 

"onetime  divided  among  them  the  sovereignty  of  Northern  Bus- 

i.^John  Basilovitz  IIL.  who  filled  the  grand  ducal  throne 

about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  knew  well  how  to  profit 

Jy  these  circumstances  to  strengthen  his  authority  at  Jome,  and 

make  it  respected  abroad.     In  course  of  severed  expeditions  he 

Suedthe%owerful  republic  of  Novogorod.  an  ancient  aJlv  of 

the  Hanseatic  towns,  and  which  had  for  a  long  time  afTected  an 

entireTndependence.     He  was  also  the  first  sovere.^i  of  Russia 

that  dared  ?o  refuse  a  humiliating  cerempn^r,  accordmg  to  which 

Somnd  Dukes  were  obliged  to  walk  on  l^ot  before  &e  envoys 


Hi  III  '■■ifa-'igiitiiTiiiilfiir  11  -■  1 1  r  li 


0rttmm"»fiii^i'  m^  lWiiWW***'*iW*''**'W"' 


properties,  rights. 

Ilia  were  reserved 

of  Livonia,  to  be 

lie  title  uf  dutchy. 

The  new  Duke. 

Poland,  solemnly 

ity.     He  married 
•g-Schewerin,  and 

male-descendants, 
ith  century.    The 

as  were  also  the 
ler  its  jurisdiction. 

commotion  among 
er  to  share  in  the 
>rder  was  in  treaty 
!s  of  Esthonia,  left 
It  themselves  undei 
den,  who  obtaineo 
iel,  on  the  contrary, 
iold  to  Frederic  II. 
e  island,  who  also 
'ilten  in  Courland. 
ned  Livonia  against 
ded  with  that  power 
erwards  ensued  be- 
ject,  which  was  not 
1660.) 

now  treat,  assumed 
n  throwing  off  the 
ipicuous  part  on  the 
ich,  called  also  the 
tly  exhausted  by  its 
ch  followed ;  while 
ul  accessions  by  the 
;s,  which  had  for  a 
ty  of  Northern  Ru»- 
grand  ducal  throne 
7  well  how  to  profit 
thority  at  home,  and 
end  expeditions,  he 
1,  an  ancient  ally  of 
)ng  time  affected  an 
soverei^i  of  Russia 
,  occording  to  which 
ot  before  ue  envt^s 


;:,  it 


FKRIOD  VI.       A.  D.   1453 1648. 


273 


that  came  from  the  Khan  of  Kipznch.  He  even  suppressed  the 
resideiico  of  Tartar  envoys  ut  his  court ;  and  at  length  siiook 
off  their  yoke  entirely,  refusing  to  pay  the  tribute  whicli  the 
Griind  Dukes  had  owed  to  the  Khans  for  several  centuries. 
Achrnet,  Khan  of  Kipzach,  having  despatched  certain  deputies 
willi  an  order,  under  the  great  seal,  to  dcmiind  payment,  of  this 
tribute,  the  Grand  Duke  trampled  the  order  under  his  feet,  spit 
upon  it,  and  then  put  all  the  deputies  to  death  except  one,  whom 
he  sent  back  to  his  master. 

The  Khan,  with  the  view  of  revenging  that  insult,  invaded 
Russia  several  times,  \m\  the  Grand  Duke  vigorously  repul^^ed 
.ill  his  attacks;  and  while  he  was  arresting  the  progress  of  his 
arms  on  the  borders  of  the  Ugra,  he  despatched  a  body  of  troops 
to  the  centre  of  Uie  Grand  Horde,  who  laid  every  thing  desolate 
(1481.)  The  Nogai  Tartars  joined  the  Russians  to  finish  the 
destruction  of  the  Grand  Horde,  whose  different  settlements  on 
the  Wolga  they  laid  completely  in  ruins  ;  so  that  nothing  more 
remained  of  the  powerful  en ,  ire  of  Kipzach  than  a  few  de- 
tached hordes,  such  as  those  of  Casan,  Astracan,  Siberia,  and 
the  Crimea.  Iwan  rendered  himself  formidable  to  the  Tartars ; 
he  subdued  the  Khans  of  Casan,  and  several  times  disposed  of 
their  throne.  The  entire  reduction  of  that  Tartar  state  was  ac- 
complished by  his  grandson,  John  Basilovitz  IV.,  who  twice 
undertook  the  siege  of  Casan,  and  seized  and  made  prisoner 
of  the  last  Khan  (1552.)  The  fall  of  Casan  was  followed  by  that 
of  Astracan.  But  John  was  by  no  means  so  fortunate  in  his  en- 
terprises against  Livonia,  which,  as  we  have  already  said,  he  was 
obliged  to  abandon  to  Poland  by  the  peace  of  Kievorova-Horca. 

John  IV.  was  inspired  with  noble  views  of  policy.  Being 
anxious  to  civilize  his  subjects,  he  sent  for  workmen  and  artists 
from  England.  He  requested  Charles  V.  to  send  him  men  of 
talents,  well  versed  in  the  different  trades  and  manufactures. 
He  introduced  the  art  of  printing  at  Moscow,  and  established 
the  first  permanent  army  in  the  country,  that  of  the  Strelitzes, 
which  he  employed  in  keeping  the  noblei^  i  i  check.  The  dis- 
covery of  Siberia  is  one  of  the  events  th  i/-.  long  to  his  reign. 
A  certain  chief  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  name''  -Termak,  who  em- 

Eloyed  himself  inrobberiea  on  the  borders  of  ihe  Wolga  and  the 
laspian  Sea,  being  pursued  by  a  detachment  of  Russian  troops, 
retired  to  the  confines  of  Siberia.  He  soon  entered  these  re- 
gions at  the  heiid  of  seven  thousand  Cossacks,  and  having  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Tartars  of  Siberia,  and  their  Khan 
Kutschemi,  he  got  possession  of  the  city  of  Sibir,  which  was  their 
principal  fortress  (1581.)  Jermak.  in  order  to  obtain  his  pardon 
of  the  Czar,  made  him  an  offer  of  oil  he  had  conquered  ;  which 
was  agreed  to  bv  that  Prince,  and  the  troops  of  the  RusisiaBS 

Lo 


* 


274 


CHAFTBIl  Vn. 


»p  <:;Vu.rin  (1683  ^     The  total  reduction  ol 

come  the  capital  of  Siberia.                                 ,  ^  ^^                ■ 

Fedor  Iwanovitz,  a  prince  ;;v  ^'^  J^  1^.  ^^  Qo/unow,      ' 
entirely  under  the  ^ounselsof  his  b  other  in^a 

who,  with  the  view  of  opemng  a  uay  f«'  h—  ^^^  ^^  „,,,,. 

^!^""V^ASr'Thir:S'|ive°  i  e  ^atng  series  of  trou- 
sitiated  (15910     This  crime  e^^^^  With  him,  as     ' 

de„  who  .-umeJ  |W  n.™  »f  ^  °«S.  presem^d  .Vk- 
by  the  Poles.     During  nueeny^u  * .  i^n^th,  as  a  remedy 

i„^,  spectacle  of  -"  "J^ -iXtTbe8t^^ling'the'  crown  on  'a 
for  these  disasters,  ^^ey  thouRht  oi  b   ^     j,^^„f  (j^g. 

foreign  prince.     Some  chose  Ch^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  f„,  Uladislaus,  the 
tavus  Adok.h«s  "/Sweden    and  othe^  ^^^^j^,  .  ^^^  ^^^^  j 

sonofSigismundIV.,Kingotroiana^        The  Swedes  took  ad-     1 
onlytoincrensethedisordersoflhestate.^^^^^^^^^  ^^^^    ^^^^ 

1     vantage  of  them  to  seize  ^"g^g^^Ji^X^^^^  its  dependencies, 
the  Poles  took  possession  of  S^f  ^^^.y,    „„  ^4  edge  of  a 

The  R'^^^'an^'X  XHf  electing  a  neJczar  of  their  own 
precipice,  adopted  the  plan  ol  «>?"'"-  pedrovitz,  who  became 
Ltion.  Their  choice  «»1  «"Xt  of  Snow  (1613.)  under 
the  founder  of  the  new  ^y^J^J^^^^J^  J^^/,"^^^^^^  That 

whom  Russia  attained  to  ^*»«^^"'*yy,isVther,  Fedor  Roma- 
prince,  guided  by  'h-age  councils  oh^JaUier,^  ^.^^^^^^^  ^^ 

now,  Archbishop  of  Rf^^^'I'^f^J^s.vedes,  by  surrendering 
►.he  state;  he  purchased  P^ace  ot  tne  owe  ^J  which  he 
to  them  Ingria  and  Russian  Carelm-     ^  he  sacn  ^^^^  ^^. 

-de  to  P«\-  -rdVe";  aS   f^"^^^^^^^^^  ^o 

fhemThelartirtrils'oFsmolensko,  Tschernigou,  and  Novo- 
corod,  with  their  dependencies.  aristocracy,  which 

^  Poland,  at  this  time,  P-^f.^^'l^Xe  anarchy-  The  nobles 
had  insensibly  degenerated  into  on^pleean^^^^^^^^^^  ^^  . 

were  the  only  persons  that  «"  °f  ^j^^^^/the  nuncios  or  de- 


,  -_Mfe*^«s<-«»M<i<*'  I  i  ijiaMiirtiiiiiiiWitBi 


!  total  reduction  ol  ' 

lil  the  reign  of  the  j  \ 

and  successor  of  j 

i^hich  has  since  be-  ■ ' 

und  and  body,  was     1  \ 
\v  Boris  Godunow, 
tnself  to  the  throne. 
)rother,  to  be  assas- 
loiig  series  of  trou- 
98.)     With  him,  as     I 
•  ancient  sovereigns 
xtinct ;  after  having 
idred  years, 
by  persons  of  diflfe- 
l  by  various  preten- 
and  were  supported 
a  presented  a  shock- 
length,  as  a  remedy 
ring  the  crown  on  a 
I,  the  brother  of  Gus- 
•d  for  Uladislaus,  the 
ise  resolutions  tended 
The  Swedes  took  ad- 
ofNovogorod;  while 
nd  its  dependencies. 
:hy  on  the  edge  of  a 
ew  Czar  of  their  own 
•drovitz,  who  became 
manow  (1613,)  under 
her  greatness.    That 
1  father,  Fedor  Roma- 
;d  all  the  disorders  of 
edes,  by  sunendering 
he  sacrifices  which  he 
lie.     By  the  truce  ot' 
a  (1634,)  he  ceded  to 
ichernigou,  and  Novo- 

jpt  aristocracy,  which 
anarchy.  The  nobles 
.  rights  of  citizenship  ; 
,  by  the  nuncios  or  de- 
;  the  honours  and  dig- 
[eneral  all  prerogatives 
iile  the  bwrgesses  and 


PERIOD  VI.      A.  D.  1463 — 1648. 


wn 


f 


poafnntry  alone  supported  the  whole  burden  of  expenses.  ThiV 
constitution,  at  the  siimc  time,  was  under  the  control  of  a  sort  of  de- 
mocracy, in  as  far  as  the  nobles,  without  exception,  were  held  to 
be  perfectly  equal  in  their  rights  and  dignities.  Imperfect  as  a 
government  must  have  In^en,  established  on  such  a  basis,  it  still 
continued,  nevertheless,  to  preserve  some  degree  of  vigour ;  and 
Poland  supported,  though  feebly,  the  character  of  being  the  ru- 
ling power  of  the  North,  so  long  as  the  House  of  Jageflon  occu- 
pied the  throne.  Besides  Prussia,  of  which  she  had  disposses- 
sed the  Teutonic  Knights,  she  acquired  Livonia,  and  maintained 
it  in  spite  of  Russia. 

The  reformation  of  religion  was  likewise  promulgated  in  Po- 
land, where  it  was  particularly  patronized  by  Sigismund  II.  A 
great  part  of  the  senate,  and  more  than  half  of  the  nobility 
made,  with  their  King,  a  profession  of  the  new  opinions ;  and  if 
the  reformation  did  not  take  deeper  root  in  that  kingdom,  or  if  it 
had  not  a  more  conspicuous  influence  on  the  civilization  of  the 
eople,  it  was  from  the  want  of  a  middle  class  in  the  kingdom, 
y  which  it  could  be  supported. 

The  male  line  of  Jagellon,  having  become  extinct  with  Sigis- 
mund II.  (1572,)  the  throne  became  purely  elective;  and  it  was 
ordained  that,  during  the  King's  life,  no  successor  could  be  ap- 
pointed ;  but  that  the  States,  on  his  demise,  should  enjoy  for 
ever  a  perfect  freedom  of  election  on  every  vacancy  of  the  throne. 
Such  was  the  origin  of  the  Diets  of  Election,  which,  from  their 
very  constitution,  could  not  fail  to  be  always  tumultuous  in  their 
proceedings.  The  nobles  in  a  body  appeared  at  these  Diets  • 
thither  they  repaired  in  arms  and  on  horseback,  ranked  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  the  Palatinates,  in  a  Camp  prepared  for  the 
purpose  near  Warsaw.  The  custom  of  the  Pacta  Conventa, 
took  its  rise  about  the  same  time.  Henry  de  Valois,  who  was 
elected  King  on  the  death  of  Sigismund  II.,  was  the  first  thai 
swore  to  these  conventional  agreements,  [by  which  he  engaged, 
that  no  foreigner  should  be  introduced  either  in  a  civil  or  mili- 
tary department.]  These  Pacta,  which  had  all  the  force  of  a 
fundamental  law,  specified  those  conditions  under  which  the 
throne  was  conferred  on  the  new  monarch.  The  royal  authori- 
ty was  thus  curtailed  more  and  more,  and  the  prerogatives  of 
the  nobility  exalted  in  proportion. 

Poland,  in  consequence,  soon  lost  its  influence ;  the  govern- 
ment was  altered  in  its  fundamental  principles,  and  the  kingdom 
plunged  into  an  abyss  of  calamities.  Among  the  elective  Kings 
who  succeeded  Henry  de  Valois,  the  last  that  supported  the  dig- 
nity of  the  crown  against  Russia,  was  Uladislaus  IV.,  the  son  of 
Sigismund  III.,  of  the  House  of  Vasa.  In  an  expedition  which 
he  undertook  into  the  interior  of  Russia  (1618,)  he  penetrated 


» 


\\- 


i"'i 


\ 


876 


CHAPTEH  VII. 


an  far  ns  Moscow  ;  and  in  n  .spooihI  which  he  rnnde  0634,)  he 
rompt'lied  the  Riissinns  to  raise  the  sicjfe  of  Sniolt'iicko  ;  and 
shut  them  up  m  closely  in  their  canin,  that  they  were  ohiiired  to    | 
capitulate  for  want  of  provisionn.     He  then  made  a  new  attack     ^ 
on  the  capital  of   Russia  ;  and  at  the  peace  ol   Wiasma.  he  ob-     , 
tained  conditions  most  advantaj,'eous  to  Poland.  ; 

In  the  history  of  Huiij,'nry,  the  most  splendid  era  wns  the     , 
reiffn  of  Matthias  Corvin,  who,  at  the  ago  of  scarcely  sixteen,    | 
had  been  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  free  choice  of  the  nation 
(1458.)     Liko  his  father  the  valorous  John  Hunniades,  he  was 
the  terror  of  the  Turks  during,'  his  whole  reign  ;  he  took  Bosnia     , 
from  them,  and  kept  Transylvania,  Wollachia,  Moldayia,  Scla-    j 
vonia,  and  Servia  in  dependence  on  his  crown,  in  spite  of  the    j 
incessant  eflTorts  which  the  Turks  made  to  rescue  these  provinces.     , 
He  likewise  conquered  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Lusatia ;  he  even     i 
took  Austria  from  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.,  and  came  to  fix    , 
his  residence  at  Vienna  (1485.)     It  was  in  that  city  that  he  tcr- 
minated  his  brilliant  career,  at  the  early  age  ol  forty-seven  (149U.) 
That  great  prince  added  to  his  military  talents,  a  love  for  elegant 
literature,  of  which,  from  the  first  revival  of  letters,  he  showed 
himself  a  zealous  protector.  .      ,     ,         r  n/i 

The  glory  of  Hungary  sufTered  an  eclipse  in  the  loss  of  Mat- 
thias.    His  successors,  Uladislaus  II.,  the  son  of  Casimir  IV. 
King  of  Poland,  and  Louis  the  son  of  Uladislaus,  who  held  at 
the  same  time  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  were  weak  and  indolent 
princes,  who  saw  Hungary  torn  by  factions,  and  ravaged  with 
impunity  by  the  Turks.     Soliman  the  Great  taking  advantage 
of  the  youth  of  Louis,  and  the  distressed  state  in  which  Hungary 
was,  concerted  his  plans  for  con(iuering  the  kingdom.     He  at- 
tacked the  fortress  of  Belgrade  (1521,)  and  made  himself  master 
of  that  important  place,  before  the  Hungarians  could  march  to 
Its  relief.     His  first  success  encouraged  him  to  return  to  the 
charge.     Having  crossed  the  Danube  and  the  Drave  without 
meeting  with  any  resistance,  he  engaged  the  Hunpnans  near 
Mohacz  (1526,)  in  that  famous  battle  which  cost  them  the  Iile 
of  their  king  and  their  principal  nobility.  Twenty-two  thousand 
Hungarians  were  left  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  the  whole  king- 
dom lay  ut  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror.  Soliman  now  proceeded 
as  far  as  the  Raab;  but  instead  of  completing  the  conquest  of 
Hungary  as  he  might  have  done,  he  contented  himself  with  the 
1     laying  waste  all  that  part  of  the  country  with  fire  and  sword ; 
'     and  carrying  several  hundred  thousand  prisoners  into  slavery. 
The  premature  death  of  the  young  King  who  left  no  progeiiy, 
occasioned  a  vacancy  in  the  throne  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 
Ferdinand  of  Austria  who  married  Anne,  sister  to  Louis,  ciaimefl 
the  succession  in  virtue  of  the  difTerent  treaties  signM  in  the 


w«>«WiiMKM»4lMSn«^(l^>«Ai^ 


,-.4«aifea»«iitow^»n*fciaM» 


■N^r 


idc  il634,)  ht 
lolt'iifko  ;  and 
kftTi!  ohliged  to 
'  II  new  attack 
'^iasnia,  he  ob- 

1  era  was  the 
arcely  sixleen, 
of  the  nation 
iiiudes,  he  wa6 
le  took  Bosnia 
loldavia,  Sola- 
in  spite  of  the 
lese  provinces, 
satia ;  he  even 
[ud  came  to  fix 
•ity  that  he  ter- 
^-seven(1490.) 
ove  for  elegant 
ers,  he  showed 

lie  loss  of  Mat- 
of  Casiniir  IV. 
is,  who  held  at 
k  and  indolent 
I  ravaged  with 
king  advantage 
vhich  Hungary 
igdom.     He  at- 
I  himself  master 
could  march  to 
3  return  to  the 
Drave  without 
ungarians  near 
it  them  the  life 
ty-two  thousand 
the  whole  king- 
1  now  proceeded 
the  conquest  of 
himself  with  the 
fire  and  sword ; 
rs  into  slavery. 
( left  no  progerjy, 
y  and  Bohemia. 
0  Louis,  claimed 
>s  signod  in  the 


PKRIOD  VI.     A.  D.  14fi3— 1648. 


977 


years  1463, 1468, 1491,  and  1515,  between  the  Austrian  princes 
and  the  last  kings  of  Hungary.  But  though  the  Bohemiai) 
Slates  were  disposed  to  listen  to  the  pretensions  of  Ferdinand, 
it  was  not  so  with  those  of  Hungary,  who  transferred  the  crown 
to  John  de  Zapolya,  Count  of  Zips,  and  Palatine  of  Transylvania. 
That  prince  Iwing  hardly  pressed  by  Ferdinand,  at  length  de- 
termined to  throw  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  Turks. 
Soliman  marched  in  person  to  his  assistance,  and  laid  siege  to 
the  city  of  Vienna  (1529.)  In  this  enterprise,  however,  he  failed, 
after  sacrificing  the  lives  of  nearly  eighty  thousand  men. 

In  153S,  a  treaty  was  agreed  on  between  the  two  competitors, 
in  virtue  of  which  the  whole  kingdom  of  Hungary,  on  the  death 
of  John  Zapolya,  was  to  devolve  on  Ferdinand.  This  treaty 
was  never  carried  into  execution.  John  at  liis  death  having 
left  a  son  named  John  Sigismuiid,  then  an  infant  in  his  cradle, 
Bishop  George  Martinuzzi,  prime  minister  of  the  deceased  king, 
proclaimed  the  young  prince,  and  secured  for  him  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Turks.  Soliman  undertook  a  new  expedition  into 
Hungary  in  his  favour  (1541 ;)  but  by  a  piece  of  signal  perfidy, 
he  took  this  occasion  to  seize  the  city  of  Buda,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  and  several  other  pla.'es  ;  and  banished  the  prince 
with  his  mother  the  queen-dowager,  to  Transylvania,  which  he 
gave  up  to  him,  with  several  other  districts  in  Hungary.  The 
city  of  Buda  with  the  greater  part  of  Hungary  and  Sclavonia 
remained  in  the  power  of  the  Turks  ;  and  Ferdinand  was  obliged 
to  pay  an  annual  tribute  for  the  protection  of  that  kingdom,  the 

Cossession  of  which  was  guaranteed  to  him  by  the  truce  which 
e  concluded  with  them  in  1562. 

In  the  midst  of  these  unfortunate  events,  the  Austrian  princeb 
had  again  the  imprudence  to  alienate  the  affections  of  the  Hun- 
garians, by  the  intolerant  spirif  they  displayed,  and  the  efforts 
which  they  incessantly  made  to  extirpiite  the  Protestant  religion 
from  that  kingdom.  The  opinions  of  Luther  and  Calvin  had 
already  been  propagated  in  Hungary  during  the  reign  of  Louis, 
the  predecessor  of  Ferdinand.  They  had  even  made  j.reat  pro- 
gress ;  especially  in  Transylvania,  where  the  German  language 
and  literature  were  generally  cultivated.  The  oppressions  which 
the  partisans  of  the  new  doctrines  experienced,  added  to  the  at- 
tempts which  the  Austrian  princes  made,  from  time  to  time,  to 
subvert  the  ancient  constitution  of  the  kingdcm,  excited  fresh 
troubles,  and  favoured  the  designs  of  the  discontented  and  am- 
bitious, who  were  watching  their  opportunity  to  agitate  the 
state,  and  make  encroachments  on  the  government.  Stephen 
Boischkai,  Bethlem  Gabor,  and  George  Ragoczi,  princes  of 
Transylvania,  were  successively  the  chiefs  or  leaders  of  these 


li 


*-ilii 


4: 


1  <   ! 


11: 


h- 


378  CHAPTBB  TU. 

malecontents,  in  tho  reigns  of  Rodolph  II.,  Ferdinand  JI-.  and 
Ferdinand  III.,  Emperors  of  Germany.    Accordmg  to  the  Paci- 
fication  of  Vienna  (1606,)  and  that  of  Lintz  (1645,)  as  well  as 
by  the  decrees  of  the  Diet  of  Odenburg  (1622.)  and  of  Presburg 
(1647,)  these  princes  were  compelled  to  tolerate  the  public  exer- 
cise of  the  reformed  religion  ;  and  to  redress  the  political  com- 
plaints of  the  Hungarian  malecontents.  ,  .  .    .  ,      J 
The  same  troubles  on  the  score  of  religion,  which  infested 
Hungary,  extended  likewise  to  Bohemia,  where  the  new  doc- 
trines met  with  a  much  better  reception,  as  they  were  in  unison 
with  the  religious  system  of  the  Hussites,  who  had  already  nu- 
merous partisans  in  that  kingdom.     It  was  chiefly  under  the 
reign  of  the  mild  and  tolerant  Maximilian  II.  that  Protestantism 
made  its  way  in  Bohemia.     All  those  who  were  formerly  called 
Utraquists,  from  their  professing  the  Communion  in  both  kinds, 
joined  the  followers  either  of  Luther  or  Calvin.     Rodolph  II., 
the  son  and  successor  of  Maximilian,  was  obliged,  at  the  Diet  of 
Prague  (1609,)  to  grant  them  the  free  exercise  of  their  worship, 
without  distinction  of  place ;  and  even  to  extend  this  indulgence  to 
the  Protestants  of  Silesia  and  Lusatia  by  letters-patent,  known 
by  the  name  of  Letters  of  Majesty  ;  copies  of  which  were  made 
at  Prague  on  the  11th  of  July  and  20th  of  August  1609.   These 
letters  were  confirmed  by  King  Matthias,  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne  ol  Bohemia ;  as  also  by  Ferdinand  III.,  when  he  was 
acknowledged  by  the  Bohemian  States,  as  the  adopted  son  and 
successor  of  Matthias. 

The  different  interpretations  which  were  put  on  these  letters 
occasioned  ihe  war,  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  The  Emperor  Matthias  happening  to  die  in  the 
midst  of  these  disturbances,  the  Bohemian  States,  regarding 
their  crown  as  elective,  annulled  the  election  of  Ferdinand  II. 
(1619,)  and  conferred  the  crown  on  Frederic,  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine. Being  in  strict  alliance  with  the  States  of  Silesia,  Mora- 
via, and  Lusatia,  they  declared  war  against  Ferdinand,  who  was 
supported,  on  the  other  hand,  by  Spain,  the  Catholic  princes  of 
the  Empire,  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  ,„,,.-., 

The  famous  battle  of  Prague  (1620.)  and  the  fall  of  the  Elec- 
tor  Palatine,  brought  about  a  revolution  in  Bohemia.  The  ring- 
leaders of  the  insurrection  were  executed  at  Prague,  and  their 
goods  confiscated.  Ferdinand,  who  treated  that  kingdom  as  a 
conquered  country,  declared  that  the  States  had  forfeited  their 
rights  and  privileges ;  and,  in  the  new  constitution  which  he 
gave  them,  he  consented  to  restore  these,  only  on  condition  of 
expressly  excepting  the  rights  which  they  had  claimed  m  the 
election  of  their  kings,  a."  well  as  the  Letters  of  Majesty  which 


$ 


-ffv^nTvmmi  t^*m  iiriJWrit 


■  m'HliiiMlMlW'l''' 


tnd  n.,  and 
to  the  Paci- 
,)  as  well  as 
of  Presburg 
public  exer- 
olitical  com- 

lich  infested 
he  new  doc- 
ere  in  unison 
I  already  nu- 
iy  under  the 
i'rotestantism 
rmerly  called 
n  both  kinds, 
Rodolph  II., 
at  the  Diet  of 
:heir  worship, 
indulgence  to 
)atent,  known 
;h  were  made 
1609.  These 
^cession  to  the 
when  he  was 
opted  son  and 

n  these  letters 
!  of  the  Thirty 
S[  to  die  in  the 
Les,  regarding 
Ferdinand  IL 
Elector  Pala- 
Silesia,  Mora- 
nand,  who  was 
olio  princes  of 


ill  of  the  Elec' 
ia.  The  ring- 
igue,  and  their 
,  kingdom  as  a 
forfeited  their 
tion  which  he 
on  condition  of 
claimed  in  the 
Majesty  which 


PBRioD  VI.    A.  D.  14d3 — 1648. 


279 


S -anted  to  the  Protestants  the  free  exercise  of  their  worship 
ut  this  prince  did  not  stop  with  the  suppression  of  their  reli- 
gious liberties,  he  deprived  them  also  of  their  rights  of  citizen- 
ship. Laws  the  most  atrocious  were  published  against  them, 
and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  deny  them  the  liberty  of  making 
testaments,  or  contracting  legal  marriages.  All  their  ministers, 
without  exception,  were  banished  the  kingdom ;  and  the  most 
iniquitous  means  were  employed  to  bring  back  the  Protestants 
to  the  pale  of  the  Catholic  Church.  At  length  it  was  enjoined, 
by  an  edict  in  1627,  that  all  Protestants  who  persisted  in  their 
opinions  should  quit  the  kingdom  within  six  months.  Thirty 
thousand  of  the  best  families  in  the  kingdom,  of  whom  a  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five  were  nobility,  abandoned  Bohemia,  trans- 
porting their  talents  and  their  mdustry  to  the  neighbouring 
States,  such  as  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  Prussia,  &c. 

Ferdinand  judged  it  for  his  interest  to  detach  the  Elector  of 
Saxony  from  the  alliance  with  Sweden,  which  he  had  joined. 
He  concluded  a  special  peace  with  him  at  Prague,  in  virtue  ol 
which  he  made  over  to  him  the  two  Lusatias,  which  he  had  dis- 
membered from  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  to  reimburse  the  Elec- 
tor for  those  sums  which  he  claimed,  as  having  been  the  ally  of 
Austria  against  the  Elector  Palatine,  then  King  of  Bohemia. 
That  province  was  ceded  to  the  Elector  John  George,  for  him- 
self and  his  successors,  as  a  fief  of  the  Bohemian  crown,  under 
the  express  condition,  that  failing  the  male  line  of  the  Electoral 
branch,  it  should  pass  to  the  female  heirs ;  but  that  it  should 
then  be  at  the  option  of  the  King  of  Bohemia  to  use  the  right  of 
redemption,  by  repaying  to  the  female  heirs  the  sum  for  which 
Lusatia  had  been  mortgaged  to  Saxony.  This  sum  amounted 
to  seventy-two  tons  of  gold,  valued  at  seven  millions  two  hundred 
thousand  dorins. 

The  Turkish  empire  received  new  accessions  of  territory,  both 
in  Asia  and  Europe,  under  the  successors  of  Mahomet  IL,  who 
had  fixed  their  capital  at  Constantinople.  The  conquest  of  Bes- 
sarabia belongs  to  the  reign  of  Bajazet  IL,  about  the  year  1484 
That  prince  had  a  brothftr  named  Jem  or  Zizim,  who  had  been 
his  competitor  for  the  throne ;  and  having  fled  to  Home,  he  was 
imprisoned  by  order  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  at  the  instance  of 
Bajazet,  who  had  engaged  to  pay  the  Pope  a  large  pension  for 
him.  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  when  he  made  his  expedition 
into  Italy  for  the  conquest  of  Naples,  compelled  the  Pope  to  sur- 
render up  the  unfortunate  Zizim,  whom  he  designed  to  employ 
in  the  expedition  which  he  meditated  ag  ust  the  Turks,  but 
which  never  took  place.  Selim  I.  the  son  and  successor  of  Ba- 
jazet, taking  advantage  of  a  revolution  which  happened  in  Persia, 
and  of  the  victory  which  he  gained  near  Taurus  over  the  Scbaw 


■i 


280 


CHAPTER  VII. 


Ismail  Sophi  I.  (1514,)  conquered  the  provinces  of  DiarbekiT 
and  Algezira,  beyond  the  Euphrates.  ,  i.    m 

The  same  prince  overturned  the  powerful  Empire  ot  the  Ma- 
melukes, who  reigned  over  Egypt,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  part  of 
Arabia.  He  defeated  the  last  Sultans,  Cansoul-Algour^  and 
Toumanbey  (1516,)  and  totally  annihilated  that  dynasty.  Cairo, 
the  capital  of  the  Empire  of  Egypt,  was  taken  by  assault  (1517,) 
and  the  whole  of  the  Mameluke  States  incorporated  with  the 
Ottoman  Empire.  The  Scheriff  of  Mecca  likewise  submitted 
to  the  Porte,  with  several  tribes  of  the  Arabs. 

Soliman  the  Great,  who  succeeded  his  father  Selim,  raised 
the  Turkish  Empire  to  the  highest  pitch  of  glory.  Besides  the 
island  of  Rhodes,  which  he  took  from  the  Knights  of  bt.  John, 
and  the  greater  part  of  Hungary,  he  reduced  the  provinces  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  a  state  of  dependence,  and  made 
their  princes  vassals  and  tributaries  of  his  Empire.  He  likewise 
conquered  Bagdad  and  Irak-Arabia,  which  happened,  according 
to  the  Turkish  authors,  about  the  year  1534. 

That  prince  distinguished  his  reign,  by  the  efforts  vvhich  he 
made  to  increase  the  maritime  strength  of  the  Empire,  which 
his  predecessors  had  neglected.  He  took  into  his  service  the 
famous  pirate  Barbarossa,  King  of  Algiers,  whom  he  created 
Capitan  Pacha,  or  Grand  Admiral.  Barbarossa  equipped  a  fleet 
of  more  than  a  hundred  sail,  with  which  he  chased  the  Imperi- 
alists from  the  Archipelago ;  and  infested  the  coasts  of  Spam, 
Italy  and  Sicily  (1565.)  Soliman  miscarried,  however,  in  his 
enterprise  against  Malta.  The  courageous  defence  made  by  the 
Knights,  together  with  the  arrival  of  the  fleet  from  Sicily,  obliged 
the  Ottomans  to  retreat.  .  ,    ,      .      u    » 

The  decline  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  began  with  the  death  of 
Soliman  the  Great  (1566.)  The  sultans,  his  successors,  sur- 
rendering themselves  to  luxury  and  effeminacy,  and  shut  up  in 
their  seraglios  and  harems,  left  to  their  Grand  Viziers  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Empire,  and  the  management  of  the  army.  The 
sons  of  these  Sultans,  educated  by  women  and  eunuchs,  and  se- 
cluded from  all  civil  and  military  affairs,  contracted  from  their 
earliest  infancy  all  the  vices  of  their  fathers,  and  no  longer 
brought  to  the  throne  that  vigorous  and  enterprising  snirit, 
which  had  been  the  soul  of  the  Ottoman  government,  and  the 
basis  of  all  their  institutions.  Selim  II.,  the  son  of  Soliman, 
was  the  first  who  set  this  fatal  example  to  his  successors.  In 
his  time,  the  Turks  took  the  Isle  of  Cyprus  from  the  Venetians 
(1570,)  which  they  maintained  in  spite  of  the  terrible  defeat 
which  they  received  at  Lepanto  (1571,)  and  vvhich  was  followed 
by  the  ruin  of  their  marine. 


;,iuimaiim't»'-f»itniir.>!dt<iiiim:t>«nw'n^ 


of  DiaTbekir 

re  of  the  Ma- 
e,  and  part  of 
Algouri,  and 
nasty.  Cairo, 
ssault  (1517.) 
ated  with  the 
ise  submitted 

Selim,  raised 
Besides  the 
s  of  St.  John, 
e  provinces  of 
ce,  and  made 
He  likewise 
led,  according 

forts  which  he 
Umpire,  which 
bis  service  the 
m  he  created 
quipped  a  fleet 
ed  the  Imperi- 
ists  of  Spain, 
owever,  in  his 
:e  made  by  the 
Sicily,  obliged 

th  the  death  of 
iuccessors,  sur- 
and  shut  up  in 
'iziers  the  gov- 
he  army.  The 
muchs,  and  se- 
cted  from  their 
and  no  longer 
rprising  spirit, 
nment,  ana  the 
m  of  Soliman, 
successors.  In 
1  the  Venetians 
terrible  defeat 
;h  was  followed 


■rur^anrr.v*" 


--11 


CHAPTER   VIII. 


PERIOD  VII. 


From  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  to  that  of  Utrecht. — a.  d.  164&— 

1713. 

The  political  system  of  Europe  underwent  a  great  cnange  at 
the  commencement  of  this  period.  France,  after  having  long 
struggled  for  her  own  independence  against  Austria,  at  length 
turned  the  balance,  and  became  so  formidable  as  to  combine 
against  herself  the  whole  policy  and  military  power  of  Europe. 
The  origin  of  this  extraordinary  influence  of  France,  belongs  to 
the  reigns  of  Charles  VII.,  and  Louis  XI.  Several  important 
accessions  which  she  made  at  this  epoch,  together  with  the 
change  which  happened  in  her  government,  gave  her  a  power 
and  energy,  which  might  have  secured  her  a  decided  preponde- 
rance among  the  Continental  States,  had  not  her  influence  been 
overbalanced  by  Austria,  which,  by  a  concurrence  of  fortunate 
events,  and  several  wealthy  marriages,  had  s\jddenly  risen  to  a 
degree  of  power  that  excited  the  jealousy  of  all  Europe.  Hence, 
for  nearly  two  hundred  years,  it  required  all  the  political  re- 
sources of  France  to  make  head  against  her  rival ;  and  what 
added  to  her  misfortunes  was,  that,  though  freed  from  the  dis- 
traction of  the  Italian  war,  she  was  still  agitated  by  civil  wars, 
which  employed  her  whole  military  force. 

It  was  not  till  near  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  that 
she  extricated  herself  from  this  long  struggle ;  and  that,  disen- 
gaged from  the  shackles  of  her  own  factions  and  internal  dis- 
sensions, her  power  assumed  a  new  vigour.  The  well  regulated 
condition  of  her  finances,  the  prosperity  of  her  commerce  and 
manufactures,  and  the  respectable  state  of  her  marine,  all  con- 
curred to  diffuse  wealth  and  abundance  over  the  kingdom. 
The  abasement  of  the  House  of  Austria,  eflfected  at  once  by  the 
treaties  of  Westphalia  and  the  Pyrenees,  together  with  the 
consolidation  of  the  Germanic  body,  and  the  federal  system  of 
the  Provinces  in  the  Netherlands,  put  the  last  climax  on  her 
glory,  and  secured  to  her  the  preponderance  in  the  political  scale 
of  Europe.     This  change  in  her  political  system  was  achieved 


i '  i 


I.   I 


■f! 


M '  i 


282 


OUAPTBK  VIU. 


principally  by  the  two  great  statesmen,  Cardinals  Richelieu  and 
Mazarin,  who,  by  drying  up  the  fountains  of  civil  dissensions, 
and  concentrating  the  reins  of  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  go- 
vernment, raised  that  monarchy  to  the  rank  which  its  position, 
its  population,  and  its  internal  resources,  had  assigned  it  among 
the  powers  of  the  Continent.  , 

Mazarin  left  the  kingdom  in  a  flourishing  state  to  Louis  Al  V., 
who,  aided  by  the  counsels  and  assistance  of  the  fanious  Col- 
bert,  became  the  patron  of  letters  and  the  fine  arts,  and  finished 
the  work  which  was  begun  by  his  prime  minister.     Nothing 
could  equal  the  ardour  which  inspired  that  prince  for  military 
fame.     France  would  have  been  prosperous  under  his  reign, 
and  respected  even  by  all  Europe,  had  he  kept  nothmg  else  in 
Tiew  than  the  true  interests  and  happiness  of  his  people ;  but 
he  was  ambitious  of  that  sort  of  glory  which  is  the  scourge  of 
mankind,  the  glory  of  heroes  and  conquerors.     Hence  there  re- 
sulted a  long  series  of  wars,  which  exhausted  the  strength  and 
resources  of  the  state,  and  introduced  a  new  change  in  its  po- 
litical system.     The  same  States  which  had  formerly  made 
common  cause  with  France  against  Austria,  now  combined 
against  the  former,  to  humble  that  gigantic  power  whwh  seemed 
to  threaten  their  liberty  and  independence.    ,         .,        ,        , 
[In  these  alliances  the  maritime  powers  voluntarily  took  part ; 
and,  having  less  fear  than  the  others  of  falling  under  the  yoke 
of  a  universal  monarchy,  they  joined  the  Confederates  merely 
for  the  protection  of  their  commerce— the  true  source  of  their 
influence  p.nd  their  wealth.     They  undertook  the  defence  of  the 
equilibrium  system,  because  they  perceived,  that  a  State  which 
could  command  the  greater  part  cf  the  continental  coasts,  might 
in  many  ways  embarrass  their  commerce,  and  perhaps  become 
dangerous  to  their  marine.     They  soon  acquired  a  very  great 
influence  in  the  affairs  of  this  system,  by  the  subsidies  with 
which  fron.  time  to  time  they  furnished  the  States  ot  the  l.on- 
tinent.     From  this  period  the  principal  aim  of  European  policy 
was  their  finances  and  their  commercial  interests,  m  place  ot 
religion,  which  had  been  the  grand  motive  or  pretext  for  the 
preceding  wars.     With  this  new  system  began  those  abuses  oi 
commercial  privileges  and  monopolies,  prohib.tions,   imposts, 
and  many  other  regulations,  which  acted  as  restraints  oniiatural 
liberty,  and  became  the  scourge  of  future  generations.     It  was 
then  that  treaties  of  commerce  first  appeared,  by  whwh  every 
trading  nation  endeavoured  to  procure  idvantages  to  itselt,  at 
the  expense  of  its  rivals;  and  it  was  then  that  the  belligerent 
powers  began  to  lay  restraints  and  interdicts  on  the  commerce 
of  neutral  States. 


I 


:Simi>-wit^^»i=*iii 


Richelieu  and 

iril  dissensions, 
ands  of  the  go- 
ich  its  position, 
igned  it  among 

to  Louis  XIV., 
16  famous  Col- 
ts, and  finished 
ister.  Nothing 
ce  for  military 
nder  his  reign, 
nothing  else  in 
lis  people ;  but 
the  scourge  of 
Hence  there  re- 
le  strength  and 
ange  in  its  po- 
formerly  made 
now  combined 
r  which  seemed 

tarily  took  part ; 
under  the  yoke 
ederates  merely 
source  of  their 
le  defence  of  the 
it  a  State  which 
ital  coasts,  might 
perhaps  become 
red  a  very  great 
!  subsidies  with 
ates  of  the  Con- 
European  policy 
3sts,  in  place  ol 
•  pretext  for  the 
those  abuses  oi 
x'tions,  imposts, 
Taints  on  natural 
rations.  It  was 
by  which  every 
iges  to  itself,  at 
t  the  belligerent 
n  the  commerce 


riRioD  vn.    A.  0.  1648—1713. 


283 


But  the  political  system  of  Europe  experienced  other  changes 
at  this  period.  Standing  armies  were  introduced,  and  augment- 
ed to  a  degree  that  proved  ruinous  both  to  the  agriculture  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  the  finances  of  the  government,  which,  by  this 
means,  was  rendered  more  and  more  dependent  on  those  States, 
whose  principal  object  was  commerce.  The  frequent  commu- 
nication between  foreign  courts,  which  the  policy  of  Richelieu 
had  rendered  necessary,  gave  occasion  for  envoys  and  resident 
ministers ;  whereas  formerly  scarcely  any  other  intercourse  was 
known,  except  by  extraordinary  embassies.] 

The  first  war  that  roused  the  European  powers,  was  thai 
which  Louis  XIV.  undertook  against  Spain,  to  enforce  the 
claims  which  he  advanced,  in  name  of  his  Queen  Maria  The- 
resa, over  several  provinces  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  espe- 
cially the  dutchies  of  Brabant  and  Limburg,  the  seigniories  of 
Mechlin,  the  marquisate  of  Antwerp,  Upper  Gueldres,  the 
counties  of  Namur,  Hainault  and  Artois,  Cambray  and  Cam- 
bresis,  which  he  alleged  belonged  to  him,  in  virtue  of  the  jus 
devolutionis,  according  to  the  usage  of  that  country.  According 
to  that  right,  the  property  of  goods  passed  to  the  children  of  the 
first  marriage,  when  their  parents  contracted  another.  Maria 
Theresa,  Queen  of  France,  was  the  daughter,  by  the  first  mar- 
riage of  Philip  IV.  King  of  Spain;  whereas  Charles  II.,  his 
successor  in  that  monarchy,  was  descended  of  the  second  mar- 
riage. Louis  XIV.  contended,  that  from  the  moment  of  Philip's 
second  marriage,  the  property  of  all  the  countries,  which  were 
affected  by  the  right  of  devolution,  belonged  to  his  Queen  ;  and 
that,  after  the  death  of  her  father,  that  Princess  should  enjoy 
the  succession.  In  opposition  to  these  claims  of  France,  the 
Spaniards  alleged,  that  the  right  of  aevolution,  being  founded 
merely  on  custom,  and  applicable  only  to  particular  successions, 
could  not  be  opposed  to  the  fundamental  laws  of  Spain,  which 
maintained  the  indivisibility  of  that  monarchy,  and  transferred  the 
whole  succession  to  Charles  II.  without  any  partition  whatever. 

In  course  of  the  campaign  of  1667,  the  French  made  them- 
selves masters  of  several  cities  in  the  Low  Countries,  such  as 
Bruges,  Fumes,  Armentieres,  Charleroi,  Binch,  Ath,  Toumay, 
Douay,  Courtray,  Oudenarde,  and  Lille  ;  and  in  course  of  the 
following  winter,  they  got  possession  of  Franche-Comte.  The 
Pope  and  several  princes  having  volunteered  their  good  offices 
for  the  restoration  of  peace,  they  proposed  a  congress  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  ;  but  the  principal  scene  of  the  negotiation  was  at  the 
Hague,  where  Louis  sent  the  Count  d'Estrades,  to  treat  sepa- 
rately with  the  States-General.  This  negotiation  was  greatly 
accelerated  by  the  famous  Triple  Alliance,  concluded  at  the 


'■iB    '».'        i 


i 


I 


^  •  ^' 

, 

^1 

'^ 

t 

i 

II 


n 


.  »- 


284 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


Hnmie  1668.  between  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  the  States- 
General.  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty,  the  Alhed  Powers  re- 
quired Louis  to  ofler  Spain  the  option,  either  to  eave  h.m  in 
jrcssion  of  the  places  which  he  had  conquered  dur.ng  the 
carnpaiffn  of  1667,  or  to  cede  to  him  either  the  dutchy  of  Lux- 
eXg  or  Franche-Comte  with  the  cities  of  Cambray,  Douay 
Aire,  St.  Omer,  and  Fumes,  with  their  dependencies.  The 
Spaniards  having  accepted  the  former  of  these  alternatives,  the 
draught  of  a  treaty  of  peace  was  agreed  on,  and  signed  by  the 
Siislers  of  France,  England,  and  the  States-General ;  and  this 
Seme  served  as  the  basis  of  the  ^roatV,  which  ys  concluded 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  between  France  and  Spam  (May  2d  166^ 
In  consideration  of  the  restitutions  which  she  had  "^ade  'o  S™.n, 
France  retained,  in  terms  of  this  treaty,  the  towns  of  Charleroi, 
Bnch  Ath,  Douay,  Tournay,  Oudenarde,  L.l  e,  Armentieres. 
£'4  Bergues!  and  Furnes,  with  their  bailiwicks  and  de- 

^'iTs' peace  was  soon  followed  by  a  new  war,  which  Louis 
XIV  undertook  against  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  United  Pro- 
^nces      Wishing^o  be  avenged  on  the  Dutch,  whom  he  knew 
The  the  principal  authors  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  consuls 
inff  only  his  own  propensity  for  war,  he  alleged,  as  a  pretext, 
S  insulting  medals  which  had  been  struck  in  Holland,  on 
Jhe  p  "a  e  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  the  Triple  Alliance.'      In  vain 
d  d  fhe  States-General  offer  him  every  satisfaction  ;  he  persist- 
ed  in  his  purpose  of  declaring  war ;  and  the  better  to  succeed  m 
his  design,  he  endeavoured  first  to  dissolve  the  Trip^  Alliance. 
Colbe't  de  Croissy,  whom  he  sent  to  England  found  means    o 
detach  Charles  II!^  from  the  alliance,  ana  to  draw  h.m  over  to 
sfde  wi^h  Louis  against  the  Republic.     The  «ame  success  at- 
tended  the  negotiation  which  he  set  on  foot  with  the  Court  of 
Itockholm.     following  the  example.of  Eng  and,  the  Swedes 
renounced  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  joined  with  France.     Seve- 
arpr"nces  of  the  fempire,  such  as  the  Electo,  of  Cologne  and 
he  Bishop  of  Munster,  adopted  the  same  line  of  conduct.     The 
war  b  oke  out  in  1672;  and  so  rapid  were  the  conquests  o 
Louis  that  he  subdued  in  one  single  campaign  the  provinces  of 
Guerdres,  Utrecht,  Overyssel,  and  part  of  Holland.     He  would 
have  carried  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  it  the  Dutch  had  not  cut 
their  dikes  and  inundated  the  country. 

Alarmed  at  these  extraordinary  successes,  and  apprehending 
the  entU^e  subversion  of  the  Republic,  the  Emperor  "Leopold  1. 
the  King  of  Spain,  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  the  Impe- 
rial  Stafes  leagued  in  their  favour,  and  marched  to  their  relief, 
fhe  Pari  aS  of  England  obliged  ChaMes  II.  to  make  peace 


'•5*.s««l(ta#»ft*ste«««««»*-«*i*rt'a^-. 


aJC^**'""--""  wiiiiiiiaiiKi 


^ 


1 


;i 


nd  the  States* 

ied  Powers  re- 
leave  him  in 
red,  during  the 

utchy  of  Lux- 
anibrajr,  Douay 
sndencies.     The 

alternatives,  the 
d  signed  by  the 
eneral ;  and  this 
1  was  concluded 

(May  2d  1668.) 
d  made  to  Spain, 
ras  of  Charleroi, 
le,  Armentieres, 
liliwicks  and  de- 
ar, which  Louis 
sven  United  Pro- 
,  whom  he  knew 
ice,  and  consult- 
jed,  as  a  pretext, 
:k  in  Holland,  on 
liance.'  In  vain 
ction  ;  he  persist- 
jtter  to  succeed  in 
i  Triple  Alliance. 
,  found  means  to 
Iraw  him  over  to 
same  success  at- 
vith  the  Court  of 
land,  the  Swedes 
11  France.  Seve- 
I  of  Cologne  and 
of  conduct.     The 

the  conquests  of 
n  the  provinces  of 
Hand.  He  would 
lutch  had  not  cut 

md  apprehendins 
iperor  Leopold  1. 
rg,  and  the  Impe- 
lled to  their  relief. 
II.  to  make  peace 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


285 


•*ith  the  Republic,  by  refusing  to  grant  him  supplies  (1674.) 
The  Elector  of  Cologne  and  the  Bishop  of  Miinster  did  the 
same  thing.  Louis  XIV.  then  thought  proper  to  abandon  his 
roriquests  in  Holland  ;  and  direaed  his  principal  .strength  against 
Spam  and  the  Germanic  Stages.  He  subdued  Franche-Com'e 
in  the  spring  of  1674;  and  in  course  of  the  same  year,  the 
Prince  of  Conde  gained  the  battle  of  Senef.  In  the  following 
winter  Turcnne  attacked  the  quarters  of  the  Imperialists  in 
Alsace,  and  chased  them  from  that  province,  in  spite  of  their 
superior  numbers.  That  great  general  was  slain  at  Saspach  in 
Ortenau  when  he  was  on  the  point  of  lighting  the  famous  battle 
with  Montecuculi  (11th  Aug.  1674.)  Next  year  Admiral  do 
Que3ne  gained  two  naval  victories,  near  the  islands  of  Lipari 
and  Messina,  over  De  Ruyter,  who  died  of  the  wounds  he  had 
received. 

The  Swedes,  according  to  the  secret  articles  of  their  alliance 
with  France,  had  penetrated,  in  the  month  of  December  1674, 
into  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg,  to  cause  a  diversion  against 
the  Elector  Frederic  William,  who  commanded  the  Imperial 
army  on  the  Rhine ;  but  the  Elector  surprised  them  by  forced 
marches  at  Rathenow,  and  completely  routed  their  army  near 
Fehrbellin  (1675.)  The  Emperor  then  declared  war  against 
Sweden  ;  and  the  Elector,  in  concert  with  the  princes  of  Bruns- 
wick, the  Bishop  of  Munster,  and  the  King  of  Denmark,  strip- 
ped the  Swedes  of  the  greater  part  of  their  possessions  in  the 
Empire. 

At  length,  in  the  years  1678-79,  a  peace  was  concluded  at 
Mimeguen,  under  the  mediation  of  England.  Louis  XIV.  con- 
trived to  divide  the  allies,  and  to  make  a  separate  treaty  with 
the  Dutch,  by  which  he  restored  to  them  the  city  of  Maestricht, 
which  he  had.  again  seized.  The  example  of  the  Dutch  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  Spaniards,  who  in  like  manner  signed  a  special 
treaty  with  France ;  in  virtue  of  which,  they  gave  up  to  her 
Franche-Comt^,  wkh  several  cities  in  Flanders  and  Hainault, 
such  as  Valenciennes,  Bouchain,  Conde,  Cambray,  Aire,  St. 
Omer,  Ypres,  Warwick,  Warneton,  Poperingen,  Bailleul,  Cas- 
sel,  Bavay,  and  Maubeuge,  with  their  dependencies.  The  peace 
of  Munster  (1648)  was  renewed  by  that  which  was  concluded 
at  Nimeguen,  between  France,  the  Empire,  and  the  Emperor. 
France,  on  renouncing  her  right  to  a  ^rrison  in  Philipsburg, 
got  possession  of  the  city  of  Friburg  in  Brisgaw,  but  refused  to 
restore  what  .sue  had  wrested  from  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  except 
on  conditions  so  burdensome,  that  the  Duke  would  not  accept 
them  and  preferred  to  abandon  the  repossession  of  his  dutchy. 
As  tc  the  peace  which  France  and  Sweden  had  negotiated  with 


1  'I 


i      ! 


r  .^^ 


r;:: 


286 


durrBR  VIII. 


Denmark  and  her  allies  the  Princes  of  the  Empire,  it  was  «. 
npwed  by  different  special  treaties,  concluded  in  course  of  the 

vear  1679.  i    .   .    v       l 

"  No  sooner  was  the  peace  of  Nimeguen  concluded,  than  there 
aprunff  10  new  troubles,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Troubles  oj 
the  Rpunmis.  Louis  XIV.,  whose  ambition  was  without  bounds, 
had  instituted  a  Chamber  of  Reunion,  in  the  parliament  of  Metz, 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  tern- 
tones  ceded  to  him  by  the  treaties  of  Westphalia,  the  Pyrenees, 
Aix-ia-Chapelle,  and  Nimeguen.  This  Chamber,  as  well  as  the 
Parliament  of  Besan9on,  and  the  Sovereign  Council  of  Alsace, 
adjudged  to  the  King,  by  their  decree,  several  towns  and  seigmo- 
ries,  as  being  fiefs  or  dependencies  of  Alsace ;  as  also  the  three 
bishoprics,  Franche-Comte,  and  the  territories  which  had  been 
ceded  to  him  in  the  Netherlands.  ,       . ,  u 

The  King's  views  were  principally  directed  to  Alsace.     He 
had  already°tendered  his  claims  on  this  province,  shortly  after 
the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  when  the  matter  had  been  referred 
to  the  decision  of  arbiters  chosen  by  the  Emperor  himself.  The 
work  of  arbitration  was  not  far  advanced,  when  it  was  inter- 
rupted bv  the  Dutch  war,  in  which  the  Emperor  and  the  Em- 
Dire  were  both  implicated.     The  peace  of  Nimeguen  haying 
confirmed  the  treaty  of  Munster,  he  preferred  the  method  of  re- 
union  to  that  of  arbitration,  for  reclaiming  his  alleged  rights. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  general  terms  in  which  the  cession  of 
Alsace  was  announced  in  the  seventy-third  and  seventy-fourth 
articles  of  the  said  treaty,  he  claimed  the  absolute  sovereignty 
of  the  whole  province,  and  obliged  the  immediate  states,  inclu- 
ded in  it,  to  acknowledge  his  sovereignty,  and  to  do  him  fealty 
and  homage,  notwithstanding  the  reservations  which  the  eighty- 
seventh  article  of  the  same  treaty  had  stipulated  in  favour  of 
these  very  States.     M.  de  Louvois  appeared  before  Strasburg 
at  the  head  of  the  French  army,  and  summoned  that  city  to  sub- 
mit to  the  King.     Accordingly,  it  surrendered  by  capitulation 
on  the  30th  September  1681.     These  reunions  extended  also  to 
the  Netherlands,  where  the  French  seized,  among  others,  the 
cities  of  Courtray,  Dixmude  and  Luxemburg. 

Louis  XIV.,  in  thus  taking  upon  himself  alone  the  interpre- 
tation of  these  trea'ies  of  peace,  could  not  but  offend  the  powers 
interested  in  maintaining  them.  A  new  general  league  was 
projected  against  France,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  they  de- 
liberated on  the  means  of  setting  on  foot  an  Imperial  army ;  but 
the  want  of  unanimity  among  the  members  of  the  Germanic  bo- 
dy the  troubles  in  Hungary,  which  were  immediately  succeed- 
ed by  a  war  with  the  Porte,  and  the  march  of  a  Turkish  army 


■■  s^i»*^««Bafejw«*) 


tBiu»*iW>iii''a.it'i!sagaMjB^ai^g^S^i^W^w'^ 


re,  it  was  re- 
course of  the 

ed,  than  there 
le  Troubles  of 
ithout  bounds, 
ment  of  Meti, 
nt  of  the  terri- 
the  Pyrenees, 
as  well  as  the 
icil  of  Alsace, 
18  and  seigniO' 
also  the  three 
hich  had  been 

3  Alsace.     He 
I,  shortly  after 
I  been  referred 
■  himself.  The 
n  it  was  inter- 
and  the  Em- 
leguen  having 
!  method  of  re- 
alleged rights. 
1  the  cession  of 
seventy-fourth 
jte  sovereignty 
te  states,  inclu- 
0  do  him  fealty 
[lich  the  eighty- 
2d  in  favour  of 
;fore  Strasburg 
that  city  to  sub- 
by  capitulation 
extended  also  to 
ong  others,  the 

ne  the  interpre- 
fend  the  powers 
Tal  league  was 
atisbon  they  de- 
erial  army ;  but 
le  Germanic  bo- 
dialely  succeed- 
a  Turkish  army 


rsRioD  VII.    A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


S87 


oil  Vienna,  threw  them  into  a  state  of  consternation,  and  pre- 
vented the  Imperial  Diet  from  adopting  any  vigorous  resolution. 
Spain,  exhausted  by  protracted  wars,  and  abandoned  by  Eng- 
land and  Holland,  was  quite  incapacitated  from  taking  arms. 
Nothing  else,  therefore,  remained  for  the  parties  concerned,  than 
to  have  recourse  to  negotiation.  Conferences  were  opened  nt 
Frankfort,  which,  after  having  languished  for  fifteen  months  in 
that  city,  were  transferred  to  Raiisbon,  where  a  truce  of  twenty 
years  was  signed  (15th  August  1684)  between  France  and  Spain; 
as  also  between  France,  the  Emperor  and  the  Empire.  By  the 
former  of  these  treaties,  Louis  retained  Luxemburg,  Bovines, 
and  Chimay,  with  their  dependencies  ;  restoring  all  the  places 
which  he  had  occupied  in  the  Netherlands  prior  to  the  20th  Au- 
gust 1683.  As  to  the  treaty  between  France  and  the  Emperor, 
the  former  retained,  during  the  truce,  the  city  of  Strasburg,  and 
the  fort  of  Kehl,  besides  all  the  places  and  seigniories  which 
they  had  taken  possession  of,  since  the  commencement  of  the 
troubles  till  the  1st  of  August  1681.  In  all  the  places  that  were 
surrendered  to  him,  Louis  preserved  the  exercise  of  his  sover- 
eign rights,  leaving  to  the  proprietors  or  seigniors  the  entire  en- 
joyment of  the  fruits  and  revenues  belonging  to  their  territorial 
rights. 

It  was  nearly  about  this  same  time  that  Louis  XIV.  under- 
took to  extirpate  Calvinism  from  France.  Incensed  against  the 
Protestants  by  the  old  chancellor  Letellier,  and  his  minister  Lou- 
vois,  the  chancellor's  son,  he  circumscribed,  by  repeated  declara- 
tions, the  privileges  which  they  enjoyed  in  virtue  of  former 
edicts.  The  holding  of  general  synods  was  forbidden  ;  the  two 
Chambers  were  suppressed ;  and  they  were  all,  without  excep- 
tion, debarred  from  exercising  any  public  function.  At  last, 
Louis  went  so  far  as  to  send,  immediately  after  the  truce  of  Ra- 
tisbon  (1684,)  dragoons  over  all  France,  to  endeavour,  as  was 
said,  to  convert  the  Protestants  by  gentle  compulsion.  This 
measure  was  next  followed  by  the  famous  Edict  of  1685,  which 
revoked  that  of  Nantes,  published  in  1598,  and  that  of  Nismes 
in  1629.  All  exercise  of  their  religion — all  assemblies  for  wor- 
ship, even  in  the  house,  were  forbidden  to  the  Protestants,  under 
pain  of  imprisonment  and  confiscation  of  goods.  Their  churches 
were  ordered  to  be  demolished.  Parents  were  enjoined  to  have 
their  children  baptized  by  the  Catholic  clergy,  and  to  bring  them 
up  in  the  religion  of  the  state.  The  ministers  were  banished, 
and  the  other  Protestants  were  forbidden  to  depart  the  country, 
under  pain  of  the  galleys  for  men,  and  imprisonment  and  confis- 
cation for  women.  The  rigour  of  these  prohibitions,  however, 
did  not  prevent  a  vast  multitude  of  the  French  Protestants  from 


1    i 


'» 


m 

I'K. 


f  .  I  m; 


288 


OUAFTKR    Vm. 


«m»Ting  1»  foreign  couMric-.,  and  l'«"»fe"i"8  *•  •»'  »'  *•" 
eJ  ihe  prerogative  of  hegale  acstr\ts  lu  uc  ^  j    havinir 

,„  ,1..  King  in  favnur  o    .(.e  t;*"^;- JJ"'   "„  «hth,  toide. 

allow  himself  to  be  <='7Ty^:,tu  JburHn  iSsoXtweeri  the 
he  cited  the  treaty  «^°"5l"J;f/\h^;'|tS.Ge,  eVa?  Sweden,  the 

i  maintenance  of  the  t-«"- ,f  "£f  .^Si  fhe  Dutchess  of 
:  wished  moreover  to  enforce  the  .^^f'T  succession  of  the  Pala- 
1     Orleans,  his  sister-in-law,  alleged  «  'J'e  «"^yf  J^^^        gi^^tor 


if^^^M-'' ■^-'  J^t 


I  the  seat  of  their 

not  hinder  Louis 

\vn  against  the 

the  dinercnt  dis> 

Int  which  regard- 

Jticuliirly  reniarit- 

and  1675,  having 

bishoprics  within 

8,  who  pretended 

ng  hi.s  protection. 

lich  he  addressed 

nduced  Louis  to 

in  which,  besides 

draw  up  the  four 

le  basis  of  the  li* 

sitions  were,  (1.) 

ings  spiritual,  and 

That  the  authority 

to  a  general  coun- 

ons,  the  customs, 

can  Church.     (4.) 

is  not  infallible. 

;cnly  years  at  Ra- 

'hich  Louis  again 

brination,  that  the 

ision  of  the  peace 

he  thence  inferred, 

te  his  enemy,  than 

'  of  this  assertion, 

16S6,  between  the 

leral,  Sweden,  the 

he  Empire,  for  the 

I  France.      Louis 

1  the  Dutchess  of 

ession  of  the  Pala- 

es,  the  last  Elector 

ed  in  1685.     She 

I  succcs:4ur  in  the 

1  comprehended  a 

the  new  Elector, 

laintained  thai,  ac< 

the  entire  succes- 

rhatever. 

set  forth  in  a  long 


vim 

'    '  '  '. 

"  >i"'i"iiiii>iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniii!iiiiiiiniiili 

Execution  of  Charles  I.  KU'J.     P.  203. 


ill 


4  «■   ■ 


t  :'fcj;^-^ 


Cromwell  dissolviiij;  the  Loii!'  Piiliaiiiciii..     P.  ":i«'j. 


1  T' 


s 


4 


rl' 

1    1 

" 

i 

I 

1 

■1.    i 


"  "^  lfc< 


',1 


!i 


I 


-,'• 

» ( 


Itil 


ptaioD  VII.    A.  D.  164S— 1719. 


289 


manifestn,  thef*  wm  another  W'hich  he  kept  concealed,  the  ob- 
ject (1^  which  wnn,  to  prevent  th*  <'xpedition  which  tlio  Prince 
of  Oratiif  Stadihoider  of  (he  United  Provinces,  was  preparing 
to  siMid  lo  liri/land,  against  Jaidi  s  II.  his  brotht'r-iri-uiw,  who 
had  become  odioii?  U)  ilie  whole  English  nufi"n.  It  was  of  great 
importance  for  Fran<  e  to  maintain,  on  the  llirone  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, a  prince  whom  she  protected,  and  who  would  alwiiys  e.^- 
pouse  ner  intere.sts ;  while  it  was  easy  to  foresee,  that  if  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  the  declared  enemy  of  Loa  .s,  and  the  author 
of  the  league  of  Augsburg,  should  succeed  in  uniting  the  crown 
of  England  to  the  stadtholdership,  he  would  not  fail  to  employ 
this  new  influence,  and  turn  the  combined  force  of  both  states 
against  France.  The  only  method  of  preventing  an  event  so 
prejudicial  to  the  true  interests  of  that  kingdom  would  have  been 
doubtless,  to  equip  an  expedition,  and  pitch  his  camp  on  the 
frontiers  of  Holland.  The  Court  of  France  knew  this  well,  and 
yet  they  contented  themselves  with  sending  an  army  to  the 
Rhine,  which  took  possession  of  Philipsburg,  Mayence,  and  the 
whole  Palatinate,  as  well  as  a  part  of  the  Electorate  of  Treve* 
(Sept.  and  Oct.  1688.)  Louvois,  the  French  minister  who  di- 
rected these  operations,  had  flattered  himself  that  the  Dutch, 
when  they  beheld  the  war  breaking  out  in  their  vicinity,  would 
not  dare  to  take  any  part  in  the  troubles  of  England.  In  this 
opinion  he  was  deceived ;  the  Prince  of  Orange,  supported  by  the 
Dutch  fleet,  effected  a  landing  in  England  (16th  November  1688.) 
The  revolution  there  was  soon  completed,  by  the  dethronement 
of  James  II. ;  and  Louis  XIV.,  enaing  where  he  should  hare 
begun,  then  declared  war  against  the  States-General.  This 
mistaken  policy  of  the  French  minister  became  the  true  source  of 
all  the  subsequent  reverses  that  eclipsed  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
A  powerful  league  was  now  formed  against  France,  which 
was  joined  successively  by  the  Emperor,  the  Empire,  England, 
Holland,  Spain  and  Savoy  (1689.)  Louis  XIV.,  in  order  to 
make  head  against  these  formidable  enemies,  recalled  his  troops 
from  those  places  which  they  occupied  in  the  Palatinate,  and  on 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine  ;  but  in  withdrawing  them,  he  ordered 
a  great  number  of  the  towns  to  be  burnt  to  ashes,  and  laid  waste 
the  whole  country.  By  this  barbarity,  which  circumstances  by 
no  means  called  for,  he  only  aggravated  the  hatred  and  increased 
the  ardour  of  his  enemies.  War  was  commenced  by  sea  and 
land ;  in  Italy,  Spain,  Ireland,  the  Low  Countries,  and  on  the 
Rhine.  Louis  supported  it  nobly  against  a  great  part  of  Europe, 
now  combined  against  him.  His  armies  were  victorious  every 
where.  Marshal  Luxembourg  signalized  himself  in  tht  cam- 
paigns of  Flanders,  by  the  victories  which  he  gained  over  the 


1 


290 


CHAPTER  Vlll. 


allies  at  Fleunis  (1st  July  1690,)  Steinkirk(3d  Aug.  1692,)  and 
Landen  or  Nerwinden  (2^th  July  1693.)  In  Italy.  M<^«hdC". 
linal  gained  the  battle  of  Stafarda  (18lh  Aug.  1690,)  and  Mar- 
snfflia  (4th  Oct.  1693)  over  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  The  naval 
gKof  France  was  well  supported  bv  the  Count  de  Tourvdle 
at  th^e  battles  of  Beachy-head  (10th  July  1690,)  and  La  Hogue 

^^HoSr  «Lt  the  s  .ccess  of  her  arms  might  be  the  pro-     , 
digious  efforts  which  the  war  required  could  not  but  exhaust 
France,  and  make  her  anxious  for  the  '«;»'>}  «fP!?.^«/^f"^i 
Louis  XIV.  foresaw  the  approachmg  death  of  Charles  11.  of 
Spain  ;  and  it  was  of  importance  for  him  to  break  the  grand 
Xnce  as  soon  as  possible;  as  one  of  its  articles  secured  tfie 
Ju  cession  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  to  the  Emperor  and  h  s 
descendants,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  King  of  France-   .  I"*'; 
case  he  wished,  for  his  own  interest,  to  give  every  facili  y  tor 
Se   esloration  ^f  peace  ;  and  by  the  treaty  which  he  concluded 
separately  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy  he  granted  that  P""*^^' ^; 
Bides  theWess  of  Pignerol,  and  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
wih  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  the  privilege  o    -yal  honour^  for 
his  ambassadors.    This  treaty,  concluded  at  Turin  (29th  Aug. 
1696,)  was  a  preliminary  to  the  general  P^^e,  signed  at  Kys- 
wick,  between  France,  Spain,  England,  and  Holland  (20th  Sept. 
1697  )     Fv.h  of  the  contracting  parties  consented  to  make 
mutual  restitutions.    France  even  restored  to  Spain  all  the  tmjms 
and  territories  which  she  had  occupied  in  the  Low  Countries, 
rmeans  of  the  reunions;  with  the  exception  of  erghty-two 
Ices,  mentioned  in  a  particular  list,  as  l>«'"f /^^Pf  "<>«"'='«,^  "i 
SLlemont,  Maubeuge.  and  other  places  ceded  by  the  preceding 
treaties.     Peace  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and  the  Empire 
was  also  signed  at  Ryswick.     The  treaties  of  Westphalia  and 
N^mefTuen  were  there  renewed ;  and  the  decrees  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Reunion  at  Metz,  and  of  the  Sovereign  Courts  at  Besan- 
con  and  Brisach,  were  rescinded  and  annulled.     Louis  XIV. 
engaged  to  restore  to  the  Empire  all  that  he  had  appropriated  to 
2sdf,  by  means  of  the  reunions,  either  before  or  during  he 
war  ;  that^s  to  say,  all  places  situated  or  acquired  beyond  the 
bounds  of  Alsace.'  The  city  of  Strasburg  was  ceded  to  France 
bv  a  particular  article  of  the  treaty ;  but  the  fortress  of  Kjhl,  the 
cfties  of  Friburg,  Brisach,  and  Philipsburg,  were  surrendered  to 
She  Emperor.    Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  and  son  of  Charles 
v.!  waVreinslated  in  his  dutchy,  without  any  other  reservauon 
Ihan  that  of  Saar-Louis,  and  the  city  and  prefecture  of  Lon&wy 
As  to  the  claims  of  the  Dutchess  of  Orleans  on  the  Palatinate 
they  were  submitted  to  the  arbiuation  of  tl>e  Emperor  and  the 


m  iijiip.i!i,ifi 


MW'f'ifeJ'UM'^-4i^»^4gi*Si^f'^^''''' 


ug.  1693,)  and 
Marshal  Cn- 
i90,)  and  Mar- 
The  naval 
nt  de  Tourville 
and  La  Hogue 

ght  be,  the  pro- 
ot  but  exhaust 
peace.  Besides, 
Charles  II.  of 
»reak  the  grand 
les  secured  the 
mperor  and  his 
•"ranee.     In  this 
svery  facility  for 
ch  he  concluded 
that  Prince,  be- 
of  his  daughter 
oval  honours  for 
urin  (29lh  Aug. 
signed  at  Rys- 
Hand  (20th  Sept. 
isented  to  make 
)ain  all  the  towns 
Low  Countries, 
in  of  eighty-two 
dependencies  ol 
by  the  preceding 
,  and  the  Empire 
Westphalia  and 
ses  of  the  Cham- 
Courts  at  Besan- 
;d.     Louis  XIV. 
id  appropriated  to 
ore  or  during  the 
uired  beyond  the 
ceded  to  France, 
rtressof  Kehl,  the 
■re  surrendered  to 
id  son  of  Charles 
other  reservation 
scture  of  Longwy 
on  the  Palatinate 
Emperor  aad  thi! 


_ji 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


S91 


King  of  France  ;  to  be  referred  to  the  decision  of  the  Pope, 
should  these  two  Sovereigns  happen  to  differ  in  opinion. 

The  peace  of  Ryswick  was  followed  by  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
•Succession,  which  embroiled  Europe  afresh,  and  occasioned 
considerable  changes  in  its  political  state.  Charles  II.  King  of 
Spain,  son  of  Philip  IV.,  and  last  male  descendant  of  the  Spanish 
branch  of  the  House  of  Austria,  having  neither  son,  nor  daughter, 
nor  brother,  the  Spanish  monarchy,  according  to  r.  fundamental 
law  of  the  kingdom,  which  fixed  the  succession  in  the  cognate 
line,  appeared  to  belong  to  Maria  Theresa,  Queen  of  France 
eldest  sister  of  Charles,  and  to  the  children  of  her  marriage  with 
Louis  XIV.  To  this  title  of  Maria  Theresa,  was  opposed  her 
express  renunciation,  inserted  in  her  marriage-contract,  and  con- 
firmed by  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees ;  but  the  French  maintained, 
that  that  renunciation  was  null,  and  that  it  could  not  prejudice 
the  children  of  the  Queen,  who  held  their  right,  not  from  their 
mother,  but  by  the  fundamental  law  of  Spain. 

Admitting  the  validity  of  the  Queen's  renunciation,  the  lineal 
order  fixed  the  Spanish  succession  on  her  younger  sister,  Mar- 
garet Theresa,  who  had  married  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  and 
left  an  only  daughter,  Maria  Antoinette,  spouse  to  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria,  and  mother  of  Joseph  Ferdinand,  the  Electoral 
Prince  of  Bavaria. 

The  Emperor,  who  wished  to  preserve  the  Spanish  monarchy 
in  his  own  family,  availed  himself  of  the  renunciation  which  he 
had  exacted  from  his  daughter,  the  Archdutchess  Maria  Antoi- 
nette, when  she  married  Maximilian,  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  to 
appear  as  a  candidate  himself,  and  advance  the  claims  of  his 
mother,  Maria  Anne,  daughter  of  Philip  HI.  King  of  Spain,  and 
aunt  of  Charles  II.  He  alleged,  that  the  Spanish  succession 
had  been  secured  to  this  latter  Princess,  both  by  her  marriage- 
contract,  and  by  the  testaments  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  ;  and  as 
he  had  two  sons,  the  Archdukes  Joseph  and  Charles,  by  his 
marriage  with  the  Princess  Palatine  of  Neuburg,  he  destined 
the  elder  for  the  Imperial  throne  and  the  States  of  Austria,  and 
the  younger  for  the  Spanish  monarchy. 

These  different  claims  having  excited  apprehensions  of  a  ge- 
neral war,  England  and  Holland,  from  a  desire  to  prevent  it, 
drew  up  a  treaty  of  partition,  in  concert  with  Louis  XIV.  (11th 
Oct.  1698,)  in  virtue  of  which  the  Spanish  monarchy  was  se- 
cured to  Joseph  Ferdinand,  in  case  of  the  death  of  Charles  II. ; 
while  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  with  the  ports  of  Tusca- 
ny, the  marquisatc  of  Finale,  and  the  province  o.*  Guipuscoa, 
were  reserved  to  the  Dauphin  of  France.  The  Archduke 
Charles,  son  to  the  Emperor,  was  to  have  the  dutchv  of  Milan 


tt: 


»ii:i 


tm 


r. 

fii 

II 

^ 

'  \ 

*' 

i 

1 

■ 

if^ 

* 

292 


CHAPTER  Vnl. 


Although  the  King  of  Spain  disapproved  of  the  treaty,  so  far  n^ 
it  admitted  a  partition,  nevertheless,  in  his  will,  he  recognised 
the  Prince  of  Bavaria  as  his  successor  in  the  Spanish  monarchy. 
A  premature  death  having  frustrated  all  the  high  expectations 
of  that  prince,  the  powers  who  had  concluded  the  first  treaty  ol 
partition  drew  up  a  second,  which  was  signed  at  London  (March 
13  1700.)  According  to  this,  the  Archduke  Charles,  youngest 
son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold,  was  destined  the  Presumptive  heir 
to  the  Spanish  monarchy.  They  awarded  to  the  Dauphin  the 
dutchy  of  Lorraine,  with  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  and 
the  province  of  Guipuscoa;  assigning  to  the  Duke  of  Lorraine 
the  iutchy  of  Milan  in  exchange.  Louis  XIV  "«ed  every  effort 
to  have  this  new  treaty  of  partition  approved  by  the  Lour  ot 
Vienna.  He  sent  thither  the  Marquis  Villars,  who,  after  having 
been  long  amused  with  vague  promises,  failed  entirely  in  his 
negotiation;  and  the  Emperor,  whose  mam  object  was  to  con- 
Se  he  Court  of  Madrid,  lost  the  only  favourable  moment 
wh?ch  might  have  fixed  the  succession  of  the  Spanish  monarchy 
This  &,  with  the  consent  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  principal 

^  AfMldridX's  affair  took  a  turn  diametrically  opposite  to 
the  views  and  interests  of  the  Court  of  Vienna      Charles  II . 
following  the  counsels  of  his  prime  minister.  Cardinal  Forto- 
carrero,  and  after  having  taken  the  advice  of  the  Pope,  and  of 
he  mo^t  eminent  theologians  and  la™s    "^is  kingdom  de- 
termined  to  make  a  second  will,  m  which  J|e  're'iognised  the 
rights  of  Maria  Theresa,  his  eldest  sister ;  and  declared,  hat  as 
denunciation  of  that  princess  had  been  made  solely  to  pre- 
vent the  union  of  Spain  with  the  kingdom  of  France,  that  mo- 
dve  ceased  on  transferring  the  Spanish  monarchy  to  one  of^he 
younger  sons  of  the  Dauphin.     Accordingly,  he  nominated  Phi- 
Cof  Aniou,  the  Daupliin's  second  son,  Wir  to  his  whole  do- 
nSnions ;  in  case  of  his  death,  the  Duke  of  Bern,  his  younger 
Mother  ;  next,  the  Archduke  Charles  ;  and  lastly,  the  feuke  of 
Savov  exnressly  forbidding  all  partition  of  the  monarchy.  ^ 
^Thlriefll  hiding  died  L  th'e  1st  of  November  Wlo^^^^^^ 
the  Junta,  or  Council  of  Regency,  whurh  he  had  appointed  by 
his  will,  sent  to  Louis  XIV.,  praying  him  to  "^^^d^  °jhe  »t^ 
i    tlement  of  their  late  King,  and  jnve  up  his  ?™ndson  to^he 
i     wishes  of  the  Spanish  nation.     1 'f  T' 'r  nJ  Jnd  md^S 
I     pass  on  to  Vienna,  in  case  of  a  refusal  on  his  P^",  and  make 
i    The  same  offer  to  the  Archduke.  .TheCourt  of  France  then 
'     assembled  a  Grand  Council,  in  which  '^^y  held  a  deliberation 
i     as  to  what  step  it  was  best  to  adopt.m  ^n affair  jhu^^^^^^^^ 
I     concerned  the  general  repose  of  Europe.     The  result  ot  tnw 


ll|l!ilLI|MUIJl|itllll,i|lllJtr 


■it^- 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


293 


treaty,  so  far  nv 

1,  he  recognised 

inish  monarchy. 

igh  expectations 

le  first  treaty  ol 

London  (March 

harles,  youngest 

presumptive  heir 

the  Dauphin  the 

"wo  Sicilies,  and 

)uke  of  Lorraine 

used  every  effort 

by  the  Court  of 

vho,  after  having 

d  entirely  in  his 

bject  was  to  con- 

vourable  moment 

panish  monarchy 

and  the  principal 

ically  opposite  to 
na.  Charles  IL, 
■,  Cardinal  Porto- 
the  Pope,  and  of 
his  kingdom,  de- 
le  recognised  the 
1  declared,  that  as 
lade  solely  to  pre- 
France,  that  mo- 
rchy  to  one  of  the 
e  nominated  Phi- 
r  to  his  whole  do- 
Jerri,  his  younger 
istly,  the  Duke  of 
le  monarchy, 
trember  following, 
had  appointed  by 
accede  to  the  set- 
I  grandson  to  the 
irier  had  orders  to 
is  part,  and  make 
rt  of  France  then 
leld  a  deliberation 
.ir  which  so  nearly 
Che  result  of  this 


I'ouncil  was,  that  they  ought  to  accede  to  the  will  of  Charles 
II..  and  renounce  the  advantages  which  the  second  treaty  of 
partition  held  out  to  France.  It  was  alleged,  as  the  reason  of 
this  resolution,  that  by  refusing  to  accept  the  will,  Louis  must 
either  abandon  altogether  his  pretensions  to  the  Spanish  mo- 
oarchy,  or  undertake  an  expensive  war  to  obtain  by  conquest 
I  what  the  treaty  of  partition  assigned  him ;  without  being  able, 
in  this  latter  case,  to  reckon  on  the  effectual  co-operation  of  the 
two  maritime  courts. 

Louis  XIV.  having  therefore  resolved  to  accede  to  the  will, 
Philip  of  Anjou  was  proclaimed  King  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
made  his  solemn  entry  into  Madrid  on  the  14th  of  April  1701. 
Most  of  the  European  powers,  such  as  the  States  of  Italy,  Swe- 
den, England,  Holland,  and  the  kingdoms  of  the  North,  ac- 
knowledged Philip  V. ;  the  King  of  Portugal,  and  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  even  concluded  treaties  of  alliance  with  him.  JMore- 
over,  the  situation  of  political  affairs  in  Germany,  Hungary,  and 
the  North  was  such,  that  it  would  have  been  easy  for  Loui? 
XIV.,  with  prudent  management,  to  preserve  the  Spanish  crown 
on  the  head  of  his  grandson  ;  but  he  seemed,  as  if  on  purpose, 
to  do  every  thing  to  raise  all  Europe  against  him.  It  was  al- 
leged, that  he  aimed  at  the  chimerical  project  of  universal  mo- 
narchy, and  the  union  of  France  with  Spain.  Instead  of  trying 
to  do  away  this  supposition,  he  gave  it  additional  force,  by 
issuing  letters-patent  in  favour  of  Philip,  at  the  moment  when 
he  was  departing  for  Spain,  to  the  effect  of  preserving  his  rights 
to  the  throne  of  France.  The  Dutch  dreaded  nothing  so  much 
as  to  see  the  French  making  encroachments  on  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  which  they  regarded  as  their  natural  barrier  a- 
gainst  France ;  the  preservation  of  which  appeared  to  be  equally 
interesting  to  England. 

It  would  have  be«ti  prudent  in  Louis  XIV.  to  give  these  ma- 
ritime powers  some  security  on  this  point,  who,  since  the  eleva- 
tion of  William  Prince  of  Orange  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain, 
held  as  it  were  in  their  hands  the  balance  of  Europe.  Without 
being  swayed  by  this  consideration,  he  obtained  authority  from 
the  Council  of  Madrid,  to  introduce  a  French  army  into  the  Spa- 
nish Netherlands  ;  and  on  this  occasion  the  Dutch  troops,  who 
were  quartered  in  various  places  of  the  Netherlands,  according 
;o  a  stipulation  with  the  late  King  of  Spain,  were  disarmed.  This 
circumstance  became  a  powerful  motive  for  King  William  to 
rouse  the  States-General  against  France.  He  found  some  diffi- 
culty, however,  in  drawing  over  the  British  Parliament  to  his 
views,  as  a  great  majority  in  that  House  were  averse  to  mingle 
m  the  quarrels  of  the  Continent ;  but  the  death  of  James  II.  lU 


■i      I 


1  Hi! 


1!    t 


I 


^1; 

i. 


294 


CHAPTBE   Vin. 


I  ; 
I  i 


tered  the  minds  and  inclinations  of  the  Eng.ish.  Louis  XIV. 
having  formerly  acknowledged  the  son  of  that  prince  as  Kmg  of 
Great  Britain,  the  English  Parliament  had  no  longer  anjr  hesi- 
tation  in  joining  the  Dutch,  and  the  other  enemies  of  France. 
A  new  and  powerful  league  was  formed  agamst  Louis.  The 
Emperor,  England,  the  United  Provinces,  the  Empire,  the 
Kings  of  Portugal  and  Prussia,  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  all 
joined  it  in  succession.  The  allies  engaged  to  restore  to  Aus- 
tria, the  Spanish  Netherlands,  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  the  king- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies,  with  the  ports  of  Tuscany ;  and  nevei 
to  permit  the  union  of  France  with  Spain. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  war,  Louis  for  some  time  main- 
tained the  glory  and  superiority  of  his  arms,  notwithstanding 
the  vast  number  of  adversaries  he  had  to  oppose.     It  was  not 
until  the  campaign  of  1704  that  fortune  abandoned  hm;  when 
one  reverse  was  only  succeeded  by   another.     The  Duke  ot 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  defeated  Marshal  de  Tallard  at 
Hochstett  or  Blenheim,  (Aug.  13,)  where  he  lost  thirty  thousand 
men,  and  was  himself  carried  prisoner  to  England.     1  his  disas- 
ter was  followed  by  the  loss  of  Bavaria,  and  all  the  French  pos- 
sessions beyond  t"he  Rhine.     The  battle  which  Marlborough 
gained  (May  23, 1706)  at  Ramillies  in  Brabant  was  not  less  dis- 
astrous;  it  secured  to  the  allies  the  conquest  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  Netherlands  ;  and  to  increase  these  misfortunes, 
Marshal  de  Marsin  lost  the  famous  battle  of  Turin  against 
Prince  Eugene  (Sept.  7,)  which  obliged  the  French  troops  to 
evacuate  Italy.     The  battle  which  was  fought  at  Oudenarde  m 
Flanders  (July  11,  1708)  was  not  so  decisive.     Both   sides 
fought  with  equal  advantage;  hv'  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  who 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army,  having  quitted 
the  field  of  battle  during  the  night,  contrary  to  the  advice  ot 
Vendome,  Marlborough  made  this  an  occasion  for  claiming  tne 

I  ""T^ength  the  dreadful  winter  of  1709,  and  the  battle  of 
Malplaquet,  which  Marlborough  gained  over  Villars  (bept.  U.) 
reduced  France  to  the  greatest  distress,  and  brought  Louis  un- 
der the  necessity  of  suing  for  peace,  and  even  descending  to 
the  most  humiliating  conditions.  M.  de  Torcy,  his  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  was  despatched  to  the  Hague ;  and,  amorg  a 
number  of  preliminary  articles,  he  agreed  to  make  restitution  of 
all  the  conquests  which  the  French  had  made  since  the  peace  of 
Munster.  He  consented  to  surrender  the  city  of  Strasburg,  and 
henceforth  to  possess  Alsace  according  to  the  literal  terms  of 
the  treaty  of  Munster;  the  throne  of  Spain  was  reserved  lor 
the  archduke  ;  and  Louis  consented  to  abandon  the  interests  ol 


y 


ij; 


»lr 


Louis  XIV. 
ince  as  King  of 
onger  any  hesi- 
[lies  of  France. 
Louis.  The 
Empire,  the 
of  Savoy,  all 
restore  to  Aus- 
ilan,  the  king- 
:any ;  and  nevei 

ome  time  main- 
notwithstanding 
so.  It  was  not 
ned  him ;  when 
The  Duke  of 
kial  de  Tallard  at 
t  thirty  thousand 
nd.  This  disas- 
the  French  pos- 
ch  Marlborough 
was  not  less  dis- 
t  of  the  greater 
ese  misfortunes, 
if  Turin  against 
?rench  troops  to 
at  Oudenarde  in 
ve.  Both  sides 
Burgundy,  who 
,  having  quitted 
to  the  advice  of 
for  claiming  the 

nd  the  battle  of 
illars  (Sept.  11,) 
ought  Louis  un- 
n  descending  to 
,  his  minister  for 
;  and,  amorg  a 
ake  restitution  of 
ince  the  peace  of 
)f  Strasburg,  and 
literal  terms  of 
vas  reserved  for 
n  the  interests  of 


PBRIOD  VII.     k.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


295 


Philip.  But  the  allies,  rendered  haughty  by  their  success,  de- 
manded of  the  King  that  he  should  oblige  his  grandson  volun- 
tarily to  surrender  his  crown,  otherwise  they  would  compel  him 
by  force  of  arms,  and  that  within  the  short  space  of  two  months. 
The  conferences,  which  had  been  transferred  from  the  Hague 
to  Gertruydenberg,  were  consequently  broken  ofT,  and  the  war 
continued. 

In  this  critical  state  of  things,  two  unexpected  events  happened, 
which  changed  the  face  of  aflairs;  and  Louis  XIV.,  far  from 
being  constrained  to  submit  to  the  articles  of  the  preliminaries 
at  Gertruydenberg,  saw  himself  even  courted  by  England,  and 
in  a  condition  to  dictate  the  law  to  several  of  the  powers  that 
were  leagued  against  him.  The  Emperor  Joseph  I.  died  (April 
11th  1711)  without  leaving  any  male  offspring.  His  brother  the 
Archduke  Charles,  who  took  the  title  of  King  of  Spain,  now 
obtained  the  Imperial  dignity,  and  became  heir  of  all  the  States 
belonging  to  the  German  branch  of  the  House  of  Austria.  It 
appeared,  therefore,  that  the  system  of  equilibrium  could  not 
possibly  admit  the  same  prince  to  engross  likewise  the  whole 
Spanish  monarchy.  This  event  was  coupled  with  another,  rela- 
tive to  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in  the  ministry  and 
Parliament  of  Great  Britain.  The  Whigs,  who  had  been  the 
ruling  party  since  the  Revolution  of  1889,  were  suddenly  sup- 
planted by  the  Tories.  This  overthrow  brought  the  Duke  of 
ularlborough  into  disgrace,  who  had  long  stood  at  the  head  of 
affairs  in  England,  as  chief  of  the  Whig  faction.  Queen  Anne, 
who  stood  in  awe  of  him,  found  no  other  expedient  for  depriving 
him  of  his  influence,  than  to  make  peace  with  France.  L'AbbMS 
Gualtier,  who  resided  at  London  in  quality  of  almoner  to  the 
ambassador  of  Charles  of  Austria,  was  despatched  by  her  Ma- 
jesty to  France,  to  make  the  first  overtures  of  peace  to  Louis.  A 
secret  negotiation  was  set  on  foot  between  the  two  Courts,  the 
result  of  which  was  a  preliminary  treaty  signed  at  London 
(October  8th  1711.) 

A  congress  was  opened  at  Utrecht,  with  the  view  of  a  general 
pacification.  The  conferences  which  took  place  there,  after  the 
month  of  February  1712,  met  with  long  interruptions ;  both  on 
account  of  the  dismclination  of  several  of  the  allied  powers  for 
peace,  and  because  of  the  matters  to  be  separately  treated  be- 
twecin  France  and  England,  which  retarded  the  progress  of  the 
general  negotiation.  The  battle  of  Denain,  whicn  Marshal  Vil- 
lars  gained  over  the  Earl  of  Albemarle  (July  24,)  helped  to  ren- 
der the  allies  more  tractable.  Peace  was  signed  at  Utrecht  m 
the  month  of  April  1713,  between  France  and  the  chief  bellige- 
rent powers.     The  Emperor  alone  refused  to  take  part  in  it,  as 


i. 


5'* 


f 


% ;. 


Hi 


r    i         ! 

'     ■       1 

■1  :| 
..fill 

t  '^'\ 


29G 


CHAPTER  TIU. 


he  could  not  resolve  to  abandon  his  claims  to  the  Spanish 
monarchy. 

The  grand  aim  of  England  in  that  transaction,  was  to  hnnl 
the  overwhelming  power  of  France  ;  for  this  purpose  she  took 
':are,  in  that  treaty,  to  establish  as  a  fundamental  and  mviolable 
law,  the  clause  which  ordained  that  the  kingdoms  of  France  and 
Spain  never  should  be  united.     To  effect  this,  it  was  necessary 
that  Philip  of  Anjou  should  formally  renounce  his  right  to  the 
crown  of  France  ;  while  his  brother  the  Duke  de  Bern,  as  well 
as  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  should  do  the  same  in  regard  to  the 
claims  which  they  might  advance  to  the  Spanish  monarchy. 
The  deeds  of  these  renunciations,  drawn  up  and  signed  in 
France  and  in  Spain,  in  presence  of  the  English  ambassadors, 
were  inserted,  in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht ;  as  were  also  the  letters- 
patent  which  revoked  and  annulled  those  that  Louis  had  given, 
for  preserving  the  right  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou  to  the  succession 
of  the  French  crown.     Louis  XIV.  promised  for  himself,  his 
heirs  and  successors,  never  to  attempt  either  to  prevent  or  elude 
the  effect  of  these  renunciations ;  and  failing  the  descendants 
of  Philip,  the  Spanish  succession  was  secured  to  the  Duke 
of  Savoy,  his  male  descendants,  and  the  other  princes  of  his 
family,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  French  princes.         ,     ,    ,       , 
Another  fundamental  clause  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  declared, 
that  no  province,  city,  fortress  or  place,  in  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, should  ever  be  ceded,  transferred,  or  granted  to  the  crown 
of  France  ;  nor  to  any  prince  or  princess  of  French  extraction, 
under  any  title  whatever.     These  provinces,  designed  to  serve 
as  a  barrier  for  the  Low  Countries  against  France,  were  ad- 
judged to  the  Emperor  and  the  House  of  Austria,  together  with 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  ports  of  Tuscany,  and  the  dutchy  of 
Milan  ;  and  as  the  Emperor  was  not  a  party  to  the  treaty,  it  WM 
agreed  that  the  Spanish  Netherlands  should  remain  as  a  deposit 
in  the  hands  of  the  States-General,  until  that  prince  should  ar- 
range with  them  respecting  the  barrier-towns.     The  same  stipu- 
lation was  made  in  regard  to  that  part  of  the  French  Nether- 
lands which  Louis  had  ceded  in  favour  of  the  Emperor ;  such 
as  Menin,  Tournay,  Fumes,  and  Furnes-Ambacht,  the  fortress 
of  Kenock,  Ypres,  and  their  dependencies. 

England,  in  particular,  obtained  by  this  treaty  various  and 
considerable  advantages.  Louis  XIV.  withdrew  his  protection 
from  the  Pretender,  and  engaged  never  to  give  him  harbour  in 
France.  The  succession  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  was 
guaranteed  to  the  House  of  Hanover.  They  agreed  to  raze  the 
fortifications  of  the  port  of  Dunkirk,  which  had  so  much  excited 
the  jealousy  of  England :  while  France  likewise  ceded  to  hei 


l!: 


MiMN 


1 1^-t 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


297 


9  the  Spanish 

1,  was  to  limit 

rpose  she  took 

and  inviolable 

of  France  and 

was  necessary 

his  right  to  the 

!  Berri,  as  well 

1  regard  to  the 

lish  monarchy. 

and  signed  in 

1  ambassadors, 

also  the  letters- 

ouis  had  given, 

the  succession 

for  himself,  his 

»revent  or  elude 

he  descendants 

d  to  the  Duke 

r  princes  of  his 

trecht  declared, 
Spanish  Nether- 
icd  to  the  crown 
ench  extraction, 
isigned  to  serve 
'ranee,  were  ad- 
a,  together  with 
id  the  dutchy  of 
he  treaty,  it  was 
lain  as  a  deposit 
rince  should  ar' 
The  same  stipu> 
French  Nether- 
Emperor;  such 
icht,  the  fortress 

laty  various  and 
iw  his  protection 
him  harbour  in 
eat  Britain,  was 
preed  to  raze  the 
so  much  excited 
ise  ceded  to  hei 


Hudson's  Bay,  and  Straits,  the  Island  of  St.  Christopher,  Nova 
Srotia,  and  Newfoundland  in  America.  Spain  gave  up  Gib- 
raltar and  Minorca,  both  of  which  had  been  conquered  by  the 
English  during  the  war;  they  secured  to  her,  besides,  for  thirty 
years,  the  privilege  of  furnishmg  negroes  for  the  Spanish  Ameri- 
jan  colonies. 

The  King  of  Prussia  obtained  the  Spanish  part  of  Gueldres, 
with  the  city  of  that  name,  an4  the  district  of  Kessel,  in  lieu  of 
the  principality  of  Orange,  which  was  given  to  France ;  though 
he  had  claims  to  it  as  the  heir  of  William  III.  King  of  England. 
The  kingdom  of  Sicily  was  adjudged  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  to 
be  possessed  by  him  and  his  male  descendants ;  and  they  con- 
firmed to  him  the  grants  which  the  Emperor  had  made  him,  of 
that  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Milan  which  had  belonged  to  the  Duke 
of  Mantua,  as  also  Alexandria,  Valencia,  the  Lumelline,  and  the 
Valley  of  Sessia.  Finally,  Sardinia  was  reserved  for  the  Elec- 
tor of  Bavaria,  the  ally  of  France  in  that  war. 

As  the  Emperor  had  not  acceded  to  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the 
war  was  continued  between  him  and  France.  Marshal  Villars 
took  Landau  and  Friburg  in  Brisgaw  ;  afterwards  a  conference 
took  place  between  him  and  Prince  Eugene  at  Rastadt.  New 
preliminaries  were  there  drawn  up  ;  and  a  congress  was  opened 
at  Baden  in  Switzerland,  where  a  definitive  peace  was  signed 
(Sept.  7th  1714.)  The  former  treaties,  since  the  poace  of  West- 
phalia, were  there  renewed.  The  Electors  of  Cologne  and  Ba- 
varia, who  had  been  put  to  the  ban  of  the  Empire,  and  deprived 
of  their  estates,  were  there  fully  re-established.  Sardinia,  which 
had  been  assigned  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  remained  in  possession  of  the  Emperor,  who  likewise 
recovered  Brisach  and  Friburg  in  Brisgaw,  instead  of  Landau 
which  had  been  ceded  to  France. 

Louis  XIV.  did  not  long  survive  this  latter  treaty.  Never 
did  any  sovereign  patronize  literature  and  the  fine  arts  like  him. 
Many  celebrated  academies  for  the  promotion  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  owe  their  origin  to  his  auspices,  such  as  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,  Belles-Lettres,  Sciences,  Painting,  and  Archi* 
tecture.  His  reign  was  illustrious  for  eminent  men,  and  talents 
of  every  description,  which  were  honoured  and  encouraged  by 
him.  He  even  extended  his  favour  to  the  philosophers  and  lit- 
erati of  foreign  countries.  This  prince  has  been  reproached  for 
his  two  great  partiality  to  the  Jesuits,  his  confessors,  and  for 
the  high  importance  which  he  attached  to  the  dispute  between 
the  Jansenists  and  the  Molinists,  which  gave  rise  to  the  famous 
Bull  UnigenitiiSy  *  approved  by  the  clergy,  and  published  by  the 
King  as  a  law  of  the  state  over  all  France.     This  illustrious 


i<  I ',, 


1  % 


ii\ 


■•"■(I 


■1 


298 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


Pnnce  ended  his  days  after  ii  reipn  of  seventy-two  years,  fertile 
in  great  nventa  ;  he  transmitted  the  crown  to  his  great  grand- 
son, Louis  XV.,  who  WHS  only  five  years  of  age  when  he  mount- 
ed the  throne  (Sept.  1,  1714.) 

In  the  course  of  this  period,  several  memorable  events  hap* 

Eened  in  Gorinnny.  The  Emperor,  Leopold  I.,  having  assem- 
led  a  Diet  at  Rntisbon,  to  demand  subsidies  against  the  Turks, 
and  to  settle  certain  matters  which  the  preceding  Diet  had  left 
undecided,  the  sittings  of  that  assembly  were  continued  to  the 
present  time,  without  ever  having  been  declared  permanent  by 
any  formal  law  of  the  Empire.  The  peace  of  Westphalia,  had 
instituted  an  eighth  Electorate  for  the  Palatine  branch  of  Wit- 
tle.sbach  ;  the  Emperor,  Leopold  L,  erected  a  ninth,  in  favour  of 
the  younger  branch  of  the  House  of  Brunswick.  The  first  Elec- 
tor of  this  family,  known  by  the  name  of  Brunswick-Luneburg. 
or  Hanover,  was  the  Duke  Ernest  Augustus,  whom  the  Em- 
peror invested  in  his  new  dignity,  to  descend  to  his  heirs-male, 
on  account  of  his  engaging  to  furnish  Austria  with  supplies  in 
money  and  troops,  for  carrying  on  the  war  against  the  Turks. 
This  innov.ition  met  with  decided  opposition  in  the  Empire. 
Several  of  the  Electors  were  hostile  to  it ;  and  the  whole  body 
of  Princes  declared,  that  the  new  Electorate  was  prejudicial  to 
their  dignity,  and  tended  to  introduct;  an  Electoral  Oligarchy. 
The  Duke  of  Brunswick-WolfTenbultcl  especially  protested 
against  the  preference  which  was  given  to  the  younger  branch 
of  his  House  over  the  elder,  in  spite  of  family  compacts,  and  the 
right  of  primogeniture  established  in  the  House  of  Brunswick. 
A  confederacy  was  thus  formed  against  the  ninth  Electorate. 
The  allied  Princes  resolved,  in  an  assembly  held  at  Nuremberg, 
to  raise  an  army,  and  apply  to  the  powers  that  had  guaranteed 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia.  France  espoused  the  quarrel  of  these 
Princes ;  she  concluded  with  the  King  of  Denmark,  a  treaty  of 
alliance  and  subsidy  against  the  ninth  Electorate,  and  declared, 
before  the  Diet  of  the  Empire,  that  she  regarded  this  innovation 
as  a  blow  aimed  at  the  treaty  of  Westphalia.  In  cour«e  cf  time, 
however,  these  animosities  were  allayed.  The  Princes  recog- 
nised the  ninth  Electorate,  and  the  introduction  of  the  new 
Elector  took  place  in  1708.  A  decree  was  passed  at  the  Diet, 
which  annexed  a  clause  to  his  admission,  that  the  Catholic  Elec- 
tors should  have  the  privilege  of  a  casting  vote,  in  cases  where 
iho  number  of  Protestant  Electors  should  happen  to  equal  that 
of  the  Catholics.  By  the  same  decree,  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
who  had  formerly  never  been  admitted  but  at  the  election  of  the 
Emperors,  obtained  a  voice  in  all  the  deliberations  of  the  Empire 
and  the  Electoral  College,  on  condition  of  his  paying,  in  time 
Roming.  an  Electoral  quota  for  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia. 


0  years,  fertile 
great  grand- 
leii  he  mount- 

e  events  hap« 

mving  assein- 

inst  the  Turks, 

g  Diet  had  lef\ 

ntinued  to  the 

permanent  by 

i^i'stphalia,  had 

jrunch  of  Wit- 

th,  in  favour  of 

The  first  Elec- 

vick-Luneburg. 

whom  the  Em* 

lis  heirs-male, 

t'ith  supplies  in 

insl  the  Turks. 

in  the  Empire. 

he  whole  body 

Is  prejudicial  to 

(oral  Oligarchy. 

I'ially   protested 

younger  branch 

>m  pacts,  and  the 

of  Brunswick. 

inth  Electorate. 

I  at  Nuremberg, 

had  guaranteed 

quarrel  of  these 

lark,  a  treaty  of 

e,  and  declared, 

this  innovation 

a  cour«e  cf  time, 

!  Princes  recog* 

ion  of  the  new 

sed  at  the  Diett 

e  Catholic  Elec- 

in  cases  where 

en  to  equal  that 

ng  of  Bohemia, 

e  election  of  the 

IS  of  the  Empire 

aying,  in  time 

ohemia. 


PKRIOD  VII.      A.  D.   1848 — 1713. 


299 


The  Imperial  capitulations  assunied  a  form  entirely  new,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  L-eutury.  A  diflbrence  had  for- 
merly existed  among  the  members  of  the  Germanic  body  on  thii 
important  article  of  public  law.  They  regarded  it  as  a  thing 
illegal,  that  the  Electors  alone  should  claim  the  right  of  drawing 
up  the  capitulations ;  and  they  maintained,  with  much  reaxon, 
that  before  these  compacts  should  have  the  force  of  a  fundamen- 
tal law  of  the  Empire,  it  was  necessary  that  they  should  have 
the  deliberation  and  consent  of  the  whole  Diet.  The  Princes, 
therefore,  demanded,  that  there  should  be  laid  before  the  Diet  a 
scheme  of  perpetual  capitulation,  to  serve  as  a  rule  for  the  Elec- 
tors on  every  new  election.  That  question  had  already  been 
debated  iit  the  Congress  of  Westphalia,  and  sent  back  by  it  for 
the  decision  of  the  Diet.  There  it  became  the  subject  of  lone 
discussion  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  interregnum,  which  followed 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.,  that  the  principal  points  of 
the  perpetual  capitulation  were  finally  settled.  The  plan  then 
agreed  to  was  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  capitulation,  which  they 
prescribed  to  Charles  VI.  and  his  successors.  Among  other 
articles,  a  clause  was  inserted  regarding  the  election  of  a  king  of 
the  Romans.  This,  it  was  agreed,  should  never  take  place 
during  the  Emperor's  life,  except  in  a  case  of  urgent  necessity  ; 
ind  that  thi  proscription  of  an  elector,  prince,  or  state  of  tne 
Gmpire,  should  never  take  place,  without  the  consent  of  the 
Diet,  and  observing  the  formalities  enjoined  by  the  new  capi- 
tulation. 

Three  Electoral  families  of  the  Empire  were  raised  to  the 
royal  dignity ;  viz.  those  of  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and  Bruns- 
wick-Luneburg.  Augustus  II.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  after  hav- 
ing made  a  profession  of  the  Catholic  religion,  was  elected  to 
the  throne  of  Poland  ;  a  dignity  which  was  afterwards  conferred, 
also  by  election,  on  his  son  Augustus  III.  That  change  of  re- 
ligion did  not  prevent  the  Electors  of  Saxony  from  remaining 
at  the  head  of  the  Protestant  interest  in  the  Diet  of  the  Em- 
pire, as  they  had  given  them  assurance  that  they  would  make 
no  innovations  in  the  religion  of  their  country,  and  that  they 
would  appoint  a  council  entirely  composed  of  Protestant  mem- 
bers, for  administering  the  affairs  of  the  Empire.  These  prin- 
ces, however,  lost  part  of  their  influence ;  and  so  far  was  the 
crown  of  Poland,  which  was  purely  elective,  from  augmenting 
the  greatness  and  real  power  of  their  house,  that,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  served  to  exhaust  and  enfeeble  Saxony,  by  involving  it 
in  ruinous  wars,  which  ended  in  the  desolation  of  that  fine 
country,  the  alienation  of  the  Electoral  domains,  and  the  increase 
af  the  debts  and  burdens  of  the  state. 


I 


r^ 


ri 


'I'   4 


(      -i,     , 


300 


CHArTBR  Vlll. 


If  the  royal  dignity  of  Poland  was  nreiudicial  to  the  House 
of  Lxony/it  waf  b/no  .nea,.s  .,  witk  tl^at  of  Pr--^-h.c^ 
the  House  of  BranduiiburK  a^iuired  soon  after.     Ihe  blector, 
John  Sipis.nund,  on  succeeding  to  the  dulchy  of  Prussia,  had 
IknowSed  himself  a  vassal  and  tributary  of  the  crown  of 
Poland      Hi.  grandson.  Frederic  William,  took  advantage  of 
he  turbulen    Ituation  in  which  Poland  was  ploced  at  the  tune 
o    the  invasion  of  Charles  X.  of  Sweden,  to  oblam  a  grant  of 
thesovedgnly  of  Prussia,  by  a  treaty  which  he  cone  uded  with 
that  RepX  at  Welau  {mi  September  1657.).    Poland,  m  re- 
nounSg  the  territorial  rights  wUch  she  exercsed  over  Ducal 
Prussia,  stipulated  for  the  reversion  of  these  same  rights,  on  the 
ex   ncU^n  of  the  male  line  of  the  Electoral  House  of  Brandenburg 
Frederic  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Frederic  W.ll.am,  hay.no 
become  sovereign  of  Ducal  Prussia,  thought  himself  authorizeB 
S  assume  the  royal  dignity.     The  elevation  "^  .^is  cous.n-ge  - 
man.  the  Prince  of  Orange,  to  the  throne  of  Britain,  and  of  his 
next  neighbour,  the  Elector  of  Sar.ony.  to  the  sovereignty  ot 
PoCd.  fempted  his  ambition,  and  induced  h.m  to  enter  mto  a 
negotiation  Sn  the  subject  with  the  Court  of  Vienna^    The  Em- 
peror  Leopold  promised  to  acknowledge  him  as  King  of  Prussia, 
Sn  ttccounl  of  a  supply  of  ten  thousand  men  which  Frederic  pro- 
mised  to  furnish  him^  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
wS  wa   then  commencing.     To  remove  all  apprehensions  on 
Aeparrof  Poland,  who  mi'ght  perhaps  offer  some  opposition, 
the  fleeter  signed  a  compact,  bearing,  that  the  royal  dignity  o 
Pruss  a   hould  in  no  way  prejudice  the  rights  and  possession  ot 
The  Kng  and  State,  of  Aland  over  Polish  Prussia ;  tha  neither 
he  no   his  successors  should  attempt  to  found  claims  on  that  part 
of  Prussia    and  that  the  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Welau  which 
8ec™he  reversion  of  the  territorial  right  of  Ducal  Prussia 
on  the  extinction  of  the  heirs-male  of  Frederic  William,  should 
?emarn?nfuU  force  and  vigour,  never  to  be  infringed  by  the  new 
Ee  or  any  of  his  successors.    After  these  different  conventions, 
Se  iSrepaired  to  Koningsberg.  where  he  was  proclaimed 
KUig  of  Prussia  (18th  January  1701.)    It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
Sat  on  the  ceremony  of  his  coronation,  he  put  the  crown  on  ha 

**'*AlHhJ*European  powers  acknowledged  the  new  King,  with 
the  ex  option  of  France  and  Spain,  with  whom  he  soon  engaged 
tZ  The  Teutonic  Knighu.  bearing  in  mmd  thm  ancient 
ckims  over  Prussia,  deemed  it  their  duty  to  support  thein  by  a 
nrotTst  Ind  fheir  example  was  followed  by  the  fcourt  of  Rome. 
Copinion  which  the  'author  of  the  M^^j^^fBraMurg 
delivers  on  this  event  is  very  remarkable.       Frederic,  says  ne 


I 


—  —J 


n 


to  the  Houw 

ra^sia,  which 

The  Elector, 

Prussia,  had 

the  crown  of 

advantage  of 

d  at  the  time 

tain  a  grant  of 

oiirluded  with 

Poland,  in  re- 

icd  over  Ducal 

rights,  on  the 

f  Brandenburg. 

\''illiain,  havinc 

self  authorized 

his  cousin-ger- 

lain,  and  of  his 

sovereignty  oi 

to  enter  into  a 

ma.     The  Em- 

{ing  of  Prussia, 

:h  Frederic  pro- 

lish  Succession, 

pprehensions  on 

ome  opposition, 

royal  dignity  of 

nd  possession  ot 

sia;  that  neither 

lims  on  that  part 

f  Welau,  which 

Ducal  Prussia, 

William,  should 

nged  by  the  new 

■ent  conventions, 

was  proclaimed 

)rthy  of  remark, 

the  crown  on  his 

new  King,  with 
he  soon  engas«d 
nd  their  ancient 
pport  them  by  a 
Court  of  Rome, 
j/  Brandenburg 
■edenc,"  says  he 


PBKioD  vn.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


3U1 


"  was  flattered  with  nothing  so  mu^h,  as  the  externals  of  royalty, 
the  potnp  of  ostentation,  and  a  certain  whinisiial  self-conceit, 
which  was  pleased  with  making  others  feel  their  inferiority. 
What  at  first  was  the  mere  offspring  of  vanity,  turned  out  in  the 
end  to  be  a  masterpiece  of  policy.  The  royal  dignity  lilieratcd 
the  House  of  Brandenburg  from  that  yoke  of  servitude  under 
which  Austria  had,  till  then,  held  all  the  Princes  of  Germany 
It  was  a  kind  of  bait  which  Frederic  held  out  to  all  his  posterity, 
and  by  which  he  seemed  to  say,  I  have  acquired  for  you  a  title, 
render  yourselves  worthy  of  it;  I  have  laid  the  foundation  o( 
your  greatnes.s,  yours  is  the  task  of  completing  the  structure." 
In  fact  Austria,  by  promoting  the  House  of  Brandenburg,  seemed 
to  have  injured  her  own  greatness.  In  the  very  bosom  of  the 
Empire,  she  raised  up  a  new  power,  which  afterwards  became 
her  rival,  and  seized  every  opportunity  of  aggrandizement  at  her 
expense. 

As  for  the  Electoral  House  of  Brunswick-Luneburg,  it  suc- 
ceeded, as  we  have  observed,  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  in 
virtue  of  a  fundamental  law  of  that  monarchy,  which  admitted 
females  to  the  succession  of  the  crown.  Ernest  Augustus,  the 
first  Elector  of  the  Hanoverian  line,  had  married  Sophia, 
daughter  of  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederic  V.,  by  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  of  England,  daughter  of  James  I.,  King  of  Great 
Britain.  An  act  of  the  British  Parliament  in  1701,  extended 
the  succession  to  that  Princess,  then  Electress-Dowager  of  Han- 
over, and  to  her  descendants,  as  being  nearest  heirs  to  the  throne, 
according  to  tiie  order  established  by  former  acts  of  Parliament, 
limiting  the  succession  to  Princes  and  Princesses  of  the  Protes- 
tant line  only.  The  Electrcss  Sophia,  by  that  act,  was  called  to 
the  succession,  in  case  William  III.,  and  Anne,  the  youngest 
daughter  of  Jamea  II.,  left  no  issue  ;  an  event  which  took  place 
in  1714,  on  the  death  of  Anne,  who  had  succeeded  William  in 
the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain.  The  Electress  Sophia  was  not 
alive  at  that  time,  having  died  two  months  before  that  princess. 
George,  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  son  of  Sophia  by  Ernest  Au- 
gustus, then  ascended  the  British  throne  (Aug.  12, 1714,)  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  the  other  descendants  of  Elizabeth,  who,  though 
they  had  the  right  of  precedence,  were  excluded  by  being  Catho- 
lics, in  virtue  of  the  Acts  of  Parliament  1689,  1701, 1705. 

The  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  had  occasioned  great 
changes  in  Italy.  Spain,  after  having  been  long  the  leading 
power  in  that  country,  gave  place  to  Austria,  to  whom  the  trea- 
ties of  Utrecht  and  Baden  had  adjudged  the  dutchy  of  Milan, 
the  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Sardinia,  and  the  ports  of  Tuscany. 
To  these  she  added  the  dutchy  of  Mantua,  of  which  the  Empc* 


ill  V 

il 


•  \ 


I 


!,}'• 


I 

■i  &' 


'     30'J 


CHAPTEF  VIII. 


ror  Joseph  I.  hn.l  ai.po.sosscd  Duke  Charles  IV.  of  the  Honnc 
of  GonAir".  f'T  ^'RviI.^'  osnouscd  iho  cause  of  France  m  the 
Wur  of  the  Succcsion  'l*he  Duk.  of  Mira.ulola  met  w,  h  n 
similar  fate,  as  the  ally  of  the  French  in  that  war  H.s  dutd^^^ 
was  contiscated  by  the  femperor,  and  sold  to  the  Duke  of  Modena. 
This  new  ae^frandizoment  of  Auxlr.a  m  Italy  exe.ted  the  jea- 
lousv  of  EnKlaud,  lest  the  princes  of  that  house  should  take  oc- 
Siou  to  revive  their  obsolete  dai.ns  to  the  royalty  of  Italy  an, 

the  Imperial  diRnity  ;  and  t  was  ''" V'^' n 'b  nJ  tvov  in 
of  London  to  favour  the  elevatmn  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  m 
order  to  counterbalance  the  power  of  Austria  m  Italy. 

The  origin  of  the  House  of  Savoy  is  as  old  as  the  be^g'""'"?? 
of  the  eleventh  century,  when  we  fmd  a  person  named  Berthold 
?n  possession  of  Savoy,  at  that  time  a  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  Burgundy  or  Aries.      The  grandson  of  Ber;hold  married 
Adelafde  de^Sv.za,  daughter  and  hcires^  .1  ^^l-''"['°;- Mffq"'* 
of  Italy  and  Lord  of  Suza.     This  r.arnage  brought  the  Ho.se 
of  Savoy  considerable  possessions  ,r,  Ita  y.snch  as  the  Marqui- 
^ite  of  Suza,  the  Dutchy  of  Turiiu  Piedmont,  and  Val  d;Aoste 
Humb(.rt  H.  Count  of  Savoy,  con.i  icred  the  province  of  laren- 
l,im.     Thomas,  one  of  his  successors,  acquired  ^y  marnoge  the 
barony  of  Faucigny.     Amadeus  V.  was  invested  by  the  Empe- 
ror Henry  VII.  in  the  city  and  coui f  o^  A,t..     Amadeus  Vll. 
received  the  voluntary  submission  of  the  mlabitants  of  Nice, 
which  he  had  dismembered  from  Provence,  together  with  the 
counties  of  Tenda  and  Boglio  ;  having  taken  advantage  of  the 
intest  ne  dissensions  in  that  country,  and  the  conflict  between 
he  factions  of  Duras  and  Anpu.  who  disputed  the  successKm 
of  Naples  and  the  county  of  Provence.     Amadeus  VIII.  pur- 
chasei  frcm  Otho  de  Villars  the  county  ol  Geneva,  and  was 
created,  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  first  Duke  of  Savoy  (Feb. 

^  VhVJivalry  which  had  subsisted  between  France  and  Austria 
since  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  placed  the  House  oi  Savoy 
Ta  sUuaUon  extremely  difficult.  Involved  in  the  wars  wh.cf. 
had  arisen  between  these  two  powers  in  Italy,  it  became  of  ne- 
.ossity  more  than  once  the  vlctirn  of  H'Vi^*  f 'r™ V  v„; 
Duke^Charl^s  III.  having  allied  himseff  with  Charles  V.,  was 
deprived  of  his  estates  by  France  ;  and  his  son  Philibert,  noted 
for  his  exploits  in  the  campaigns  of  FManders,  did  not  obtain  re- 
«titution  of  them  until  the  peace  of  Chateau  Cambresis  The 
Dukes  Charles  Emanuel  11,  and  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  experi- 
enced si^""  indignities,  in  the  wars  which  agitated  Fran« 
and  Spain  during  the  seventeeth  century,  and  which  were  teP 
minated  by  the  treaties  of  the  Pyrenees  and  Turin  in  the  years 


■**..«**jfleR*i.'*i?'crjv"'.-_;:  - 


"^^ 


i^ 


tM 


lAmMmmi^ 


,  of  the  Hotme 
France  in  the    ] 
ula  met  with  a    { 
His  dutchy    ! 
like  of  Modena. 
'xcilcd  the  jea- 
should  tnkc  or- 
lly  of  holy  nnd 
luied  the  Court 
js  of  Savoy,  in 
Italy. 

iR  the  beginning 
named  Bertholtl 
of  the  kingdom 
crihold  married 
ainfroi.  Marquis 
night  the  House 
1  as  the  Morqui- 
and  Val  d'Aoste 
ovince  of  Taren- 
by  marriage  the 
}d  by  the  Empe- 
Amadeus  Vll. 
ubitants  of  Nice, 
ogether  with  the 
advantage  of  the 
conflict  between 
;d  the  succession 
ladeus  VIII.  pur- 
Geneva,  and  was 
e  of  Savoy  (Feb. 

ance  and  Austria 
c  House  of  Savoy 
1  the  wars  which 
,  it  became  of  ne- 
al  circumstances. 
1  Charles  V.,  was 
n  Philibert,  noted 
did  not  obtain  re- 
Cambresis.  The 
mdeus  II.,  experi- 
1  agitated  France 
d  which  were  ter- 
rurin  in  the  years 


•r~r\ 


rcRion  vit.    A.  D.  1648—1713. 


303 


IfiflO,  1696.  In  the  war  (tf  the  Spani.sh  Succession,  Victor 
Amadous  II.  declared  at  first  for  his  sou-lti-law,  Philip  King  of 
Spain,  ev(>ii  taking  upon  hiinsolf  tlx;  rhicf  coiiiiiiaiul  of  the 
Fri'uch  army  in  Italy  ;  but  aftfrwiinls,  perceiving  the  danger  of 
his  situation,  and  seduced  by  the  advantageous  otrers  which  the 
Emperor  made  him,  ho  thought  proper  to  alter  his  i)lan,  and 
joined  the  grand  alliance  against  Fraruie.  Savoy  and  rieiiinonl 
again  became  the  theatre  of  the  war  In'twec^n  France  and  Italy. 
The  French  having  ur'ilcrt.iken  the  siege  of  Turin,  the  Duke 
and  Prince  Eugene  foned  their  army  in  its  entrenchments  be- 
fore the  place,  and  obliged  them  to  abandon  Italy.  The  Empe- 
ror granted  the  Duke  the  investiture  of  the  different  estates 
which  he  hud  secured  to  him,  on  his  accession  to  the  gnu  d 
alliance  ;  stich  as  Montferrat,  the  provinces  of  Alexandria  und 
Valencia,  the  country  between  the  fanaro  and  the  Po,  the  Lu- 
melline,  Val  Sessia,  and  the  Vigovanesco ;  to  be  possessed  by 
him  and  his  male  descendants,  as  fiefs  holding  of  the  Emperor 
and  the  Empire. 

The  peace  of  Utrecht  confirmed  these  possessions  to  the  Duke ; 
and  England,  the  bettor  to  secure  the  equilibrium  of  Italy  and 
Europe,  granted  him,  by  that  treaty,  the  royal  dignity,  with  the 
island  of  Sicily,  which  she  had  taken  from  Spain.  That  island 
was  ceded  to  him  under  the  express  clause,  that,  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  male  line  of  Savoy,  that  kingdom  should  revert  to 
Spain.  By  the  same  treaty  they  secured  to  the  male  descen- 
dants of  that  house,  the  right  of  succession  to  the  Spanish  mon- 
archy ;  and  that  clause  was  confirmed  by  a  solemn  law  passed 
in  the  Cortes  of  Spain,  and  by  subsequent  treaties  concluded  be- 
tween these  powers  and  Europe.  The  duke  was  crowned  King 
of  Sicily  at  Palermo  (Dec.  21,  1713,)  by  the  archbishop  of  that 
city ;  and  the  only  persons  who  refusecl  to  acknowledge  him  in 
that  new  capacity  were  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope. 

In  proportion  as  France  increased,  Spain  had  declined  in 
power,  in  consequence  of  the  vices  of  her  government,  the  fee- 
bleness of  her  princes,  and  the  want  of  qualifications  in  their 
ministers  and  favourites.  At  length,  under  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  the  weakness  of  that  monarchy  was  such,  that  France  de- 
spoiled her  with  impunity,  as  appears  by  those  cessions  she  was 
obliged  to  make  by  the  treaties  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Nimeguen, 
and  Ryswick.  Charles  II.  was  the  last  prince  of  the  Spanish 
line  of'^the  house  of  Austria.  At  his  death  (Nov.  1700,)  a  long 
and  bloody  war  ensued  about  the  succession,  as  we  have  already 
related.  Two  competitors  appeared  for  the  crown.  Philip  of 
Anjou,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  had  on  his  side  the  will  of 
Charles  II.,  the  efTorts  of  his  grandfather,  and  the  wishes  of  the 


I 


\\i 


pol 

raised  against  France.  i      .     o       •    j 

Philip,  who  had  been  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  Spaniards, 
had  already  resided  at  Madrid  for  several  years,  when  the  Aus- 
trian  prince,  his  rival,  assisted  by  the  aUied  fleet,  took  possession 
of  Barcelona  (Oct.  9,  1705,)  where  he  established  his  capital. 
The  incessant  defeats  which  France  experienced  at  this  period, 
obliged  Philip  twice  to  abandon  his  capital,  and  seek  his  satetj 
in  St.     He  owed  his  restoration  for  the  first  time  to  Marsha' 
Ber^k,  and  the  victory  which  that  f,"^'-.^ „f  "?!j„7'^^«, 
allies  near  Almanza,  in  New  CastiUe  (April  25,  1707.)     The 
.xhduke  having  afterwards  advanced  as  far  ««  Madrid    he 
Uuke  de  Vendome  undertook  to  repulse  him.     That  General, 
,"  conjunction  with  Philip  V.,  defeated  the  allies,  who  were 
commanded  by  General  Stahremberg,  near  Jf^J^Sih^ 
10  1710  )     These  two  victories  contributed  to  estabhsh  f  hilip 
on  his  throne.     The  death  of  Joseph  I.,  which  happened  soon 
Xr  and  the'elevation  of  his  brother,  the  Archduke  Charles,  to 
Se  Imperial  throne  and  the  crowns  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia 
accelerated  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  UtrecKt,  by  which  the 
Spadh  monarchy  ^vas  preserved  to  Philip  V.  and  his  descen- 
dants.     They  deprived  him,  however,  in  virtue  of  that  treaty,  ot 
the  Netherlands  and  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Italy,  such  as 
the  Milanois,  the  ports  of  Tuscany,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Naples, 

'I'^rcldSwhich  England  had  exacted  at  tbe  treaty^" 
Utrecht  to  render  eflectual  the  renunciation  of  Philip  V.  to  he 
crown  of  France,  as  well  as  that  of  the  French  princes  to  he 
monarchy  of  Spain,  having  made  ft  necessary  to  assemble  the 
Sortes  or^Statef-General,  Philip  t03k  advantage  o  that  circum- 
stance  to  change  the  orderof  succession  which  till  then  had  s^ 
isted  in  Spain,  and  which  was  known  W  fe  narne  of  the  C^' 
tUian  Sticcession.  A  law  was  ..assed  at  the  Cortes  (1713,)  by 
which  it  was  ordained  that  females  should  "^^'^e  admitted  to 

'  the  crown  except  in  default  of  the  male  line  of  Philip  ;  that  the 
male  E  should  succeed  according  to  the  order  of  pnm«gen|. 

i    mre     that,  failing  the  male  line  of  that  prince,  the  crown  shoula 

falTto  the  edest  daughter  of  the  last  reigning  king,  and  her  de- 
fall  to  tne  eiaesi  u     g  ^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^j^^^^^  ^^ 

i    jretSgTalwa^^^^^^^^^^  fo-e  the  right  of  primogeniture. 

and  the  preference  of  the  male  heirs  in  the  order  of  succession. 
'        FraLe   by  the  sixtieth  article  of  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees, 

having  renounced  the  protection  of  Portugal,  the  war  Uweon 


-.xe.ijg^i'jsasjaT^E'^g 


^  ^#^M 


IHWIWII        II       HI 


n  of  the  Enipe- 
league,  which 
ler  powers  had 

the  Spaniards, 
when  the  Aus- 
took  possession 
bed  his  capital, 
i  at  this  period, 
seek  his  safety 
time  to  Marsha' 
rained  over  the 
15,  1707.)  The 
as  Madrid,  the 

That  General, 

lilies,  who  were 

a  Viciosa  (Dec. 

establish  Philip 

happened  soon 
duke  Charles,  to 
y  and  Bohemia, 
ht,  by  which  the 
and  his  descen- 
of  that  treaty,  ot 
in  Italy,  such  as 
rdoms  of  Naples, 

\  at  the  treaty  or 
'  Philip  V.  to  the 
;h  princes  to  the 
'  to  assemble  the 
^e  of  that  circum- 
till  then  had  sub- 
name  of  the  Cos- 
Cortes  (1713,)  by 
er  be  admitted  to 
f  Philip;  that  the 
der  of  primogeni- 
the  crown  shoula 
king,  and  her  de- 
nearest  relation  ot 
of  primogeniture, 
der  of  succession, 
r  of  the  Pyrenees, 
the  war  between 


'    '4    N 


I   i  *  • 


tr 


n "  i* 


ii  ■;. 


-,^^^ 


Death  of  Charle.  the  XII.  of  Sweden.    P.  319. 


Eivampment  of  n  Roaiment  nf  Imperial  nwly-Guards. 

1\  :-.') 


mMm>Mm^iUj.<^  M^fUi-M^iH^ 


I.    p.  319. 


nixlv-Gunrds. 


nuiiii  mniwMwii 


pBnioD  vu.    A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


305 


Spain  and  this  latter  power  was  resumed  with  new  vigour. 
Alphonso  VI.,  King  of  Portugal,  finding  himself  abandoned  bv 
his  allies,  resolved  to  throw  himself  on  the  favour  of  England. 
The  English  granted  him  supplies,  in  virtue  of  a  treaty  which 
he  concluded  with  them  (June  23d  1661,)  and  bv  which  ho 
ceded  to  them  thn  city  of  Tangiers  in  Africa,  and  the  isle  of 
Bombay  in  India.  France,  who  well  knew  that  it  was  her  inte- 
rest not  to  abandon  Portugal  entirely,  rendered  her  likewise  all 
the  secret  assistance  in  her  power.  The  Count  Schomberg 
passed  over  to  that  kingdom  with  a  good  number  of  officers,  and 
several  companies  of  French  troops.  The  Portuguese,  under 
the  command  of  that  General,  gained  two  victories  over  the 
Spaniards  ai  Almexial,  near  Estremos  (1663,)  and  at  Montcs 
Claros,  or  Villa  Viciosa  (1665,)  which  re-established  their  affairs, 
and  contributed  to  secure  the  independence  of  Portugal  Wlien 
the  war  took  plnre  about  the  Richt  of  Devolution,  the  Coui  t  of 
Lisbon  formea  a  new  alliance  witn  France.  Spain  then  leai  ned 
that  it  would  be  more  for  her  interest  to  abandon  her  projects  of 
conquering  Portugal,  and  accept  the  proposals  of  accommodation 
tendered  to  her  by  the  mediation  of  England. 

It  happened,  in  the  meantime,  that  Alphonso  VI.,  a  prince  of 
vicious  habits,  and  of  a  ferocious  and  brutal  temper,  was  de- 
throned (Nov.  23d  1667,)  and  the  Infant  Don  Pedro,  his  brother, 
was  declared  Regent  of  the  kingdom.  The  Queen  of  Alphonso, 
Mary  of  Savoy,  who  had  managed  the  whole  intrigue,  obtained, 
from  the  Court  of  Rome,  a  dissolution  of  her  marriage  with  Al- 
phonso, and  espoused  the  Regent,  her  brother-in-law  (April  2d 
1668.)  That  prince  would  willingly  have  fulfilled  the  engage- 
ments which  his  predecessor  had  contracted  with  France,  but 
th .  English  Ambassador  having  drawn  over  the  Cortes  of  Por 
tugal  to  his  interests,  the  Regent  was  obliged  to  make  peace  with 
Spain,  which  was  signed  at  Lisbon,  February  13th  1668.  The 
Spaniards  there  treated  with  the  Portuguese  as  a  sovereign  and 
independent  nation.  They  agreed  to  make  mutual  restitution 
of  all  they  had  taken  possession  of  during  the  war,  with  the 
exception  of  tlte  city  of  Ceuta  in  Africa,  which  remained  in  the 
power  of  Spain.  The  subjects  of  both  states  obtained  the  resto- 
ration of  lill  property  alienated  or  confiscated  during  the  war. 
That  peace  was  followed  by  another,  which  Portugal  concluded 
at  the  Hague,  with  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands 
(July  31st  1669,)  who  were  permitted  to  retain  the  conquests 
they  had  made  from  the  Portuguese  in  the  East  Indies. 

The  Court  of  Lisbon  was  soon  after  involved  in  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  which  divided  all  Europe.  Don  Pedro 
II.  had  at  first  acknowledged  Philip  V.,  and  even  contracted  an 

20 


1,1 


411 


f 


i 


I  ' 


, 


*— — ^'^^-  ■• 


306 


CHAPTBB  Vin. 


allinnce  With  him;  but  yielding  afterwards  to  the  «nfl»«P"  »[ 
the  British  minister,  as  well  as  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  he  jo  ned 
the  Grand  Alliance  against  France.'  The  Portuguese  made  a 
distinguished  figure  in  that  war,  chiefly  during  the  campaign  of 
1706  when,  wifh  the  assistance  of  the  W»«h,  thev  penetrated 
as  far  as  Madrid,  end  there  proclaimed  Charles  of  Austria. 

The  Portuguese,  by  one  of  the  articles  of  their  treaty  o 
accession  to  the  gran<f  alliance,  had  ^en  given  to  expect  that 
ce  tarn  important  places  in  Spanish  Estremadura  and  Gal  icia 
would  be  ceded  to  them  at  the  general  peace.     That  engage- 
ment  was  never  fulfilled.     The  treaty  of  peace,  concluded  at 
Utrecht  {6th  February  1715,)  between  Spam  and  Portugal,  had 
ordered  the  mutual  restitution  of  all  conquests  made  during  the 
war      The  treaty  of  Lisbon,  of  1668  was  then  renewed,  and 
especially  the  art'icles  which  stipulated  fr  the  restitution  of  all 
crfiscated  property.     The  only  point  which  they  Y'eWed  to  the 
Portuguese;  was  that  which  referred  to  the  colony  of  St.  Sacra- 
ment  which  the  Portuguese  governor  of  Rio  Janeiro  had  estab- 
ScdTS)  on  the  nonhern  bank  of  the  river  La  Plata,  u,  South 
Ameri  a,  which  was  opposed  by  Spain.     By  the  sixth  article  o 
heVtreaty  with  Portu^l,  she  renounced  all  her  former  claims 
and  pretensions  over  the  above  colony.  t>„,.„™1 

A  similar  dispute  had  arisen  between  France  and  Portugal 
relative  to  the  northern  bank  of  the  Amazons  river,  and  the  terri- 
ories  about  Cape  North,  in  America,  which  t^e  French  mam- 
tained  belonged  to  them,  as  making  part  of  French  Guiana. 
The  Portuguese  naving  constructed  there  the  fort  of  Macapa,  it 
iJs  taken  by  the  French  gove-^rr  of  Cayenne.     By  the  reaty 
of  Utrecht,  it  was  agreed  between  France  and  Portugal  that 
both  banks  of  the  river  Amazons  should  belong  entirely  to  Por- 
i    tugal ;  and  that  France  should  renounce  all  right  and  pieten- 
!    Ss  whatever  to  the  territories  of  Cape  North,  b'lng.betv^en 
I    the  rivers  Amazons  and  Japoc,  or  Vincent  Pmson,  in  South 

1    ^fn  England,  an  interregnum  of  eleven  years  followed  the  death 

of  Charles  I.  Oliver  Cromwell,  the  leader  of  the  Independent 
1    party,  pissed  two  Acts  of  Parliament   one  of  which  abulished 

fhe  House  of  Lords,  and  the  other  the  royal  dignity.  The 
i  kinRlv  office  was  suppressed,  as  useless  to  the  nation,  oppressn^ 
'    and  dangerous  to  the  interests  and  liberties  of  the  people ;  and  it 

•Ls  decided,  that  whoever  should  spoak  of  the  restoration  of  the 
:  Stuarts,  should  be  regarded  as  a  traitor  to  his  country.  The  king- 
t    dom  being  thus  changed  into  a  republic,  Cromwell  took  on  hum  e!f 

the  chief  direction  of  affairs.     This  ambitiou.  man  was  n^^^^^^^ 
I    in  monopolizing  the  sovereign  authority  (1663.)    He  abolishfirt 


II 


i! 


1'f*lr 


[he  influence  of 
lenna,  he  joined 
[ugucse  made  a 
the  campaign  of 
Jthey  penetrated 
|of  Austria, 
their  treaty  of 

to  expect,  that 
ira  and  Gallicia 

That  engage- 
;e,  concluded  at 
id  Portugal,  had 
made  during  the 
n  renewed,  and 
restitution  of  all 
ey  yielded  to  the 
»ny  of  St.  Sacra- 
ineiro  had  estab- 
a  Plata,  in  South 
e  sixth  article  of 
er  former  claims 

ce  and  Portugal 
ver,  and  the  terri- 
le  French  main- 
French  fruiana. 
brt  of  Macapa,  it 
;.  By  the  treaty 
id  Portugal  that 
J  entirely  to  Por- 
ight  ana  pieten- 
h,  lying  between 
'inson,  in  South 

allowed  the  death 
the  Independent 
which  abolished 

I  dignity.  The 
lation,  oppressive 
le  people  ;  and  it 
restoration  of  the 
mtry.   The  king- 

II  took  on  himself 
nan  was  not  long 
.)    He  abolislmd 


:.{ 


PERion  VII.    A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


307 


the  Parliament  called  the  Rump,  which  had  conferred  on  him  his 
power  and  military  commission.  He  next  assembled  a  new 
Parliament  of  the  three  kingdoms,  to  the  number  of  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-four  members ;  and  he  took  care  to  have  it  com- 
posed of  individuals  whom  he  knew  to  be  devoted  to  his  inte- 
rests. Accordingly,  they  resigned  the  whole  authority  into  his 
hands.  An  act,  called  the  Act  of  Government,  conferred  on 
him  the  supreme  authority,  under  the  title  of  Protector  of 
the  three  kingdoms ;  with  the  privilege  of  making  war  and 
peace,  and  assembling  every  three  years  a  Parliament,  which 
should  exercise  the  legislative  power  conjunctly  with  himself. 

Cromwell  governed  England  with  a  more  uncontrolled  power 
than  that  of  her  kings  had  been.  In  1651,  he  passed  the  fa- 
mous Navigation  Act,  which  contributed  to  increase  the  com- 
merce of  Great  Britain,  and  gave  her  marine  a  preponderance 
over  that  of  all  other  nations.  That  extraordinary  man  raised 
England  in  the  estimation  of  foreigners,  and  made  his  Protec- 
torate respected  by  all  Europe.  After  a  war  which  he  had  car- 
ried on  against  the  Dutch,  he  obliged  them,  by  the  treaty  of 
Westminster  (1654,)  to  lower  their  flag  to  British  vessels,  and 
to  abandon  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts.  Entering  into  alliance 
with  France  against  Spain,  he  took  from  the  latter  the  island 
of  Jamaica  (1655)  and  the  port  of  Dunkirk  (1658.) 

After  his  death,  the  Generals  of  the  army  combined  to  restore 
the  old  Parliament,  called  the  Rump.  Richard  Cromwell,  who 
succeeded  his  father,  soon  resigned  the  Protectorate  (April  22, 
1659.)  Dissensions  having  arisen  between  the  Parliament  and 
the  Generals,  Monk,  who  was  governor  of  Scotland,  marched 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Parliament ;  and  after  having  defeated 
the  Independent  Generals,  he  proceeded  to  assemble  a  new  Par- 
liament composed  of  both  Houses.  No  sooner  was  this  Par- 
liament assembled,  than  they  decided  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Stuarts,  in  the  person  of  Charles  II.  (18th  May  1660.) 

That  Princp  made  his  public  entry  into  London,  May  29, 
1660.  His  first  care  was  to  take  vengeance  on  those  who  had 
been  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  death  of  his  father.  He  re- 
scinded all  Acts  of  Parliament  passed  since  the  year  1633;  and 
re-established  Episcopacy  both  in  Englan '  and  Scotland.  In- 
stigated by  his  propensity  for  absolute  power,  and  following  the 
maxims  which  he  had  imbibed  from  his  predecessors,  he  adopt- 
ed measures  which  were  opposed  by  the  Parliament ;  and  even 
went  so  far  as  more  than  once  to  pronounce  their  dissolution. 
His  reign,  in  consequence,  was  a  scene  of  faction  and  agitation, 
which  proved  the  forerunners  of  a  new  revolution.*  The  ap- 
pellation of  Whigs  and  Tories,  so  famous  in  English  history 


Wki 


ir 


308 


CHAPTER  Vin. 


took  its  rise  in  his  reign.     Wc  could  almost,  however,  pardon 
trils  for  his  faults  Ld  irregularities,  in  cor..derat^  of^he 
beMevolence  and  amiableness  of  his   character.      IJut  it  was 
mhervvse  with  James  11.,  who  succeeded  his  hrother  on    he 
Brit  sh  Throne  (16th  Feb.  1685.)     That  Prince  alienated  the 
m  nds  of  his  subjects  by  his  haughty  demeanour,  and  his  extra- 
vagant zeal  for  the  church  of  Rome,  and  the  Jesuits  h.s  confes- 
lors      Scarcely  was  he  raised  to  the  throne,  when  he  undertook 
0  change  thrreliirion  of  his  country,  and  to  govern  s. 11  more 
despotSlythL  his  brother  had  done.     Encouraged  by  Louis 
XlT  who  offered  him  money  and  troops,  he  was  the  first  Kmg 
of  England  That  had  kept  on  foot  an  army  in  time  of  peace 
and  caused  tie  legislature  to  decide,  that  the  King  can  dispense 
wl  tr  law.     ivailing  himself  of  ^^^^^^o^J'Z^ 
with  the  several  statutes  issued  against  the  Catholics  ,  ne  peT 
mUVed  them  the  public  exercise  of  their  religion  Withm  the 
"hree  k  ngdoms,  aid  gradually  gave  them  a  Pje<^r«"<=«;"  j" 
plSes  of  frust.     At  length,  he  even  solicited  the  Pje  /o  «  jd 

fpectlng  CatLiics,  were  treated  as  guilty  of  sedition,  and  .m      , 

nrisoned  by  his  order  in  the  Tower.  r-Mt  a  „„  ^«n 

:    ^  D«ri..g  these  transactions  the  Q-7'T^''^"6^?  known  Fn 

I     nened  to  be  delivered  of  a  Prince   20th  June,  1688,)  kno;^"  '" 

Cry  b7  the  name  of  the  Pretender.     As  her  Majesty  had 

i    teo  ch\ldL  for  more  than  six  years  it  was  "Ot  difficult  to 

gain  credit  to  a  report,  that  the  young  Prince  %yas  a  supposit^ 

Ks  child     James  IL,  by  his  first  marriage  with  Anne  Hyde. 

i    Sghter  of  the  Earl  of  ClLndon.  had  two  ^-ghte.,  both  ^ro- 

'    testants  ;  and  regarded,  till  then,  as  heirs  to  the  crown.     Mary, 

i     he  elde;t,  was  m'arried  to  William,  Prince  of  Orange  and  Anne 

Sf  D=r'  ^^^sJZ^:^^  LTtSttSve5 
IfaTtlt^gsa^d  misfortunes  would^ 

death  of  James  II.  and  the  accession  of  the  P""'^^f  ^.°^y,™X 
TL  throne.  Being  disappointed  in  these  ^^F^/^f/^^^^^^ 
birth  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  their  only  P'^V^JJ^^^'^^Sg 
.v,„  If  intr  The  Tories  even  ioined  with  the  W  higs  m  oneniig 
t  f-S  1,  .t  PrEof  Oringe.     William m-.^f^'g^ 


i 


i5=!9BKK 


owever,  pnrdon 
|si deration  of  the 

r.  Rut  it  was 
s  brother  on  the 
ce  alienated  the 
ur,  and  his  extra- 
csiiits  his  confes- 
hen  he  undertook 
govern  still  more 
oiiraged  by  Louis 
vas  the  first  King 
in  time  of  peace, 
(ing  can  dispense 
iion,  he  dispensed 
atholics  ;  he  per- 
igion  within  the 
preference  in  all 
the  Pope  to  send 
arrival  of  Ferdi- 
fided  this  mission, 
Windsor  (1687.) 
ihe  declaration  re- 
sedition,  and  im 

•y  of  Modena,  hap- 
•,  1688,)  known  m 

her  Majesty  had 
ras  not  difficult  to 
e  was  a  suppositi- 

with  Anne  Hyde. 
lughters,  both  Pro- 
the  crown.  Mary, 
Orange,  and  Anne, 
•"rederic  III.,  King 
[altered  themselves 
terminate  with  the 
Princess  of  Orange 
expectations  by  the 
n  was  to  dethrone 
Whigs  in  offering 
1  III.,  supported  by 

and  landed  fifteen 
[688,)  without  ex- 
rt  of  James,  who, 
ook  the  resolution 


PERIOD  Vll.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


309 


of  withdrawmg  to  France,  where  he  had  already  sent  his  Queen 
and  his  son,  the  young  Prince  of  Wales.  He  afterwards  re- 
turned to  Ireland,  where  he  had  a  strong  party  ;  but  being  con- 
quered by  William  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  (11th  July  1690,) 
he  was  obliged  to  return  to  France,  where  he  ended  his  days. 

Immediately  after  the  flight  of  James,  the  Parliament  of  Eng- 
land declared,  by  an  act,  that  as  he  had  violated  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  constitution,  and  abandoned  the  kingdom,  the 
throne  was  become  vacant.  They,  therefore,  unanimously  con- 
ferred the  crown  on  William  III.,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Mary 
his  spouse  (Feb.  22,  16S9  ;)  intrusting  the  administration  of  af- 
fairs to  the  Prince  alone.  In  redressing  the  grievances  of  the 
nation,  they  set  new  limits  to  the  royal  authority.  By  an  Act, 
called  the  Declaration  of  Rights,  they  decreecf,  that  the  King 
could  neither  suspend,  nor  dispense  with  the  laws ;  that  he 
could  institute  no  new  courts,  nor  levy  money  under  any  pre- 
tence whatever,  nor  maintain  an  army  in  time  of  peace,  without 
the  consent  of  Parliament.  Episcopacy  was  abolished  in  Scot- 
land (1694,)  and  the  liberty  of  the  press  sanctioned.  The  suc- 
cession of  the  crown  was  regulated  by  different  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment, one  of  which  fixed  it  in  the  Protestant  line,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  Catholics.  Next  after  William  and  Mary  and  their 
descendants,  was  the  Princess  Anne  and  her  descendants.  A 
subsequent  Act  conferred  the  succession  on  the  House  of 
Hanover  (1701,)  under  the  following  conditions: — That  the 
King  or  Queen  of  that  family,  on  their  accession  to  the  throne, 
should  be  obliged  to  conform  to  the  High  Church,  and  the  laws 
of  1689 ;  that  without  the  consent  of  Parliament,  they  should 
never  engage  the  nation  in  any  war  for  the  defence  of  their  he- 
reditary dominions,  nor  go  out  of  the  kingdom ;  and  that  they 
should  never  appoint  foreigners  to  offices  of  trust. 

The  rivalry  between  France  and  England  assumed  a  higher 
tone  under  the  reign  of  William  III. ;  and  was  increased  by  the 
powerful  efTorts  which  France  was  making  to  improve  her  ma- 
rine, and  extend  her  navigation  and  her  commerce.  The  colo- 
nies which  she  founded  in  America  and  the  Indies,  by  bringing 
the  two  nations  more  into  contact,  tended  to  foment  their  jea- 
lousies, and  multiply  sulyects  of  discord  and  division  between 
them.  From  that  time  England  eagerly  seized  every  occasion 
for  occupying  France  on  the  Continent  of  Europe ;  and  the 
whole  policy  of  William,  as  we  have  seen,  had  no  other  aim 
than  to  thwart  the  ambitious  views  of  Louis  XIV.  If  this 
rivalry  excited  and  prolonged  wars  which  inflicted  many  cala- 
mities on  the  world,  it  became  likewise  a  powerful  stimulus  for 
the  contending  nations  to  develope  their  whole  faculties ;  to 


I 


h     I 


tm 


m 


If:; 


#■  11 ; 


rijdlJ 


"ar 


fT 


310 


CHAPTKR  Vni. 


make  the  liighest  nllninir.enls  in  the  sciences,  of  which  they  were 
susceptible  ;  and  to  carry  arts  and  civilization  to  the  remotes*, 
countries  in  the  world.  ,,„n«v     i.  •     ^- 

William  HI.  was  succeeded  by  Anne  (1702.)  It  was  in  ncr 
reicn  that  the  grand  union  IxHwccn  England  and  Scotland  was 
accompli«hed,  which  incorporated  then,  into  one  kingdom,  by 
means  of  the  same  order  of  succession,  and  only  one  Parliament. 
That  Princess  had  the  honour  of  maintaining  the  balance  ol 
Europe  against  France,  by  the  clauses  which  she  got  inserted 
into  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  At  her  death  (1st  August  1714,) 
the  throne  of  Great  Britain  passed  to  George  I.,  the  Elector  o( 
Hanover,  whose  mother,  Sophia,  derived  her  right  to  the  British 
throne  from  James  I.,  her  maternal  grandfather. 

The  power  and  political  influence  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
the  Netlierlands  had  increased  every  day,  '""•^^  Spain  ncknow- 
ledged  their  independence  by  the  treaty  of  Munster  (1648.) 
Their  extensive  commerce  to  all  parts  of  the  globe,  nnd  their 
flourishing  marine,  attracted   the  admiration   of  al    Europe- 
Sovereigns  courted  their  alliance  ;  and  the  Hague,  the  capital 
of  the  States-General,  became,  in  course  of  time,  the  centre  ol 
European  politics.     That  Republic  was  the  nvnl  of  England  in 
all  her  coinmercial  relations  ;  and  she  ventured  also  to  dispute 
with  her  the  empire  of  the  sea,  by  refusing  to  lower  her  flag  to 
British  vessels.     These  disputes  gave  rise  to  bloody  wars  be- 
tween the  two  States,  in  which  the  famous  Dutch  Admirals, 
Troinp  and  De  Ruyter,  distinguished  themselves  by- their  mari- 
time exploits.     De  Ruyter  entered  the  Thames  with  the  Dutch 
fleet  (1667,)  advanced  to  Chatham,  burnt  the  vessels  m  the  roads 
there,  and  threw  the  city  of  London  into  great  consternation. 
Nevertheless,  by  the  treaties  of  Breda  (1667)  and  Westminster 
(1664 )  they  agreed  that  their  vessels  and  fleets  should  lower 
their  flag  when  they  met  either  one  or  more  ships  carrying  the 
British  flag,  and  that  over  all  the  sea,  from  Cape  ?'"'«»«"«"> 
Gallicia,  to  the  centre  of  Statt  in  Norway ;  but  the  Slates-Gen- 
eral preserved  Surinam,  which  they  had  conquered  during  the 
war ;  and  at  the  treaty  of  commerce  which  was  signed  at  Breda, 
the  navigation  act  was  modified  in  their  favour,  m  so  far  that 
the  produce  and  merchandise  of  Germany  were  to  be  considered 
as  productions  of  the  soil  of  the  Republic. 

ft  was  during  these  wars  that  a  change  took  place  with  regard 

to  the  Stadlholdership  of  the  United  Provinces.     William  11.. 

Prince  of  Orange,  had  alienated  the  hearts  of  his  subjects  by  his 

!     attempts  against  their  liberties;  and  having,  at  His  death,  left 

his  wife,  the  daughter  of  Charles  1.  of  England,  pregnant  of  a 

'     son  (1650,)  the  Slates-General  took  the  opportunilv  of  leaving 


i. 


Ivhich  they  were 
to  the  remotest 

It  was  in  ner 
ul  Scotland  was 
[nc  kingdom,  by 
J  one  Parliament, 
the  balance  ol 
8he  got  inserted 
It  August  1714,) 
the  Elector  of 
'lit  to  the  British 

trd  Provinces  of 

s  Spain  acknow- 

Munster  (1648.) 

globe,  and  their 

of  all  Europe. 

ague,  the  capital 

me,  the  centre  of 

ra\  of  England  in 

kl  itlso  to  dispute 

lower  her  flag  to 

bloody  wars  be- 

Dutch  Admirals, 

es  by  their  mari- 

s  with  the  Dutch 

'sscls  in  the  roads 

;at  consternation. 

and  Westminster 

■ets  should  lower 

hips  carrying  the 

ipe  Finisterre  in 

[  the  States-Gen* 

uered  during  the 

signed  at  Breda, 

lur,  in  so  far  that 

!  to  be  considered 

}]ace  with  regard 
!s.  William  IL, 
is  subjects  by  his 
at  his  death,  left 
d,  pregnant  of  a 
unity  of  leaving 


fKRIOD  VII.     A.  D.  164S — 17/). 


311 


that  ofPce  vacant,  and  taking  upon  themselves  the  direction  of 
affairs.  The  suspicions  which  the  House  of  Orniigo  had  excited 
in  Cromwell  by  their  alliance  with  the  Stuarts,  and  the  resent- 
ment of  John  de  Witt,  Pensionary  of  Holland,  against  the  Stadt* 
holder,  caused  a  secret  article  to  be  added  to  the  treaty  of  West- 
minster, by  which  the  States  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland 
engaged  never  to  elect  William,  the  posthumous  son  of  William 
II.,  to  be  St.tdthnlder ;  and  never  to  allow  that  the  office  of 
Captain-General  of  the  Republic  should  be  conferred  on  him. 
John  (le  Witt  likewise  framed  a  regulation  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Perpetual  Edict,  which  separated  the  Stadtholdership 
from  the  office  of  Captain  and  Admiral-General,  and  which 
enacted,  that  these  functions  should  never  be  discharged  by  the 
same  individual.  Having  failed,  however,  in  his  efforts  to  make 
the  States-General  adopt  this  regulation,  which  they  considered 
as  contrary  to  the  union,  John  de  Witt  contented  himself  with 
obtaining  the  approbation  of  the  States  of  Holland,  who  even 
went  so  fur  as  to  sanction  the  entire  suppression  of  the  Stadt- 
holdership. 

Matters  continued  in  this  situation  until  the  time  when  Louis 
XIV.  invaded  Holland.  His  alarming  progress  caused  a  revo- 
lution in  favour  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  The  ruling  faction,  at 
the  head  of  which  was  John  de  Witt,  then  lost  the  good  opinion 
of  the  people.  He  was  accused  of  having  neg'.ectcd  military 
affairs,  and  left  the  State  without  defence,  and  a  prey  to  the  en- 
emy. The  first  signal  of  'evolution  was  given  by  the  small 
town  of  Veere  in  Zealand.  William  was  there  proclaimed 
Stadtholder  (June  1672,)  and  the  example  of  Vecre  was  soon 
followed  by  all  the  cities  of  Holland  and  Zealand.  Every  where 
the  people  compelled  the  magistrates  to  confer  the  Stadtholder- 
ship on  the  young  Prince.  The  Perpetual  Edict  was  abolished, 
and  the  Stadtholdership  confirmed  to  William  III.  by  the  As- 
sembly of  States.  They'  even  rendered  this  dignity,  as  well  as 
the  office  of  Captain-General,  hereditary  to  all  the  male  and 
legitimate  descendants  of  the  Prince.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  two  brothers,  John  and  Cornelius  de  Witt,  were  massa- 
cred by  the  people  assembled  at  the  Hague. 

After  William  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  he 
still  retained  the  Stadtholdership,  with  the  offices  of  Captain 
and  Admiral-General  of  the  Republic.  England  and  Holland, 
united  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  same  prince,  acted  thence* 
forth  in  concert  to  thwart  the  ambitious  designs  of  Louis  XIV.; 
and  he  felt  the  effects  of  their  power  chiefly  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  when  England  and  the  States-General  made 
extraordinary  efforts  to  maintain  the  balance  of  th  ;  Continent 


i 

i 


i 


/ 


M 


:  i 


Hf,< 


mi  iiwiLjiwpi 


312 


■*:-:,: 


OBArTBR  Vlll. 


which  they  thought  in  danger.     It  was  m  consideration  of  these 
efforts  that  they  guaranteed  to  the  Dutch,  by  the  tretty  ol  the 
Grand  Alliance,  as  well  as  by  that  of  Utrecht,  a  barrier  against 
Franco,  which  was  more  amply  defined  by  ^heHarrter  Treaty, 
sijrned  at  Antwerp  (15th  November  1715,)  under  the  mediation 
and  guaranty  of  Great  Britain      The  provinces  and  towns  of 
the  Netherlands,  both  those  that  had  been  possessed  by  Charles 
II  ,  and  those  that  France  had  surrendered  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  were  transferred  to  the  Emperor  and  the  House  of 
Austria,  on  condition  that  they  should  never  bo  ceded  under  any 
title  whatever ;  neither  to  France,  nor  to  any  other  prince  except 
the  heirs  and  successors  of  the  House  of  Austria  in  Germony. 
It  was  agreed  that  there  should  always  be  kept  in  the  Low 
Countries  a  body  of  Austrian  troops,  from  |:h'rty  to  thirty-five 
thousand  men,of  which  the  Emperor  was  to  furnish  Jree-fif  hs, 
and  the  States-General  the  remainder.     Finally,  'Jf  Si"*"- 
General  were  allowed  a  garrison,  entirely  composed  of  their  own 
troops,  in  the  cities  anS  castles  of  N^mur,  rTournay   Menm, 
Fumes,  Warneton,  and  the  fortress  of  Kenock  !  while  the  Em- 
peror engaged  to  contribute  a  certain  ?um  annually  for  the  main- 
tenance of  these  troops.  ,  .^      i-.     .        j  :„j. 
Switzerland,  since  the  confirmation  of  her  liberty  and  indej 
nendence  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  had  constantly  adhered 
to  the  system  of  neutrality  which  she  had  adopted  ;  and  taken 
no  part  in  the  broils  of  her  neighbours,  except  by  furnishing 
troops  to  those  powers  with  whom  she  was  in  alliance.     The 
fortunate  inability  which  was  the  natural  consequence  of  her 
union,  pointed  out  this  line  of  conduct,  and  even  induced  the 
European  States  to  respect  the  Helvetic  neutrality. 

This  profound  peace,  which  Switzerland  enjoyed  by  means  of 
that  neutrality,  was  never  interrunted,  except  by  occasional  do- 
me tkquarrei;  which  arose  from  tW  difference  of  their  re  igiou, 
ODinions.  Certain  families,  from  the  canton  of  Schwe.iz,  had 
fled  to  Zurich  on  account  of  their  religious  tenets,  and  had  been 
nrotected  by  that  republic.  This  stirred  up  a  war  (1656)  be- 
fween  the  (Jalholic  cLtons  and  the  Zurichers,  with  their  all^s 
the  Bernese  ;  but  it  was  soon  terminated  by  the  peace  of  baden, 
which  renewed  the  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  1631,  relative  to  these 
very  subjects  of  dispute.  Some  attempts  having  afterwards  been 
made  against  liberty  of  conscience,  in  the  county  of  Toggenburg, 
by  the  Sbbe  of  St!^Gall,  a  new  war  broke  out  (1712,)  between 
five  of  the  Catholic  cantons,  and  the  two  Protestant  cantons  of 
Zurich  and  Berne.  These  latter  expelled  the  Abbe  of  St.  Gall 
from'his  estates,  and  dispossessed  the  Catholics  of  the  county  of 
Baden,  with  a  considerable  part  of  the  free  bailiwicks  which 


14. 


tmtm 


leration  of  thew 

e  tre«ty  of  (he 

barrier  agninnt 

)iarrier  Treaty, 

r  the  mediation 

s  nnd  towns  of 

ssed  by  Charles 

ly  the  treaty  of 

I  the  House  of 

cded  under  any 

or  prince  except 

ia  in  Germany. 

ept  in  the  Low 

TXy  to  thirty-five 

■nish  three-fifths, 

lly,  the  States- 

)sed  of  their  own 

'ournay,  Menin, 

;  while  the  Em- 

tlly  for  the  main- 

iberty  and  inde- 
nstantly  adhered 
|ited  ;  and  taken 
'pt  by  furnishing 
n  alliance.  The 
sequence  of  her 
vcn  induced  the 
lity. 

yed  by  means  of 
)y  occnsioRal  do- 
of  their  religious 
)f  Schweitz,  had 
ts,  and  had  been 
L  war  (1656)  be- 

with  their  allies 
peace  of  Baden, 
,  relative  to  these 

afterwards  been 
r  ofToggenburg, 
(1712,)  between 
(stant  cantons  of 
Abb.'  of  St.  Gall 

of  the  county  of 
ailiwicks  which 


: : 


PKBioo  m.    A.  D.  1648—1713. 


318 


V(ft9  flTanted  to  ther.i  by  the  troaty  coiicludod  at  .\raw.  The 
Abbe  then  saw  him.«(elf  abandonod  by  the  Ciiiliolic  i'antoii<i ;  and 
it  was  only  in  virtno  of  a  treaty,  wliii-li  ho  ( oiicjudcd  with  Zu- 
rich and  Borne  (17 IS.)  that  iiissnrioMsorolitaincd  his  restornlion 

Sweden,  during  the  groiiter  part  of  this  period,  supported  the 
(irst  nink  ainonsf  the  powers  of  the  North.  The  vigour  of  her 
governinout,  added  to  the  weakness  of  her  iieiyhliour.'i,  and  the 
important  advantages  which  the  treaties  of  Slolbova,  Stumsdori, 
Bromsbro,  and  Westphalia  had  procured  her,  secured  this  supe- 
riority ;  and  gave  her  the  same  influence  in  the  North  that 
France  hold  in  the  South.  Christina,  th(?  daughter  of  Gusiavus 
Adolpm's,  iield  the  reins  of  government  in  Sweden  about  the 
middle  ol'tlio  Bcventi'euth  cntury  ;  but  to  gratify  her  propensity 
for  tlu.  tine  arts,  she  resolved  to  abdicate  the  crown  (1651.) 
Charles  Gustavus,  Count  Palatine  of  Deux-Ponls,  her  cousin- 
german,  succeeded  her,  under  the  title  of  Charles  X.  Being 
nurtured  in  the  midst  of  arms,  and  ambitious  only  of  wars  and 
battle.s,  ho  was  anxious  to  distinguish  himself  on  the  throne. 
John  Casiniir,  King  of  Poland,  having  provoked  him,  by  protest- 
ing against  his  accession  to  the  crown  of  Sweden,  Charles  made 
this  an  occasion  of  breaking  the  treaty  of  Stumsdorf,  which  was 
still  in  force,  and  invaded  Poland.  Assisted  by  Frederic  Wil- 
liam, the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  whom  he  had  atta'-hed  to  his 
interests,  he  gained  a  splendid  victory  over  the  Poles  near  War- 
saw (July  1H5H.)  At  that  crisis,  the  fate  of  Poland  would  have 
been  decided,  if  the  Czar,  Alexis  Michaelovitz,  who  was  also  at 
war  with  the  Poles,  had  chosen  to  make  common  cause  with 
her  new  eneir.ie.s  ;  but  Alexis  thought  it  more  for  his  advantage 
to  conclude  a  truce  with  the  Pole.^,and  attack  the  Swedes  in  Li- 
vonia, Ingria.  and  Carelia.  The  Emperor  Leopold  and  the  King 
(f  Denmark  followed  the  example  of  the  Czar;  and  the  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  after  obtaining  the  sovereignty  of  the  dutchy  of 
Pru."?ia,  by  the  treaty  which  he  concluded  with  Poland  at  We- 
lau,  acceded  in  like  manner  to  this  league, — the  object  of  which 
was  to  .secure  the  preservation  of  Poland,  and  maintain  the  equi- 
librium of  the  North. 

Attacked  by  so  many  and  such  powerful  enemies,  the  King 
of  Sweden  determined  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  Poland,  and 
direct  his  principal  force  against  Denmark.  Having  made  him- 
self master  of  Holstcin,  Sleswick,  and  Jutland,  he  passed  the 
Belts  on  the  ice  (January  1658)  with  his  army  and  artillery,  and 
advanced  towards  the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  This  bold  step 
intimidated  the  Danes  so  much,  that  they  submitted  to  those  ex- 
ceedingly severe  conditions  which  Charles  made  them  sign  at 
Hoschild  (Februarv  1658.)     Scarcely  was  this  treaty  concluded. 


1!;^ 


1 


cHArriR  viii. 

when  lI»o  KiiiR  of  Sweden  broke  it  anew ;  and  under  .d'flcienj 
pr.-i.Kts,  Ini.l  sie^'c  to  Cpoiiha-^oii.     His  intention  wus,  if  he  had 
ciirri.Ml  ihiil  pliu-e,  to  riiz.'  it  t..  the  ^r<.u^d,  to  luinihihite  the 
kinif.lo.n  of  Denmnrk.  mid  fix  his  residence  in  the  province  of 
Sciioii.'ii,  wli.-re  he  could  inninliiiii  his  .loininion  over  the  North 
and  th.'  Baltic.     Tiie  hesie-ed  Dunes,  however,  made  a  vigor- 
oils  ,h.f.M..e.nnd  they  were  .•iicourufred  by  the  example  of  Fred- 
eric  III.,  wlio  superintended  in  person  the  whole  operations  o 
the  sie-r..;  nevertlieleiss,  th.-y  must  certainly  have  yielded,  had 
not  the  Dutch,  who  were  alarmed  for  their  commerce  in  the  Bal- 
tic, sent  a  fleet  to  the  assistance  of  Denmark.     These  republi- 
cans  f()u.Tht  mi  obslinute  nav.il  battle  with  the  Swedes  in  the 
Sound  (29th  October  1«.SS.)     The  Swedish  fleet  was  repulsed, 
and  tl.e  Dutch  succeeded  in  relieving  Copenhagen,  by  throwing 
in  a  supply  of  provisionn  mid  ammunition.  .    ,.     , 

The  Kin.'  of  Sweden  peisisted,  nevertheless,  in  his  deternii- 
nation  to  reduce  that  capital.     He  was  not  even  intimidated  by 
the  treaties  which  France,  England,  ari.l  Holland,  had  conclu- 
ded at  the  Hague,  for  maintaining  the  e.piilibrium  of  the  Worth  ; 
but  a  premature  <lealh,  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight   put  an  end  to 
his  ambiti..us  projects  CJSd  February  16H0.)      Hie  regents  who 
governed  the  kingdom  during  the  minority  o   his  son  Charles 
XI.,  immediately  set  on   foot  negotiations  with  all  the  pow-ers 
that  were  in  league  against  Swe.len.     By  the  F"^-«  which  they 
concluded  at  Copenhagen  with  Denmark  (July  3,  1660,)  they 
surrendered  to  that  crown  several  of  their  late  conquests  ;  re- 
serving  to  themselves  only  the  provinces  of  Schonen,  Bleckin- 
gen,  Halland,  and  Bohus.     The  Duke  of  Holstem-Gottorp,  the 
protege  of  Charles  X.,  was  secured  by  that  treaty  m  the  sove- 
reignly  of  that  part  of  Sleswick,  which  had  been  guaranteed  to 
him  by  a  former  treaty  concluded  at  Copenhagen.     1  he  war 
with  Poland,  and  her  allies  the  Elector  of  Brondenburg  and  the 
Emperor,  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Oliva  (May  M  IbOU.) 
The  King  of  Poland  gave  up  his  pretensions  to  the  crown  ot 
Sweden  ;  while  the  farmer  ceded  to  the  latter  the  provinces  ^ 
Livonia  and  Esthonia,  and  the  islands  belonging  to  them  ;  to  be 
possessed  on  the  same   terms  that  had  been  agreed  on  at  the 
Treaty  of  Stmnsdorf  in  1635.     The  Duke  of  Courknd  was  re-es- 
tablished  in  his  dutchy,  and  the  sovereignty  of  ducal  Prussia 
confirmed  to  the  House  of  Brandenburg.     Peace  between  Swe- 
den and  Russia  was  concluded  at  Kardis  in  Esthonia  ;  while 
the  latter  power  surrendered  to  Sweden  all  the  places  which 
she  had  conquered  in  Livonia.  •     .  .u    n  ,.M. 

Sweden  was  afterwards  drawn  into  the  w{ir  against  the  Uutcli 
by  Louis  XIV.,  when  she  experienced  nothing  but  disasters. 


I 


under  diflcienf 
was,  if  he  had 
atinihiliite  tho 
ho  province  of 
ovrr  the  North 
I,  made  n  vigor- 
ample  of  Fred- 
c  operations  of 
ve  yielded,  had 
erre  in  the  Bal- 
These  rcpubli- 
Swedes  in  the 
t  was  repulsed, 
!n,  by  throwing 

in  his  determi- 
intimidated  by 
md,  had  conclii- 
m  of  the  North  ; 
t,  put  an  end  to 
^hc  regents  who 
his  son  Charles 
I  all  the  powers 
leace  which  they 
{  3,  1660.)  they 
;  conquests  ;  re- 
honen,  Bleckin- 
ein-Gottorp,  the 
ity  in  the  sove- 
n  guaranteed  to 
gen.  The  war 
Jenburg  and  the 
(May  3d  1660.) 
to  the  crown  of 
the  provinces  of 
'  to  them  ;  to  be 
l^reed  on  at  the 
riand  was  re-es- 
f  ducal  Prussia 
3  between  Swe- 
Isthonia  ;  while 
16  places  which 

gainst  the  Dutch 
7  but  disaster?. 


■  I 

•  i 

!! 

t! 


piRioD  vn.    A.  D.  164S— 1713. 


8i» 


She  wnr  deprived  of  all  her  provinces  in  tho  Empire,  and  only 
regaim.'d  possession  of  them  in  virtue  of  tho  treaties  of  Zeli, 
Niin(-guon,  St.  Oermain-on-Laye,  Fountainbleau,  and  Lunden 
(If579,)  which  she  concluded  successively  with  the  powers  in 
league  against  Franco.  Iininediiitely  after  that jKMice,  a  riivolu- 
tioii  happened  in  the  government  of  Sweden.  The  abuse  which 
the  nobles  made  of  their  privileges,  tho  extravagant  authority 
claimed  by  the  senate,  and  the  difTeront  methods  which  the 
grandees  employed  for  gradually  usurping  the  domains  of  the 
crown,  had  excited  the  jealousy  of  tho  other  orders  of  the  state. 
It  is  alleged,  that  John  Baroti  Gillcnsticrn,  had  suggested  to 
Charles  aI.  the  idea  of  taking  advantage  of  this  discontent  to 
augment  the  royul  authority,  and  humble  tho  arrogance  of  the 
senate  and  tho  nobility.  In  compliance  with  his  advice,  the 
Kingasdombled  the  Estates  ofthe  kingdom  at  Stockholm  (1680;) 
and  having  quartered  some  regiments  of  his  own  guards  in  the 
city,  he  took  care  to  remove  sucli  of  the  nobles  as  might  give 
the  greatest  cause  of  apprehension.  An  accusation  was  lodged 
at  tho  Diet  against  those  ministers  who  had  conducted  the  ad- 
ministration during  the  King's  minority.  To  them  were  attri- 
buted the  calamities  and  losses  of  the  state,  and  for  these  they 
were  made  responsible.  The  Senate  was  also  implicated.  They 
were  charged  with  abusing  their  authority  ;  and  it  was  proposed 
that  the  States  should  make  investigation,  whether  the  powers 
which  the  Souato  had  assumed  were  cotiformable  to  the  laws  of 
tho  kingdom.  The  States  declared  that  the  King  was  not  bound 
by  any  other  form  of  government  than  that  which  the  constitu- 
tion prescribed  ;  that  the  Senate  formed  neither  a  fifth  order,  nor 
an  intermediate  power  between  the  King  and  the  States ;  and 
that  it  ought  to  be  held  simply  as  a  Council,  with  whom  the 
King  might  consult  and  advise. 

A  College  of  Reunion,  so  called,  was  also  established  at  this 
Diet,  for  the  purpose  of  making  inquiry  as  to  the  lands  granted, 
sold,  mortgaged,  or  exchanged  by  preceding  Kings,  either  in 
Sweden  or  Livonia ;  with  an  offer  on  the  part  of  the  crown  to 
reimburse  the  proprietors  for  such  sums  as  they  had  originally 
paid  for  them.  This  proceeding  made  a  considerable  augmen- 
tation to  the  revenues  of  the  crown  ;  but  a  vaA  number  of  pro- 
prietors were  completely  ruined  by  it.  A  subsequent  diet  went 
even  further  than  that  of  1680.  They  declared,  by  statute,  that 
though  the  King  was  enjoined  to  govern  his  dominions  accord- 
ing to  the  laws,  this  did  not  take  from  him  the  power  of  altering 
these  laws.  At  length  the  act  of  1693  decreed  that  the  Kinjf 
was  absolute  master,  and  sole  depository  of  the  sovereign  power ; 
without  being  responsible  for  his  actions  to  any  power  on  earth ; 


w 


11 


lit" 


1   .  ) 

t.       ML  i 


!i":i 


i: 


I'WiiaiWiMi:. 


n 


316 


CHAPTER  Vni. 


an<l  that  he  was  entitled  to  govern  the  kingdom  according  to  his 
will  and  pleasure. 

It  wns  in  virtue  of  these  different  enactments  and  concessions, 
that  the  absolute  power  which  had  been  conferred  on  Charles 
XI.,  was  transmitted  to  the  hands  of  his  son  Charles  XII.,  who 
was  only  fifteen  years  of  age  when  he  succeeded  his  father 
(April  1,  1697.)     By  the  abuse  which  this  Prince  made  of  these 
dangerous  prerogatives,  he  plunged  Sweden  into  an  abyss  of 
troubles ;  and  brought  her  down  from  that  high  rank  which  she 
had  occupied  in  the  political  system  of  Europe,  since  the  reign 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus.     The  youth  of  Charles  appeared  to  his 
neighbours  to  afford  them  a  favourable  opport'.nity  for  recover- 
ing Vhat  they  had  lost  by  the  conquests  of  his  predecessors, 
Augustus  II.,  King  of  Poland,  being  desirous  to  regain  Livonia, 
and  listening  to  the  suggestions  of  a  Livonian  gentleman,  named 
John  Patkuf,  who  had  been  proscribed  in  Sweden,  he  set  on  foot 
a  negotiation  with  the  courts  of  Russia  and  Copenhagen  ;  the 
result  of  which  was,  a  secret  and  offensive  alliance  concluded 
between  these  ihrt^  powers  against  Sweeden  (1699.)     Peter  the 
Great,  who  had  just  conquered  A/off"  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don. 
and  equipped  his  first  fleet,  was  desirous  also  to  open  up  the  coasts 
of  the  Baltic,  of  which  his  predecessors  had  been  dispossessed  by 
Sweden.     War  accordingly  broke  out  in  the  course  of  the  year 
1700.     The  King  of  Poland  invaded  Livonia ;  the  Danes  fell 
upon  Sleswick,  where  they  attacked  the  Duke  of  Holslein-Got- 
torj),  the  ally  of  Sweden  ;  while  the  Czar,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  eighty  thousand  men,  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Narva. 

The  King  of  Sweden,  attacked  by  so  many  enemies  at  once, 
directed  his  first  etTorts  against  Denmark,  where  the  danger  ap- 
pear id  most  pressing.  Assisted  by  the  fleets  of  England  and 
Holland,  who  had  guaranteed  the  last  peace,  he  made  a  descent 
on  the  Isle  of  Zealand,  and  advanced  rapidly  towards  Copenha- 
gen This  obliged  Frederic  IV.  to  conclude  a  special  peace 
with  him  at  Travendahl  (Aug.  18,  1700,)  by  which  that  nnnce 
consented  to  abandon  his  allies,  and  restore  the  Duke  of  Holstem- 
Goltorp  to  the  same  state  in  which  he  had  been  before  the  war. 
Next  directing  his  march  against  the  Czar  in  Esthonia,  the  young 
Kin<T  forced  the  jlussians  from  their  entrenchments  before  Narva 
(Nov.  30,)  and  made  prisoners  of  all  the  general  and  P"ncipa 
officers  of  the  Russian  army  ;  among  others,  Field-Marshal 
General  the  Duke  de  Croi.  ,.  .  „         u 

Havincr  thus  got  clear  of  the  Russians,  the  Swedish  Monarch 
♦.hen  attacked  King  Augustus,  who  had  introduced  a  Saxon  ariny 
into  Poland,  without  being  authorized  by  that  Republic,  t-h^'es 
vanquished  that  prince  in  the  three  famous  battles  of  Riga  ( 17U1,/ 


fS^i^^fWSS 


)rding[  to  his 

concessions, 

on  Charles 

s  XII.,  who 

his  father 

lade  of  the.se 

an  abyss  of 

which  she 

ce  the  reign 

)eared  to  his 

for  recover- 

jrcdece.ssors. 

riiin  Livonia, 

liian,  naineil 

he  .set  on  foot 

ihagcn  ;  the 

e  concluded 

.)     Peter  the 

I  of  the  Don, 

up  the  coasts 

?posse.''sed  by 

e  of  the  year 

le  Danes  fell 

Holstein-Got- 

!  head  of  an 

y  of  Narva. 

mies  at  once, 

le  danger  ap- 

Bngland  and 

ide  a  descent 

rds  Copenha- 

special  peace 

h  that  prince 

s  of  Hoistein- 

fore  the  war. 

lia,  the  young 

before  Narva 

md  principal 

'ield-Marsnal 

lish  Monarch 
L  Saxon  army 
blic.  Charles 
Riga(170U 


1 


1 1 

i 

(1 


ii 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


317 


Clissau  (1702,)  and  Pultusk  (1703;)  and  obliged  the  Poles  to 
depose  him,  and  elect  in  his  place  Stanislaus  Lecksinski,  Pa- 
latine of  Posen,  and  a  proteg^  of  his  own.  Two  victories  which 
were  gained  over  the  Saxons,  and  their  allies  the  Russians,  the 
one  at  Punie  (1704,)  and  the  other  at  Fraustadt  (1706,)  caused 
Stanislaus  to  bo  acknowledged  by  the  whole  Republic  of  Po- 
land, and  enabled  the  King  of  Sweden  to  tran;  fer  the  seat  of 
war  to  Saxony.  Having  marched  through  Silcsiu,  without  the 
previou:  authority  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  he  took  Leipzic. 
and  compelled  Augustus  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Alt-Ran 
studt,  by  which  that  Prince  renounced  his  alliance  with  the 
Czar,  and  acknowledged  Stanislaus  legitimate  King  of  Poland. 
John  Patknl  being  delivered  up  to  the  King  of  Sweden,  ac- 
cording to  an  article  in  that  treaty,  was  broken  on  the  wheel, 
for  having  been  the  principal  instigator  of  the  war. 

The  prosperity  of  Charles  XII.,  had  now  come  to  an  end 
From  this  time  he  experienced  only  a  scries  of  reverses,  which 
wore  occasioned  as  much  by  his  passion  for  war,  as  by  his  in- 
discretions, and  the  ur;conquerabIe  obstinacy  of  his  character. 
The  Russians  had  taken  advantage  of  his  long  sojourn  in  Po- 
land and  Saxony,  and  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Ingria  and 
Livonia.  The  Czar  had  now  advanced  into  Poland,  where  he 
had  demanded  ')f  the  Poles  to  declare  an  interregnum,  and  elect 
a  new  King.  In  this  state  of  matters,  the  King  of  Sweden  left 
Saxony  to  march  against  the  Czar  ;  and  compelled  him  to  eva- 
cuate Poland,  and  retire  on  Smolensko.  Far  from  listening, 
however,  to  the  equitable  terms  of  peace  which  Peter  offered 
him,  he  persisted  in  his  resolution  to  march  on  to  Moscow,  in 
the  hone  of  dethroning  the  Czar,  as  he  had  dethroned  Augus- 
tus. Th(-  discontent  which  the  innovations  of  the  Czar  had  ex- 
cited in  Russia,  appeared  to  Charles  a  favourable  opportunity 
for  effecting  his  object ;  but  on  reaching  the  neighbourhood  ot 
Mohilew,  he  suddenly  changed  his  purpose,  and,  instead  of  di- 
recting his  rouie  towards  the  capital  of  Russia,  he  turned  to 
the  right,  and  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  the  Ukraine,  in 
order  to  meet  Mazeppa,  Hetman  of  the  Cossacs,  who  had  offered 
.0  join  him  with  all  his  troops.  Nothing  could  have  been 
more  imprudent  than  this  determination.  By  thus  marching 
into  the  Ukraine,  he  separated  himself  from  General  Lewen- 
haupt,  who  had  brought  him,  according  to  orders,  a  powerful  re 
inforcenient  fromLivonia ;  and  trusted  himself  among  a  fickle  and 
inconstant  people,  disposed  to  break  faith  on  every  opportunity. 

This  inconsiderate  step  of  Charles  did  not  escape  the  pene- 
tration of  the  Czar,  who  knew  well  how  to  pri/fit  by  it.  Putting 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  chosen  body,  he  intercepted  General 


:n  :'    I 


!^ 


I 


<«    I'-li      i 


<r  •■  'i 


t' 


i' 


'iii,ttmi»i*'>Sm'ilSli'i'mSt 


^M> 


4 


318 


CHAPTER  Vin. 


Lewcnhaupt,  nnd  joined  him  at  Desna,  two  miles  from  Pro- 
poisk,  in  the  Palatinate  of  Mscislaw.  The  battle  which  he 
fougl)t  with  that  general  (October  9,  1709,)  was  most  obstinate, 
and,  by  the  confession  of  the  Czar,  the  first  victory  which  the 
Eussians  had  gained  over  regular  troons.  The  remains  of 
Lcwenhaupt's  army,  having  joined  the  King  in  the  Ukraine, 
Charles  undertook  the  siege  of  Pultowa,  situated  on  the  banks 
of  the  Vorskhiw,  at  the  extremity  of  that  province.  It  was 
near  this  place,  that  the  famous  "battle  was  fought  {8lh  July, 
1709,)  which  blasted  all  the  laurels  of  the  King  of  Sweden. 
The  Czar  gained  tii«;e  a  complete  victory.  Nine  thousand 
Swedes  were  left  on  liie  field  of  battle  ;  and  fourteen  thousand, 
who  had  retired  with  General  Lewenhaupt,  towards  Perevo- 
latsi'hna,  between  the  Vorsklaw  and  the  Nieper,  were  made  pri- 
soners of  war,  three  days  after  the  action.  Charles,  accompanied 
bv  his  ally  Mazeppa,  saved  himself  with  difliculty  at  Bender  in 
Turkey. 

This  disastrous  route  revived  the  courage  of  the  enemies  of 
Sweden.  The  alliance  was  renewed  between  the  Czar,  Au- 
gustus II.,  and  FredcricIV.,King  of  Dennmrk.  Stanislaus  was 
abandoned.  All  Poland  again  atknowledeed  Augustus  II. 
The  Danes  made  a  descent  on  Schonen  ;  and  the  Czar  achieved 
the  conque^t  of  Ingria,  Livonia,  and  Carelia.  The  Slates  that 
were  leagued  against  France  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession, wishing  to  prevent  Germany  from  becoming  the  theatre 
of  hostilities,  concluded  a  treaty  at  the  Hague  (31st  March 
1710,)  by  which  they  undertook,  under  certain  conditions,  to 
guarantee  the  neutrality  of  the  Swedish  provinces  in  Germany, 
as  well  as  that  of  Sleswick  and  Jutland  ;  but  the  King  of  Swe- 
den having  constantly  declined  acceding  to  this  neutrality,  the 
possessions  of  the  Swedes  in  Germany  were  also  seized  arid 
conquered  in  succession.  The  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  .he 
nephew  of  Charles  XII.,  was  involved  in  his  disgrace,  and 
stripped  of  his  estates  by  the  king  of  Denmark  (1714.) 

In  the  midst  of  these  disasters,  the  inflexible  King  of  Swe- 
den persisted  in  prolongin"'  his  sojourn  at  Bender,  making  re- 
peated efforts  to  rouse  the  Turks  against  the  Russians.  He  did 
not  return  from  Turkey  till  1714,  when  his  aflfairs  were  already 
totally  ruined.  The  attemfits  which  he  then  made,  either  to 
renew  the  war  in  Poland,  or  invade  the  provinces  of  the  Em- 
pire, excited  the  jealousy  of  the  neighbouring  powers.  A  for- 
midable league  was  raised  against  him ;  besides  the  Czar,  the 
Kings  of  Poland,  Denmark,  Prussia,  and  England,  joined  it. 
Stralsund  and  Wismar,  the  only  places  which  Sweden  still  re- 
tained in  Germany,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies  ;  while  the 


it 


Ju 


es 


es  from  Pro-  1' 
tie  which  he  ' ; 
lost  obstinate,  \ ' 
ry  which  the  j 
remains  of  \'\ 
the  Ukraine,  i : 
on  the  hanks 
mce.  It  was 
;ht  (8th  July, 
?  of  Sweden. 
line  thousand 
cen  thousand, 
I'ards  Perevo* 
rcTC  made  pri- 
,  accompanied 
f  at  Bender  in 

he  enemies  of 

he  Czar,  Au- 
i^tani.slaus  was 
Augustus    II. 

Czar  aciiieved 
he  Slates  that 

Spanish  Sue- 
ing  the  theatre 
!  (31st  March 

conditions,  to 
s  in  Germany, 

King  of  Swe- 
neutrnlity,  the 
!so  seized  arid 
n-Gottorp,  .he 

disgrace,  and 
1714.) 

King  of  Swe- 
r,  making  re- 
iians.  He  did 
!  were  already 
ade,  either  to 
s  of  the  Em- 
wers.  A  fer- 
tile Czar,  the 
ind,  joined  it. 
reden  still  re- 
while  the 


PERIOU  VII.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


.319 


Cw  added  to  these  losses  the  conquest  of  Finland  and  Savolax, 
In  a  situation  so  desperate,  Charles,  'oy  the  advice  of  his  minis- 
ter. Baron  GortE,  set  on  foot  a  special  and  secret  negotiation 
with  the  Czar,  which  took  place  in  the  isle  of  Aland,  in  course 
of  the  year  1718.  There  it  was  proposed  to  reinstate  Stanis- 
laus on  the  throne  of  Poland  ;  to  restore  to  Sweden  her  pos- 
sessions in  the  Empire  ;  and  even  to  assist  her  in  conquering 
Norway  ;  by  way  of  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Ingria,  Ca- 
relia,  Livonia,  and  Esthonia,  which  she  was  to  cede  to  the  Czar. 

That  negotiation  was  on  the  point  of  being  finally  closed, 
when  it  was  broken  off  by  the  unexpected  death  of  Charles 
XII.  That  unfortunate  prince  was  slain  (December  11th,  1718,) 
at  the  siege  of  Fredericshall  in  Norway,  while  visiting  the 
trenches  ;  being  only  thirty-seven  year-!  of  ago,  and  leaving  the 
affairs  of  his  kingdom  in  a  most  deplorable  state. 

The  new  regency  of  Sweden,  instead  of  remaining  in  friend- 
ship with  the  Czar,  changed  their  policy  entirely.  Baron  de 
Gortz,  the  friend  of  the  late  King,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  public 
displeasure,  and  a  negotiation  was  opened  with  the  Court  of 
G.Britain.  A  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  was  concluded  at 
Stockholm  (Nov.  20,  1719,)  between  Great  Britain  and  Swe- 
den. George  I.,  on  obtaining  the  cession  of  the  dutchies  of 
Bremen  and  Verden,  as  Elector  of  Hanover,  engaged  to  send  a 
strong  squadron  to  the  Baltic,  to  prevent  any  further  invasion 
from  the  Czar,  and  procure  for  Sweden  more  equitable  terms  of 
peace  on  the  part  of  that  Prince.  The  example  of  Great  Bri- 
tain was  soon  followed  by  the  other  allied  powers,  who  were 
anxious  to  accommodate  matters  with  Sweden.  By  the  treaty 
concluded  at  Stockholm  (21st  January,  1720,)  the  King  of 
Prussia  got  the  town  of  Stettin,  and  that  part  of  Pomerania, 
v;hich  lies  between  the  Oder  and  the  Peenc.  The  King  of 
Denmark  consented  to  restore  to  Sweden  the  towns  of  Stral- 
sund  and  Wismar,  with  the  isle  of  Rugen,  and  the  part  of  Po- 
merania, which  extends  from  the  sea  to  the  river  Peene.  Swe- 
den, on  ner  side,  renounced  in  favour  of  Denmark,  her  exemp- 
tion from  the  duties  of  the  Sound  and  the  two  Belts,  which  had 
been  guaranteed  to  her  by  former  treaties.  The  Czar  was  the 
only  person  who,  far  from  being  intimidated  by  the  menaces  of 
England,  persisted  in  his  resolution  of  not  making  peace  with 
Sweden,  except  on  the  conditions  which  he  had  dictated  to  her. 
The  war  was,  therefore,  continued  between  Kussia  and  Sweden, 
during  the  two  campaigns  of  1720  and  1721.  Different  parts 
of  the  Swedish  coast  were  laid  desolate  by  the  Czar,  who  put 
all  to  fire  and  sword,  To  stop  the  progress  of  these  devasta 
lions,  the  Swedes  at  length  consented  to  accept  the  peace  which 


%       JM 


M 


t 
i 


ij-  ■ ; 

i' 


V        <> 


r?ii»«- 


1\r 


i 


320 


CHAPTER   VIU* 


tho  Czar  offered  them,  which  was  finally  signed  at  Nystadt    I 
<13iii  Scpteinbor  1721.)     Finland  was  surrendered  to  bweJen 
on  condition  of  her  formally  ceding  to  the  C/ar  the  provinces  of 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  and  Carelia;  their  limits  to  be  deter- 
mined according  to  the  regulations  of  the  treaty. 

The  ascendency  which  Sweden  had  gained  in  the  ISorth  since 
the  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  had  become  so  fatal  to  Den- 
mark, that  she  was  on  the  point  of  being  utterly  subverted,  and 
ediiced  from  the  number  of  European  powers.     JNor  did  she 
extricate  hersiclf  from  the  disas^trous  wars  which  she  had  to  sup- 
port against  Charles  X.,  until  she  had  sacrificed  some  of  her 
best  provinces  ;  such  as  Schoncn,  Bieckingen,  Halland,  and  the 
government  of  Bohus,  which  Frederic  III.  ceded  to  Sweden  by 
the  treaties  of  Roschild  and  Copenhagen.     It  was  at  tiie  close  of 
thi«  war  thata  revolution  happened  in  the  governmcntof  Denmark. 
U..tU  that  time,  it  had  been  completely  under  the  aristocracy  of  the 
nobles ;  the  throne  was  elective  ;  and  all  power  was  concentrated 
in  the  hands  of  the  senate,  and   the  principal  rnembers  of  the 
nobility.     The  royal  prerogative  was  limited  to  the  command  ot 
the  army,  and  the  presidency  in  the'  Senate.     The  King  was 
even  obliged,  by  a  special  capitulation,  in  all  affairs  which  did 
not  require  the 'concurrence  of  the  Senate,  to  take  the  advice  of 
four  o-reat  officers  of  the  crown,  viz.  the  Orand  Master,  the 
Chancellor,  the  Marshal,  and  the  Admiral ;  who  were  considered 
as  so  many  channels  or  vehicles  of  the  royai  authority. 

The  state  of  exhaustion  to  wiiich  Denmark  was  reduced  at 
the  time  she  made  peace  with  Sweden,  obliged  Frederic  111.  to 
convoke  an  assembly  of  the  States-General  of  the  kingdom. 
These  which  were  composed  of  three  orders,  viz.  tlie  nobility, 
the  clergy,  and  the  burgesses,  had  never  been  summoned  to- 
gether in  that  form  since  the  year  153G.     At  their  meeting  at 
Copenhagen,  the  two  inferior  orders  reproached  the  nobles  with 
having  been  the  cause  of  all  the  miseries  and  disorders  of  the 
'    State,  by  the  exorbitant  and  tyrannical  power  which  they  had 
I    usurped ;  and  what  tended  still  more  to  increase  their  animosity 
against  them,  was  the  obstinacy  with  which  they  maintained 
1    their  privileges  and  exemptions  from  the  pubhc  burdens,  to  the 
prejudice  of  the  lower  orders.     One  subject  of  discussion  was, 
to  find  a  tax,  the  proceeds  of  which  should  be  applied  to  the  most 
'    pressing  wants  of  the  State.     The  nobles  proposed  a  duty  on 
articles  of  consumption;  but  under  restrictions  with  regard  to 
I      themselves,  that  could  not  but  exasperate  the  lower  orders.     1  he 
\ ;    latter  proposed,  in  testimony  of  their  discontent,  to  .3t  out  to  the 
I '    hiffhest  bidder  the  fiefs  of  the  crown,  which  the  nobles  held  at 
i      rents  extremely  moderate.     This  proposal  was  highly  resented 


tmmm 


1 


d  at  Nystadt 
red  to  Sweden 
le  provinces  of 
its  to  be  deter- 

le  North  since 
fatal  to  Den- 
subvcrted,  and 
Nor  did  she 
die  had  to  sup- 
i  some  of  her 
alland,  and  the 
to  Sweden  by 
i  at  tile  close  of 
int  of  Denmark, 
ristocracy  of  the 
as  concentrated 
nembers  of  the 
Lhe  command  of 
The  King  was 
[fairs  which  did 
ic  the  advice  of 
nd  Maf^ter,  the 
were  considered 
ithority. 
was  reduced  at 
Frederic  III.  to 
f  the  kingdom, 
iz.  the  nobility, 
1  summoned  to- 
heir  meeting  at 
the  nobles  with 
disorders  of  the 
which  they  had 
:  their  animosity 
they  maintained 
:  burdens,  to  the 
discussion  was, 
plied  to  the  most 
posed  a  duty  on 
1  with  regard  to 
irer  orders.    The 
to  !3t  out  to  the 
e  nobles  held  at 
highly  resented 


I 
n 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D,  1648 — 1713. 


321 


by  the  nobility,  who  regarded  it  as  a  blow  aimed  at  tneir  rights 
and  properties  ;  and  they  persisted  in  urging  a  tax  on  articles  of 
consumption,  such  as  they  had  proposed.  Certain  unguarded 
expressions  which  escaped  some  of  the  members  of  the  nobility, 
gave  rise  to  a  tumult  of  indignation,  and  suggested  to  the  two 
leaders  of  the  clergy  and  the  burgesses,  viz.  the  bishop  of  Zea- 
land and  the  burgomaster  of  Copenhagen,  the  idea  of  framing 
a  declaration  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  crown  hereditary, 
both  in  the  male  and  female  descendants  of  Frederic  III.  It 
\vas  not  difficult  for  them  to  recommend  this  project  to  their 
respective  orders,  who  flattered  themselves  that,  under  a  heredi- 
tary monarchy,  they  would  enjoy  that  equality  which  was  denied 
them  under  an  aristocracy  of  the  nobles.  The  act  of  this  de- 
claration having  been  approved  and  signed  by  the  two  orders, 
was  presented  in  their  name  to  the  Senate,  who  rejected  it,  on 
the  ground  that  the  States-General  then  assembled,  had  no  right 
to  deliberate  on  that  proposition  ;  but  the  clergy  and  the  burges- 
ses, without  being  disconcerted,  went  in  a  body  to  the  King, 
carrying  with  them  the  Act  which  ofTered  to  make  the  crown 
hereditary  in  his  family.  The  nobles  having  made  a  pretence 
of  wisshing  to  quit  the  city  in  order  to  break  up  the  Diet,  care  was 
taken  to  shut  the  doors.  The  members  of  the  Senate  and  the 
nobility  had  then  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  agree  to  the 
resolution  of  the  two  inferior  orders ;  and  the  offer  of  the  crown 
was  made  to  the  King  by  the  three  orders  conjunctly  ( 13th  Oct  iber 
1660.)  They  then  tendered  him  the  capitulation,  which  was 
annulled ;  and  at  the  same  time  they  liberated  him  from  the  oath 
which  he  had  taken  on  the  day  of  his  coronation.  A  sort  of 
dictatorship  was  then  conferred  on  him,  to  regulate  the  new  con- 
stitutional charter,  according  to  his  good  pleasure.  All  the  orders 
of  the  State  then  took  a  new  oath  of  fealty  and  homage  to  him, 
while  the  King  himself  was  subjected  to  no  oath  whaterer. 
Finally,  the  three  orders  separately  remitted  an  Act  to  the  Kin?, 
declaring  the  crown  hereditary  in  all  the  descendants  of  Frederic 
III.,  both  male  and  female ;  conferring  on  htm  and  his  succes- 
sors an  unlimited  power;  and  granting  him  the  privilege  of 
regulating  the  order  both  of  the  regency  and  the  succession  to 
the  throne. 

Thus  terminated  that  important  revolution,  without  any  dis- 
order, and  without  shcddmg  a  single  drop  of  blood.  It  was  in 
virtue  of  those  powers  which  the  States  nad  conferred  on  him, 
that  the  King  published  what  is  called  the  Royal  Law,  regarded 
as  the  only  fundamental  law  of  Denmark.  The  King  was  there 
declared  absolute  sovereign,  above  all  human  laws,  acknowledg- 
ing no  superior  but  God,  and  uniting  in  his  own  person  all  tb<p 


l*k 


\ 


1  '« 


M 


|5    i'ii 

I 


*ti  I' -4;  < 

I   ^ 


i . 


'  i*"'**^'; 


CHAPTER  vni. 

rights  and  prerogatives  of  royalty,  without  any  exception  whatever      , 
He  .-ould  exercise  these  prerogatives  in  virtue  of  his  own  author      | 
,IV ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  respect  the  Royal  Law  ;  and  he  couW 
neilher  touch  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  which  had  been 
adopted  as  the  national  religion,  nor  authorize  any  partition  ot     , 
the  kingdom,  which  was  declared  indivisible ;  nor  change    he     , 
order  of  succession  as  established  by  the  Royal  Law.     That  sue-     . 
cession  was  lineal,  according  to  the  right  of  primogeniture  and     I 
descent.    Females  were  only  admitted,  failing  all  the  male  issue     , 
,f  Frederic  III. ;  and  the  order  in  which  they  were  to  succeed,    j 
was  defined  with  the  most  scrupulous  exactness.      Ihe  term  ot     , 
majority  was  fixed  at  the  age  of  thirteen  ;  and  >t.;vas  >«  the 
power  of  the  reigning  monarch  to  regulate,  by  his  will,  the  tutor-    1 
age  and  the  regency  during  such  minority. 

This  constitutional  law  gave  the  Danish  government  a  vigour 
which  it  never  had  before  ;  the  effects  of  which  were  manifested 
in   the   war   which  Christian   V.    undertook  against  Sweden 
(1675,)  in  consequence  of  his  alliance  with  Frederic  William, 
Elector  of  Brandenburg.     The  Danes  had  the  advantage  of  the 
Swedes  both  by  sea  and  land.     Their  fleet,  under  the  command 
of  Niels  Juel,  gained  two  naval  victories  over  the_m,  the  one 
rear  the  Isle  of  Oeland,  and  the  other  in  the  bay  of  Kioge,  on 
the  coast  of  Zealand  (1677.)     That  war  was  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Lunden  (Oct.  6th  1679,)  which  restored  matters  be- 
tween the  two  nations,  to  the  same  footing  on  which  they  had 
been  before  the  war.      The  severe  check  which   Sweden  re- 
ceived  bv  the  defeat  of  Charles  XII.,  before  Pultowa,  tended  to 
extricate  Denmark  from  the  painful  situation  in  which  she  had 
been  placed  with  respect  to  that  power.     The  freedom  of  the 
Sound,  which  Sweden  had  maintained  during  her  prosperity, 
was  taken  from  her  by  the  treaty  of  Stockholm,  and  by  the  ex- 
planatory  articles  of  Fredericsburg,  concluded  between  Sweden 
Snd  Denmark,  (14th  June  1720.)     That  kingdom  likewise  re- 
tained,  in  terms  of  the  treaty,  the  possession  of  the  whole  dutchy 
of  Sleswirk,  with  a  claim  to  the  part  belonging  to  the  duke  of 
Holstein-Gottorp,  whom  S-weden  was  obliged  to  remove  from 
under  her  protection.  .  j  „„ 

Poland,  at  the  commencement  of  this  period,  presented  an 
afflictine  spectacle,  under  the  u:..'3rtunate  reign  of  John  tasimir, 
i    S  brother  and  successor  of  Uladislaus  VII.  (1648.)  Distracted 
I     at  once  by  foreign  wars  and  intestine  factions,  she  seemed  every 
i    moment  on  th.^  brink  of  destruction  ;  and  w^iilc  the  neighbour- 
insr  states  were  augmenting  their  forces,  and  strengthening  the 
hands  of  their  governments,  Poland  grew  gradually  weaker  and 
■     weaker,  and  at  length  degenerated  into  absolute  anarchy.     1  bf 


ion  whatever 
s  own  author 

and  he  could 
ich  had  been 
y  partition  of 
jr  chonge  the 
That  suc- 
ngnniture  and 
the  male  issue 
;re  to  succeed, 

The  terra  of 
it  was  in  the 
will,  the  tutor- 

iment  a  vigour 
ere  manifested 
gainst  Sweden 
Icric  William, 
Ivantage  of  the 
r  the  command 
them,  the  one 
of  Kioge,  on 
(minated  by  the 
ed  matters  be- 
ivhich  they  had 
:h  Sweden  re- 
towa,  tended  to 
which  she  had 
freedom  of  the 
her  prosperity, 
and  by  the  ex- 
'tween  Sweden 
)m  likewise  re- 
le  whole  dutchy 
;  to  the  duke  ol 
.0  remove  from 

],  presented  an 
if  John  Casimir, 
148.)  Distracted 
le  seemed  every 
•  ilie  neighbour- 
rcngthening  the 
ally  weaker  and 
!  anarchv.    The 


I 


PRRIOD  VII.      A.  D.   1648 — 1713. 


323 


orig^in  of  the  Libenim  Veto  of  the  Poles,  which  allowed  the  op- 
position of  a  single  member  to  frustrate  the  deliberations  of  the 
whole  Diet,  belongs  to  the  reign  of  John  Casimir.  The  first 
that  suspended  the  Diet,  by  the  interposition  of  his  veto,  wa& 
Schinski,  member  for  Upita  in  Lithuania ;  his  example,  though 
at  first  disapproved,  found  imitators ;  and  this  foolish  practice, 
which  allowed  one  to  usurp  the  prerogative  of  a  majority,  soon 
passed  into  a  law,  and  a  maxim  of  state. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Uladislaus  VII.  a  murderous 
war  had  arisen  in  Poland,  that  of  the  Cossacs.  This  warlike 
people,  of  Russian  origin,  as  their  language  and  their  religion 
prove,  inhabited  both  banks  of  the  Borysthenes,  beyond  Kiow  ; 
where  they  were  subdivided  into  regiments,  under  the  command 
of  a  general,  called  Hetman;  and  served  as  a  military  frontier 
for  Poland  against  the  Tartars  and  Turks.  Some  infringements 
that  had  been  made  on  their  privileges,  added  to  the  eflTorts  which 
the  Poles  had  made  to  induce  their  clergy  to  separate  from  the 
Greek  Church,  and  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  ex- 
asperated the  Cossacs,  and  engendered  among  them  a  spirit  of 
revolt  (1647.)  Assisted  by  the  Turks  of  the  Crimea,  they  in- 
vaded Poland,  and  committed  terrible  devastations.  The  Poles 
succeeded  from  time  to  time  in  pacifying  them,  and  even  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  them  ;  but  the  minds  of  both  parties  being 
exasperated,  hostilities  always  recommenced  with  every  new 
offence.  At  length,  their  Hetman,  Chmielniski,  being  hardly 
pressed  by  the  Poles,  took  the  resolution  of  soliciting  the  protec- 
tion of  liussia,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Czar  Alexis 
Michaelovitz  (Jan.  16,  1654,)  in  virtue  of  which,  Kiow  and  the 
other  towns  of  the  Ukraine,  under  the  power  of  the  Cossacs, 
were  planted  with  Russian  garrisons.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  Czar  retook  the  city  of  Smolensk©  from  the  Poles,  as 
well  as  most  of  the  districts  that  had  been  ceded  to  Poland,  by 
the  treaties  of  Dwilina  and  Viasma.  That  prince  made  also 
several  other  conquests  from  the  Poles ;  he  took  possession  of 
Wilna,  and  several  places  in  Lithuania,  at  the  very  time  when 
Charles  X.  was  invading  Poland,  and  threatening  that  country 
with  entire  destruction.  The  Czar,  however,  instead  of  fol  ow- 
ing up  his  conquests,  judged  it  more  for  his  interest  to  conclude 
a  truce  with  the  Poles  ^1636,)  that  fie  might  turn  his  arms 
against  Sweden. 

The  peace  of  Oliva  put  an  end  to  the  war  between  Poland  and 
Sweden ;  but  hostilities  were  renewed  between  the  Russians 
and  the  Poles,  which  did  not  terminate  till  the  treaty  of  Andnis- 
.sov  (Jan.  1667.)  The  Czar  restored  to  the  Poles  a  part  of  his 
conquests  ;  but  he  retained  Smolensko,  Novogorod-Sieverskoe. 


.';* 


ill 


.i 
'1 


1* 


:'!"'" '<»%'" 


I 


lifj-i-"^ 


^ 


r 


824 


ciiArniR  viu. 


TcherniRov.  Kiow,  and  all  il.e  cmintry  of  the  Cossacs,  beyond 
the  Boryslhcnc8  or  Dnieper.      The  Cossacs  on  this  side  the 
rivr  were  annexed  lo  Poland,  and  as  for  those  who  dwelt  n^ar 
the" mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  called  lavorogs^  U  was  agreeu  that 
thev  should  remain  under  the  common  juri^dicliori  ol  the  two 
states ;  ready  to  serve  against  the  Turks  whenever  circumstances 
mighi  require  it.     The  wars  of  which  we  have  just  spoke.^  were 
attended  with  troubles  and  dissensions,  which  reduced  Poland 
to  the  most  deplorable  condition  during  the  reign  of  John  Lasi- 
mir.     Thra  prince  at  length,  disgusted  with  a  crown  which  he 
had  found  to  be  composed  of  thorns,  resolved  to  abdicate  the 
throne  (16th  Sept.  1668 ;)  and  retiring  to  France,  he  there  ended 

'  MiTael  Wiesnouiski,  who  succeeded  John  Casimir.  after  a 
stormy  interregnum  of  seven  months,  had  no  ot^her  "'erit  l^ian 
that  of  being  descended  in  a  direct  line  from  Conbut,  the  brother 
of  JagellonT  King  of  Poland.     His  reign  was  a  scene  of  great 
agitatbn,  and  of  unbridled  anarchy.  Four  diets  were  interrupted 
in  less  than  four  years  ;  the  war  with  the  Cossacs  was  renewed ; 
the  Turks  and  the  Tartars,  the  allies  of  the  C.ossacs,  seized   he 
city  of  Kaminiec  (1672.)  the  only  bulwark  of  Poland  against  the 
Ottomans.     Michael,  being  thrown  into  a  state  of  alarm,  con- 
cluded a  disgraceful  peace  with  the  Turks;  he  gave  up  to  them 
Kaminiec  and  Podofia,  with  their  ancient  limits ;    and  even 
agreed  to  pay  them  an  annual  tribute  of  twenty-two  thousand 
ducats.     The  Ukraine,  on  this  side  the  Borysthenes,  was  aban- 
doned to  the  Cossacs,  who  were  to  be  placed  under  the  protection 
of  the  Turks.     This  treaty  was  not  ratified  by  ihe^  KetHiblic  ot 
Poland,  who  preferred  to  continue  the  war.     John  bobieski, 
Grand  General  of  the  Crown,  gained  a  briliant  victory  over  the 
Turks  near  Choczim  (Nov.  11th,  1673.)     It  took  place  the  next 
day  after  the  death  of  Michael,  and  determined  the  Poles  to  con- 
fer their  crown  on  the  victorious  General.       ,  .    ,  „ 

Sobieski  did  ample  justice  to  the  choice  of  his  fellow-citizens. 

Bv  the  peace  which  he  concluded  at  Zarowno  with  the   lurks 

(S«th  Oct.  1676,)  he  relieved  Poland  from  the  tribute  lately  pro 

mised,  and  recovered  some  parts  of  the  Ukraine  ;  but  the  city  3« 

I     Kaminiec  was  left  in  the  power  of  the  Ottomans,  with  a  consid- 

\     erable  portion  of  the  Ukraine  and  Podolia.  Poland  then  entered 

.     into  an  alliance  with  the  House  of  Austria,  against  the  Forte 

'     Sobieski  became  the  deliverer  of  Vienna  ;  he  signalized  himsell 

in  the  campaigns  of  1683  and  1684  ;  and  if  he  did  not  gain  any 

I     important  advantages  over  the  Turks    if  he  had  nof  even  the 

'     satisfaction  of  recovering  Kaminiec  and  Podolia.  it  must  be  as- 

cribed  to  the  incompetence  of  his  means,  and  .to  the  disunion  and 


■sacs,  beyond 
this  side  thp 
ho  dwelt  n^ar 
IS  agreed  that 
in  of  the  two 
circumstances 
I  spoken,  were 
duced  Poland 
of  John  Casi- 
jwn  which  he 
)  abdicate  the 
he  there  ended 

asimir,  after  a 
her  merit  than 
but,  the  brother 
scene  of  great    ! 
ere  interrupted    | 
1  was  renewed ;    | 
sacs,  seized  the    i 
and  against  the    • 
of  alarm,  con-    i 
rave  up  to  ihera 
its ;    and  even 
y-two  thousand 
Enes,  was  aban- 
■r  the  protection 
the  Republic  of 
John  Sobieski, 
victory  over  the 
k  place  the  next 
he  Poles  to  con- 

3  fellow-citizens, 
with  the  Turks 
ibute  lately  pro 
J ;  but  the  city  3« 
s,  with  a  consid- 
and  then  entered 
ainst  the  Porte 
gnalized  himself 
did  not  gain  any 
bad  not' even  the 
ia,  it  must  be  as- 
the  disunion  and 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  p.  1648 — 1713. 


325 


indifTercnce  of  the  Poles,  who  refused  to  make  a  single  saeriticc 
in  the  lauso.  Sohiexki  was  even  forced  to  have  recourse  to  the 
|in)U'cii()ii  of  the  Russians  against  the  Turks;  and  saw  himself 
leduccd  to  the  painful  necessity  of  setting  his  hand  to  the  defi- 
nitive peace  which  was  concluded  with  Russia  at  Moscow  (May 
liili,  1()SG,)  by  which  Poland,  in  order  to  obtain  the  alliance  of 
that  power  against  the  Ottomans,  consented  to  give  up  Smolen- 
^ko,  Belaia,  Dorogobiiz,  Tchernigov,  Slarodub,  and  Novogorod- 
Sicverskoe,  with  their  dej)endencies ;  as  also  the  whole  territory 
known  by  the  name  of  Little  Russia,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Borysthcnes,  between  that  river  and  the  frontier  of  Putivli, 
as  far  as  Perevoloczna.  The  city  of  Kiow,  with  its  territory  as 
determined  by  the  treaty,  was  also  included  in  that  cession. 
Finally,  the  Cjssaes,  called  Zaporogs  and  Kndak,  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  treaty  of  Andrussov,  ought  to  have  been  dependencies 
of  these  two  states,  were  reserved  exclusively  to  Russia.  Sobie- 
ski  shed  tears  when  he  was  obliged  to  sign  that  treaty  at  Leopold 
^or  Lemborg,)  in  presence  of  the  Russian  ambassadors. 

The  war  with  the  Turks  did  not  terminate  until  the  reign  of 
Augustus  IL  the  successor  of  John  Sobieski.  The  peace  of 
Carlowitz,  which  that  prince  concluded  with  the  Porte  (1699,) 
procured  for  Poland  the  restitution  of  Kaminiec,  as  well  as  that 
part  of  the  Ukraine,  which  the  peace  of  Zarowno  had  ceded  to 
ihe  Turks. 

Russia  became  every  day  more  prosperous  under  the  princes 
of  the  House  of  Romanow.  She  gained  a  decided  superiority 
over  Poland,  who  had  formerly  dictated  the  law  to  her.  Alexis 
Michaelovitz  not  only  recovered  from  the  Poles  what  they  had 
conquered  from  Russia  during  the  disturbances  occasioned  by 
the  two  pretenders  of  the  name  of  Demetrius ;  we  have  already 
observed,  that  he  dispossessed  them  ot  Kiow,  and  all  that  part 
of  the  Ukraine,  or  Little  Russia,  which  lies  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Borysthenes. 

Theodore  Alexievitz,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alexis  Mi- 
chaelovitz, rendered  his  reign  illustrious  by  the  wisdom  of  his 
administration.  Guided  by  the  advice  of  his  enlightened  mi- 
nister. Prince  Galitzin,  he  conceived  the  bold  project  of  abolish- 
ing the  hereditary  orders  of  the  nobility,  and  the  prerogatives 
that  were  attached  to  them.  These  orders  were  destructive  of 
all  subordination  in  civil  as  well  as  in  military  affairs,  and  gave 
rise  to  a  multitude  of  disputes  and  litigations,  of  which  a  court, 
named  Rozrad,  took  cognizance.  The  Czar,  in  a  grand  assem- 
bly which  he  convoked  at  Moscow  (1682,)  abolished  the  here- 
ditary rank  of  the  nobles.  He  burnt  the  deeds  and  registers 
by  which  they  were  attested,  and  obliged  every  noble  family  to 


i 


^  !  -  \ 


I         ! 
1     t'i 


i 


;  '■'.! 


-  i 
li 

/(:   1 


11% 


CHAPTER  Vlll. 

produce  the  extrncls  of  these  registern.  which  thcv  had  in  their 
SossPssion.  that  they  might  be  comnuttea  to  the  flames.  That 
Ele   uiv  ng  no  children,  of  his  own,  had  destmed  h,«  younger 

iVer  Pc tef  Alexievitz  to  be  his  successor,  to  the  exclusion  of     , 
John,  hireWer  brcther,  on  account  of  his  .ncapacty.     But,  on     , 
tl^  death  of  Theodore,  both  princes  were  procla.med  at  once  by 
t  military,  and  the  government  was  '""-ted  to  thc^  P^^^^^^^^^^     ; 
Soohia,  their  elder  sister,  who  assumed  the  title  oi  Autocratix     , 
anfsovere  gn  of  all  the  Russias.     Peter,  who  was  the  son  of 
he  secoS^narriage  of  the  C.ar,  was  «;^;.»;^";  ^-«/;;  ^J^^^ 
years  of  age.     It  was  during  the  admm.stration  of  the  Pnr^ss 
Sia  that  the  peace  of  Moscow  was  concluded  (May  6  1686 ,) 
Tne'clause  of  wfich  contained  an  alliance  ofTensive  and  defen- 
sive  between  Russia  and  Poland  agamst  the  I'ortt. 

Peter  had  no  sooner  attained  the  age  of  siwenteen  than  he 
seized  the  rei"s  of  government,  and  dep.»«ed  h.s  s.ster  Soph.a, 
Sm  ie  seS  to  a  c'onvent.     Endowed  -1^^^. -^-^j-^JS 
genius,  this  Prince  became  the  reformer  ol  hm  En.p.re.  wh.  h^ 
under  his  reign,  assumed  an  aspect  totally  new.     By  the  advice 
of  Le  For  ,  a^mtive  of  Geneva,  who  U  entered  the  Russian 
service  and  whom  he  had  received  into  his  fr.endslnp  and  con- 
fidence   he  turned  his  attention  to  every  branch  of  the  publ.c 
adminl  tration.      The  military  system  was  changed,  and  mo- 
3eUed  af  e    that  of  the  civiliml  nations  of  Europe.     He  found- 
ed  the      aritime  power  of  Russia,  i.nprovcd  her  finances,  en- 
cou  aged  commerce  and  manufactures,  introduced  letters  and 
anstnto  his  dominions,  and  applied  himself  to  reform  the  laws. 
in  nolish  and  refine  the  manners  of  '^^c  people. 

leter  Sg  in  alliance  with  Polaud    engaged  m  the  wa 
aea^^st  the  Porte,  and  laid  open  the  Black  Sea  by  h.s  conques 
Tthe  citv  and  port  of  Azoflf;  and  it  was  on  this  occasior.  thn^ 
he  equ  pped  Krst  fleet  at  Woronitz.     Azoff  remamed  m  h» 
nosses"  ion  bv  an  article  of  the  peace  which  was  concluded  with 

time  Peter  abolished  the  patriarchal  dignity,  which  ranked  the 

S  of  the  Russian  Church  next  to  the  Czar,  and  gave  h.m  a 

•    Sangerous  influence  in  the  affairs  of  government      He  trans 

f»rr«^  thP  nuihoritv  of  the  patriarch  to  a  college  of  hlteen  per 

'""S;  dLtuf  ffting  .nd  ex.mini„f  in  pern.  0..  m. 


had  in  their 
anies.  That 
his  younger 
excliinion  of 
ty.  But,  on 
ed  nt  once  by 
the  Princess 
f  Autocrutix 
as  the  son  of 
.\me  only  ten 
if  the  Princess 
Vliiy  6,  1686 ;) 
ve  und  defen- 
te. 

iteen  than  he 

sister  Sopiiia, 

extraordinary 

mpire,  which, 

By  the  advice 

d  the  Russian 

dship  and  con- 

I  of  the  public 

nged,  and  mo- 

jie.     He  found- 

:r  finances,  en- 

ced  letters  and 

aform  the  lav/8, 

red  in  the  war 
by  his  conquest 
s  occasion  that 
remained  in  his 
concluded  with 
About  the  same 
lich  ranked  the 
nd  gave  him  a 
Bnt.  He  trans- 
;  of  fifteen  per- 
y  it  was  to  take 
tl,  of  all  matters 
matriarch.  The 
ihe  oath  at  the 
him  on  the  pre- 

person  the  man- 


PBRIOD  VII.     A.  D   164S— 1713. 


327 


ncrs  and  customs  of  other  nations,  he  undertook  two  difTcrunt 
vryages  into  foreign  (countries,  divested  of  that  pomp  which  ia 
tht-  usual  aoconipariiinent  of  princes.  During  these  travels,  he 
culliviilcil  the  arts  iiiid  sciences,  especially  thoMf  connected  with 
cuMinuTce  and  navigation  ;  he  engaged  men  nl  talents  in  his 
siri vices,  such  as  naval  officers,  engineers,  surgeons,  artists,  and 
mechanics  of  all  kinds,  whom  he  disjwrsed  over  his  vast  do- 
miniuns,  to  instruct  and  improve  the  Russians.  During  his  first 
voyage  to  Holland  and  England,  the  Strelitzes,  the  only  per- 
manent troops  known  in  Russia  before  his  time,  revolted  ;  tney 
were  first  instituted  by  the  Czar,  John  Basilovitz  IV.  They 
f(»ught  lifter  the  manner  of  the  .Funissaries,  and  enjoyed  nearly 
the  sam(!  privileges.  Peter,  with  the  intention  of  disbanding 
these  seditious  and  undisciplined  troops,  had  stationed  them  on  the 
frontiers  of  Lithuania  ;  he  had  also  removed  them  from  being  his 
own  body-guard,  a  service  which  he  entrusted  to  the  regiments 
raised  by  himself.  This  sort  of  degradation  incensed  the  Stre- 
litzes, who  look  the  opportunity  of  the  Czar's  absence  to  revolt. 
Tliey  directed  their  march  to  the  city  of  Moscow,  with  the  design 
of  deposing  the  Czar,  and  replacing  Sophia  on  the  throne ;  but 
they  were  defeated  by  the  Generals  Schein  and  Gordon,  who  had 
marched  to  oppose  them.  Peter,  on  his  return,  caused  two 
thousand  of  them  to  be  executed,  and  incorporated  the  rest  among 
his  troops.  He  afterwards  employed  foreign  officers,  either  Ger- 
mans or  Swedes,  to  instruct  the  Russians  in  the  military  art. 

It  was  chiefly  during  the  war  with  Sweden  that  the  Russian 
army  was  organized  according  to  the  European  system.  The 
Czar  took  advantage  of  the  check  he  had  sustained  before  Narva 
(Nov.  30, 1700,)  to  accomplish  this  important  change  in  levying, 
equipping,  and  training  ail  his  troops  after  the  German  manner. 
He  taught  the  Russians  the  art  of  combating  and  conquering  the 
Swedes  ;  and  while  the  King  of  Sweden  was  bent  on  the  ruin 
of  Augustus  II.,  and  made  but  feeble  efforts  against  the  Czar, 
the  latter  succeeded  in  conquering  Ingria  from  the  Swedes,  and 
laid  open  the  navigation  of  the  Baltic.  He  took  the  fortress  of 
Noteburg  (1702,)  which  he  afterwards  called  Schlisselburg ;  he 
next  made  himself  master  of  Nyenschantz,  Kopori,  and  Jamp 
(now  Jamburg)  in  Ingria.  The  port  of  Nyenchantz  was  entirely 
razed ;  and  the  Czar  laid  the  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg  in 
one  of  the  neighbouring  islands  of  the  Neva  (May  27, 1703.)  In 
the  middle  of  winter  he  constructed  the  fort  of  Cronschlot  to 
serve  as  a  defence  for  the  new  city,  which  he  intended  to  make 
the  capital  of  his  Enu)ire,  and  the  principal  dep6t  for  the  com 
merce  and  marine  of  Russia.     The  fortune  of  this  new  capital 


•     '■•     ! 


<    ! 


:i' 


r 

. 

*«!^^'<l*^ 

■  JJ 


'I 


828 


CHAPTBR   VIII. 


WHS  decided  by  ihe  famous  balllc  of  Pultowa  ( July  8,  1709.) 
whi.-h  likewi!..'  HCiured  the  preponderunnc  of  Russia  in  ihe  >orf»i. 

Clmrles  Xll.,  wlio  had  taken  refnge  in  Turkey,  used  every     , 
efll.rl  10  instiiratc  the  Turks  ugttinsl  the  Kussums ;  and  ho  sue     ^ 
.-eedcMl  by  dint  ..f  inlripuc.     The  Porte  deilared  war  agauisi  the     | 
Czar  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1710 ;  the  latter  opened  the     . 
camnaiLm  of  1711    by  an  expedition  which  he  undertook  into     i 
Moi.iavia  ;  but  having  rashly  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  thai     | 
province,  he  was  surrounded  by  the  (Jrand  Vuier  near  Falczi     , 
on  the  Prulh.     Besiej^ed  in  his  camp  by  an  army  vastly  supe-     | 
rior  to  his  own.  and  reduced  to  the  last  necessity,  he  found  no 
other  means  of  extricating  himself  from  this  critical  situation,     | 
than  bv  airreeinff  to  a  treaty,  which  he  signed  m  the  cump  ot     i 
Falczi  (21st  July  1711  ;)  in  virtue  of  which,  he  consented  to  re- 
store  to  the  Turks  the  fortress  of  AzofT,  with  its  territory  and 
its  dependencies.     This  loss  was  amply  compensated  by  the  iin- 
portant  advantages  which  the  peace  with  Swe.len,  signed  at  Ny- 
stadl  (Sept.  10,  1 721,)  procured  the  Czar.     It  was  on  this  ucca- 
sion  that  the  Senate  conferred  on  him  the  cpithel  of  Great,  (he 
Father  of  hu  Country,  and  Emperor  of  all  the  Rusma^.     His 
inauguration  to  the  Imperial  dignity  took  place,  Octoljor  22d 
1721,  the  very  day  of  the  rejoicing  that  had  been  appointed  lor 
the  celebration   of  the  peace.     Peter  himself  put  the  Imperial 

crown  on  his  own  head.  . ,     •    /-, 

That  great  prince  had  the  vexation  to  see  Alexis  Czarowitz 
his  son,  and  presumptive  heir  to  the  Empire,  thwarting  all  his 
improvements,  and  caballing  in  secret  with  his  enemies.  Being 
at  length  compelled  to  declare  that  he  had  lorfeited  his  right  to 
the  throne,  he  had  him  condemned  to  death  as  a  traitor  (171«.) 

1  In  consequence  of  this  tragical  event,  he  published  an  Ukase, 
which  vested  in  the  reigning  prince  the  privilege  of  nominating 
his  successor,  and  even  of  ^hanging  the  appointment  whenever 

'  he  might  judge  it  necessary.  This  arrangement  became  fatal  to 
Russia  ;  the  want  of  a  fixed  and  permanent  order  of  succession 
occasioned  troubles  and  revolutions  which  frequently  distracted 
the  whole  Empire.  This  law,  moreover,  made  no  provision  in 
cases  where  the  reigning  prince  might  neglect  to  settle  the  sue- 
cession  during  his  life ;  as  happened  with  Peter  himself,  who 
died  without  making  or  appointing  any  successor  (Feb.  I7-S&.) 
Catherine  I.,  his  spouse,  ascended  the  throne,  which,  after  a 
reign  of  two  years,  she  transmitted  to  Peter,  son  of  the  unfortu- 

""in  Hungary,  the  precautions  that  had  been  taken  by  the  States 
of  Presburg  to  establish  civil  and  religious  liberty  on  a  solid  ba- 
sis,  did  not  prevent  disturbances  from  springing  up  in  that  king- 


lu 


m. 


July  8,  1709.) 
II  in  ilie  NorlK. 
y,  used  every 

;  ami  ho  «uc- 
n\T  ngiiirisi  >htt 
or  openi'd  the 
iiidertodk  into 
interior  of  that 
lor  near  Falczi 

y  vastly  supe- 
tf,  he  found  no 
tical  situation, 
in  the  cump  of 
on^ented  to  re- 
3  territory  and 
nted  by  the  im- 

signed  at  Ny- 
AS  on  this  ucca- 
?t  of  Great,  the 

Riisfias.     His 

,  October  22d 
n  iippointed  for 
ut  ttie  Imperial 


lexis  Czarowitz 
iwarting  all  his 
Miemics.  Being 
ited  bis  right  to 
1  traitor  (1718.) 
Ished  an  Ukase, 
e  of  nominating 
ment  whenever 
t  became  fatal  to 
icr  of  succession 
lently  distracted 
s  no  provision  in 
lo  settle  the  suc- 
ter  himself,  who 
ssor  (Feb.  1725.) 
!,  which,  after  a 
n  of  the  unfortu- 

<en  by  the  States 
rty  on  a  solid  ba- 
r  up  in  that  king- 


•1 


rKRinD  VM.     A.  II.  1648 — ni'.j. 


890 


dom.  The  Court  of  Vieinm,  pon-eiving  tin-  nccc-isily  of  ronsoh* 
dating  its  vast  nionnnhy,  whose  incohcrfiit  |mrls  were  suffering 
from  the  wunt  of  unily.  eiigeily  sei/.ed  iIm'sc  oi'ciisioris  for  ex- 
tending its  power  in  llungnry.  where  it  was  greatly  rircurnscri- 
bed  by  the  laws  and  conslitulion  of  the  countrv.  Heruc!  those 
perpetual  infringements  of  wliicli  ihe  Hungarians  had  to  com- 
plain ;  and  those  ever-recurring  disturbances  in  which  the  Otto- 
man Turks,  who  shared  with  Austria  the  dominion  of  Hungary, 
were  also  fre<juently  implicated. 

Transylvania,  as  well  as  a  great  part  of  Hungary,  was  then 
dependent  on   the  Turks.     The   Emperor  Leonold   I.  having 
granted  liis  protection  to  John  Komeny,  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
against  Michael  AbafTi,  a  proteg«i  of  the  Turks,  a  war  notween 
the  two  Empires  seemed  to  be  inevitable.     The  Diet  of  Hunga- 
ry, which  the  Emperor  had  assembled  at  Fresbiirg  on  this  sub- 
ject  (16H2,)  was  most  outrageous.     The   States,  before  they 
would  give  any  opinion  as  to  the  war  against  the  Turks,  de- 
manded that  their  own  grievances  should  be  redressed ;  and  the 
assembly  separated  without  coming  to  any  conclusion.     The 
Turks  took  advantage  of  this  dissension,  and  seized  the  fortress 
of  Neuheusel,  and  several  other  places.     The  Emperor,  incapa- 
ble of  opposing  them,  and  distrustful  of  the  Hungarian  malecon- 
tents,  had  recourse  to  foreign  aid.     This  he  obtained  at  the  Diet 
of  the  Empire;  and  Louis  XIV.  sent  him  a  body  of  six  thou- 
sand men,  under  command  of  the  Count  de  Coligni.    An  action 
look  place  (1664)  near  St.  Gothard,  in  which  the  French  signal- 
ized their  bravery.     The  Turks  sustained  a  total  defeat ;  but 
Montccuculi,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Imperial  army,  fail- 
ed to  take  advantage  of  his  victory.     A  truce  of  twenty  years 
was  soon  after  concluded  at  Temeswar,  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Turks  retained  Neuheusel,  Waradin,  and  Novigrad.     Michael 
Abaffi,  their  tributary  and  protege,  was  continued  in  Transyl- 
vania ;  and  both  parties  engaged  to  withdraw  their  troops  from 
that  province. 

This  treaty  highly  displeased  the  Hungarians,  as  it  had  been 
concluded  without  their  concurrence.  Their  complaints  against 
the  Court  of  Vienna  became  louder  than  ever.  They  complain- 
ed, especially,  that  the  Emperor  should  entertain  German  troops 
in  the  kingdom  ;  that  he  should  intrust  the  principal  fortresses 
to  foreigners  ;  and  impose  shackles  on  their  religious  liberties. 
The  Court  of  Vienna  having  paid  no  regard  to  these  grievances, 
several  of  the  nobles  entered  into  a  league  for  the  preservation 
of  their  rights ;  but  they  were  accused  of  holding  correspondence 
with  the  Turks,  and  conspiring  against  the  person  of  the  Empe- 
ror.    The  Counts  Zrini,  Nadaschdi,  Frangepan,  and  Tattenbanh 


It* 


w 


Ifr' 


iMig 


m-i 


CHAPTEE  VUl. 

were  condemned  as  guilty  of  high  treason  (1671,)  and  had  their 
heads  cut  off  on  the  scaflold.  A  vast  number  of  the  Protestant 
clergy  wore  either  banished  or  condemned  to  the  galleys,  as 
implicated  in  the  conspiracy ;  but  this  severity,  far  from  abating 
these  disturbances,  tended  rather  to  augment  them.  Th^  sup- 
pression of  the  dignity  of  Palatine  of  Hungary,  which  took  place 
about  the  same  time,  added  to  the  cruelties  and  extortions  of  all 
kinds  practised  by  the  German  troops,  at  length  raised  a  general 
insurrection,  which  ended  in  a  civil  war  (1677.)  The  insur- 
gents at  first  chose  the  Count  Francis  Wesselini  as  their  leader, 
who  was  afterwards  replaced  by  Count  Emeric  Tekeli.  These 
noblemen  were  encouraged  in  their  enterprise,  and  secretly  abet- 
ted by  France  and  the  Porte. 

The  Emperor  then  found  it  necessary  to  comply ;  and,  in  a 
Diet  which  he  assembled  at  Odenburg,  he  granted  redress  to 
most  of  the  grievances  of  which  the  Hungarians  had  to  com- 
plain ;  but  Count  Tekeli  having  disapproved  of  the  resolutions 
of  this  Diet,  the  civil  war  was  continued,  and  the  Count  soon 
found  means  to  interest  the  Turks  and  the  prince  of  Transylva- 
nia in  his  quarrel.     The  Grand  Vizier  Kara  Mustapha,  at  the 
head  of  the  Ottoman  forces,  came  and  laid  siege  to  Vienna  (July 
14,  1683.)     A  Polish  army  marched  to  the  relief  of  that  place 
under  their  King,  John  Sobieski,  who  was  joined  by  Charles 
IV.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  General  of  the  Imperial  troops;  they 
attacked  the  Turks  in  their  entrenchments  before  Vienna,  and 
compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege  (September  12, 1683.)     Every 
thing  then  succeeded  to  the  Emperor's  wish.     Besides  Poland, 
the  Russians  and  the  Republic  of  Venice  took  part  in  this  war 
in  favour  of  Austria.     A  succession  of  splendid  victories,  gained 
by  the  Imperial  generals,  Charles  Duke  of  Lorraine,  Prince 
Louis  of  Baden,  and  Prince  Eugene,  procured  for  Leopold  the 
conquest  of  all  that  part  of  Hungary,  which  had  continued  since 
the  reign  of  Ferdinand  I.  in  the  power  of  the  Ottomans.     The 
fortress  of  Neuheusel  was  taken,  in  consequence  of  the  battle 
which  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  gained  over  the  Turks  at  Strigova 
(1685.)     The  same  General  took  by  assault  the  city  of  Buda, 
the  capital  of  Hungary,  which  had  been  in  possession  of  the 
.Turks  since  1541,    The  memorable  victory  of  Mohacz,  gained 
by  the  Imperialists  (1687,)  again  reduced  Transylvania  and 
Sclavonia  under  the  dominion  of  Austria.     These  continued 
reverses  cost  the  Grand  Vizier  his  life ;  he  was  strangled  by 
order  of  the  Sultan,  Mahomet  IV.,  who  was  himself  deposed 
by  his  rebellious  Janissaries. 

Encouraged  by  these  brilliant  victories,  the  Emperor  Leopold 
assembled  the  States  of  Hungary  at  Presburg.     He  there  de- 


m 


■il^'SfSgiHW^t!?'- 


and  bad  their 

the  Protestant 

the  galleys,  as 

ar  from  abating 

m.     Th^  sup- 

lich  took  place 

xtortions  of  all 

aised  a  general 

7.)     The  insur- 

as  their  leader, 

Tekeli.     These 

id  secretly  abet- 

iply ;  and,  in  a 
inted  redress  to 
ans  had  to  com- 
'  the  resolutions 
the  Count  soon 
ce  of  Transylva- 
lustapha,  at  the 
to  Vienna  (July 
ief  of  that  place 
ined  by  Charles 
ial  troops;  they 
ore  Vienna,  and 
1, 1683.)  Every 
Besides  Poland, 
part  in  this  war 
victories,  gained 
Lorraine,  Prince 
for  Leopold  the 
[  continued  since 
Ottomans.  The 
nee  of  the  battle 
'urks  at  Strigova 
iie  city  of  Buda, 
)ossession  of  the 
Mohacz,  gained 
ransylvania  and 
These  continued 
ms  strangled  by 
himself  deposed 

Smperor  Leopold 
:.     He  there  de- 


rERioD  VII     A.  D.  1648—1713. 


331 


manded,  that,  in  conr  ideration  of  tne  extraordinary  efTnrts  he 
had  been  obliged  to  make  against  the  Ottomans,  the  kingdom 
should  be  declared  hereditary  in  his  family.  The  States  at 
first  appeared  inclined  to  maintain  their  own  right  of  election : 
but  yielding  soon  to  the  influence  of  authority,  they  agreed  to 
make  the  succession  hereditary  in  favour  of  the  males  cf  the  two 
Austrian  branches  ;  on  the  extinction  of  which  they  were  to  be 
restored  to  their  ancient  rights.  As  for  the  privileges  of  the 
Slates,  founded  on  the  decree  of  King  Andrew  II.,  they  were 
renewed  at  that  Diet ;  with  the  exception  of  that  clause  in  the 
thirty-first  article  of  the  decree,  which  authorized  the  States  to 
oppose,  by  open  force,  any  prince  that  should  attempt  to  infringe 
the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  country-  The  Jesuits,  who  were 
formerly  proscribed,  were  restored,  and  their  authority  estabhsh- 
ed  througnout  all  the  provinces  of  the  kingdom.  The  Protes- 
tants of  both  confessions  obtained  the  confiimatiou  of  the  churches 
and  prerogatives  that  had  been  secured  to  them  by  the  articles 
of  the  Diet  of  Odenburg ;  but  it  was  stipulated,  that  only  Catho- 
lics were  entitled  to  possess  property  within  the  kingdoms  of 
Dalmatia,  Croatia  and  Sclavonia.  The  Archduke  Joseph,  son 
of  Leopold  I.,  was  crowned  at  this  Diet  (December  19,  1687,) 
as  the  first  hereditary  King  of  Hungary. 

The  arms  of  Austria  were  crowned  with  new  victories  during 
the  continuation  of  the  war  against  the  Turks.  Albe-Royale, 
Belgrade,  Semendria,  and  Gradisca,  fell  into  the  hands  ot  the 
Emperor.  The  two  splendid  victories  at  Nissa  and  Widdin, 
which  Louis  prince  of  Baden  gained  (1689,)  secured  to  the  Aus 
trians  the  conquest  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Bulgaria.  The  de- 
jected courage  of  the  Ottomans  was  for  a  time  revived  by  their 
new  Grand  Vizier  Mustapha  Kiupruli,  a  man  of  considerable 
genius.  After  gaining  several  advantages  over  the  Imperialists, 
he  took  from  them  Nissa,  Widdin,  Semendria,  and  Belgrade ; 
and  likewise  reconquered  Bulgaria,  Servia,  and  Bosnia.  The 
extraordinary  efforts  that  the  Porte  made  for  the  campaign  of 
the  following  year,  inspired  them  with  hopes  of  better  success ; 
but  their  expectations  were  quite  disappointed  by  the  unfortu- 
nate issue  of  the  famous  battle  of  Salankemen,  which  the  Prince 
of  Baden  gained  over  the  Turks,  (Aug.  19,  1691.)  The  brave 
Kiupruli  was  slain,  and  his  death  decided  the  victory  in  favour 
of  the  Imperialists.  The  war  with  France,  however,  which  then 
occupied  the  principal  forces  of  Austria,  did  not  permit  the  Em- 
peror  to  reap  any  advantage  from  this  victory ;  he  was  even 
obliged,  in  the  following  campaigns,  to  act  on  the  defensive  m 
Hungary ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  ccmclusion  of  peace  w<th 
France,  that  he  was  able  to  resume  the  war  against  the  Turkt 


^■ka  I 


1    :i 


■■\ 


I'  n 


if.' 


w 


■■k<  , 


332 


CHAPTER  Via. 


'vith  fresh  vigour.  Prince  Eugene,  who  was  then  commancler- 
in-chief  of  the  Imperial  army,  attacked  the  Sultan  Mustaplia 
11.  in  person,  near  Zenta  on  the  river  Teiss  (Sept.  11,  1697,^ 
where  he  gained  a  decisive  victory.  The  grand  Vizier,  seven- 
fjicn  Pachas,  and  two  thirds  of  the  Ottoman  army,  were  left 
dead  on  the  field  of  battle ;  and  the  grand  Seignior  was  com- 
pelled to  fall  back  in  disorder  on  Belgrade. 

This  terrible  blow  made  the  Porte  exceedingly  anxious  for 

Baoe ;  and  he  had  recourse  to  the  mediation  of  England  and 
olland.     A  negotiation,  which  proved  as  tedious  as  it  was  in- 
tricate, was  set  on  foot  at  Constantinople,  and  thence  transfer- 
red to  Carlowitz,  a  town  of  Sclavonia  lying  between  the  two 
camps,  one  of  which  was  at  Peterwaradin,  and  the  other  at 
Belffrade.      Peace  was  there  concluded    with    the    Emperor 
and'his  allies  (Jan.  26,  1699.)     The  Emperor,  by  that  treaty, 
retained  Hungary,  Transylvania  and  Sclavonia,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Banat  of  Temeswar,  which  was  reserved  to  the 
Porte.     The    rivers  Marosch,  Teiss,  Save,  and  Unna,  were 
fixed  as  the  limits  between  the  two  Empires.     The  Count  Te- 
keli,  who  during  the  whole  of  this  war  had  constantly  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Porte,  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  Ottoman 
territory  ;  with  such  of  the  Hungarians  and  Transylvanians  as 
adhered  to  him. 

The  peace  of  Carlowitz  had  secured  to  the  Emperor  nearly 
the  whole  of  Hungary  ;  but,  glorious  though  it  was,  it  did  not 
restore  the  internal  tranquillity  of  the  kingdom,  which  very 
soon  experienced  fresh  trouble's.     The  same  complaints  that 
had  arisen  after  the  peace  of  Temeswar,  were  renewed  after 
that  of  Carlowitz  ;  to  these  were  even  added  several  others,  oc- 
•asioned  by  the  introduction  of  the  hereditary  succession,  at 
he  Diet  of  1687,  by  the  suppression  of  the  clause  in  the  thirty- 
tirst  article  of  the  decree  of  Andrew  II.,  by  the  restoration  of 
he  Jesuits  and  the  banishment  of  Tekeli  and  his  adherents. 
Nothing  was  wanted  but  a  ringleader  for  the  malecontents  to 
[ekindle  the  flames  of  civil  war,  and  this  leader  was  soon  found 
in  the  person  of  the  famous  Prince  Ragoczi,  who  appeared  on 
'he  scene  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
when  the  greater  part  of  Europe  were  involved  in  the  war  ol 
the  Spanish  Succession.  . 

Francis  Ragoczi  was  the  grandson  of  George  Ragoczi  11., 
who  had  been  prince  of  Transylvania  ;  and  held  a  distinguish- 
ed rank  in  the  States  of  Hungary,  not  more  by  his  illustrio_'s 
birth  than  by  the  great  possessions  which  belonged  to  his  fa- 
mily. The  Court  of  Vienna,  which  entertained  suspicions  ol 
him  on  account  of  his  near  relationship  with  Tekeli,  had  kept 


PERIOD  vn.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713. 


333     ! 


en  commantler- 
iltan  Mustaplia 
lept.  11,  1697,) 
1  Vizier,  seven- 
army,  were  left 
afnior  was  corri- 

gly  anxious  for 
)f  England  and 
)U8  as  it  was  in- 
thence  transfer- 
)etween  the  two 
nd  the  other  at 
the  Emperor 
•,  by  that  treaty, 
ia,  with  the  ex- 
1  reserved  to  the 
ind  Unna,  were 
The  Count  Te- 
istantly  espoused 
in  the  Ottoman 
'ransylvanians  as 

Emperor  nearly 
it  was,  it  did  not 
dom,  which  very 
I  complaints  that 
re  renewed  after 
several  others,  oc- 
iry  succession,  at 
use  in  the  thirty- 
the  restoration  of 
id  his  adherents. 
J  malecontents  to 
jr  was  soon  found 
who  appeared  on 
inth  century,  and 
ed  in  the  war  ol 

lorge  Ragoczi  II., 
leld  a  distinguish- 
by  his  illustrious 
elonged  to  his  fa- 
ined  suspicions  ol 
Tekeli,  had  kept 


hini  in  a  sort  of  captivity  from  his  earliest  infancy  ;  and  he 
was  not  set  at  large,  nor  reniojed  to  the  possession  of  his  estates, 
until  1694,  when  he  marrie  1  a  princess  of  Hesse-Rheinfels. 
From  that  time  he  resided  -luietly  on  his  estates,  holding  bis 
Court  at  Sarosch,  in  the  district  of  the  same  name.     Being  sus- 
pected of  having  concerted  a  conspiracy  with  the  malecontents, 
he  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  Court  of  Vienna  (1701.)  and 
carried  to  Neustadt  in  Austria,  whence  he  escaped  and  retired 
to  Poland.     Being  condemned  as  guilty  of  high  treason,  and 
his  estates  declared  forfeited,  he  took  the  resolution  of  placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  rebels,  and  instigating  Huneary 
against  the  Emperor.     France,  who  had  just  joined  in  the  war 
with  Austria,  encouraged  him   in  that  enterprise,  which  she 
regarded  as  a  favourable  event  for  creating  a  diversion  on  the 
part  of  her  enemy.     Having  arrived  in  Hungary,  Ragoczi  pub- 
lished a  manifesto  (1703,)  in  which  he  detailed  the  motives  of 
his  conduct,  and  exhorted  the  Hungarians  to  join  him,  for  vin- 
dicating their  ancient  liberties  which  had  been  oppressed  by  the 
House  of  Austria.     He  soon  attracted  a  crowd  of  partisans,  and 
made  himself  master  of  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom.     The 
Transylvanians  chose  him  for  their  prince  (1704  ;)  and  the  States 
of  Hungary,  who  had  united  for  the  re-establishment  of  their 
laws  and  immunities,  declared  him  their  chief,  with  the  title  of 
Duke,  and  a  senate  of  twenty-five  persons.     Louis  XIV.  sent 
his  envoy,  the  Marquis  Dessalleurs,  to  congratulate  him  on 
his  elevation ;  and  the  Czar,  Peter  the  Great,  ofTered  him  the 
throne  of  Poland  (1707,)  in  opposition  to  Stanislaus,  who  was 
protected  by  Charles  Xll. 

The  House  of  Austria  being  engaged  in  the  Spanish  war, 
was  unable  for  a  long  time  to  reduce  the  Hungarian  malecon- 
tents. The  repeated  attempts  which  she  had  made  to  come  to  an 
accommodation  with  them  having  failed,  the  war  v\-as  continued 
till  1711,  when  the  Austrians,  who  had  been  vl  torious,  com- 
pelled Ragoczi  to  evacuate  Hungary,  and  retire  (  »  the  frontiers 
of  Poland.  A  treaty  of  pacification  was  then  di  uvn  up.  The 
Emperor  promised  to  grant  an  amnesty,  and  a  goneral  restitu- 
tion of  goods  in  favour  of  all  those  who  had  been  implicated  in 
the  Insurrection.  He  came  under  an  engagement  to  preserve 
inviolable  the  rights,  liberties,  and  immunities  of  Hungary,  and 
the  principality  of  Transylvania  ;  to  reserve  all  civil  and  mili- 
tary offices  to  the  Hungarians ;  to  maintain  the  laws  of  the 
kingdom  respecting  religion  ;  and  as  for  their  other  grievances, 
whether  political  or  ecclesiastical,  h»  consented  to  have  them 
discussed  in  the  approaching  Diet.  These  articles  were  ap- 
proved and  signed  by  the  greater  part  of  the  malecontents,  who 


iiliii 


'■■■'\ 


m 


==ii 


-jjgjj^ggj^CSiiw'*^ 


834 


♦.HAPTBR  VUl. 


.1.™  imIi  .  new  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Emperor.  Ragoco 
*a  btprS  .Lent.  «en,  the  ooly  persona  that  retrntn. 
ed  proia  and  attamted,  havtng  refused  to  accede  to  the» 

"ThTTurkiA  Empire,  once  «.  formidablo,  had  gradually  Men 
f„ m  the  imit  ofV.  grandeur ;  its  resources  were  exhausted, 

Ss  ITwi^SSed  o£  hisTuc'cessor,  Mahomet  IV 

Venetians.     These  latter,  on  surrender  ng  Candja,  reserved   « 

?u"r'U"'  .trlelmSb     .he  p.-rful  league  formed 

toween  Slria,  Poland.  B"»»i».  «';'l  "«.''«/»''''"  .°i,y.r^ 
£;?xperienced,^w.h..ea,jea^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

rrmina7oftrSuh^lr;'fl.ed  to  dep»«  hin. 
M  !  „hn  II  the  third  in  succession  from  Mahomet  IV.,  ter- 
Si'2l"th"te«u«W.  war  h,  the  peace  of  Carl.«,.»,  when 


A 


leror.  Ragoczi 
tis  that  remain- 
iccede  to  these 

gradually  fallen 
ivere  exhausted, 
nes.  The  eflfe- 
)ntempt  for  the 
Is  of  a  govern- 
undermined  its 
g  and  presiding  ^ 
id  undisciplined  j 
hrone  the  same  j 
ed  over  the  an-     i 

i 
the  Turks  made  j 
public  of  Venice.  ' 
1  of  that  island, 

Sultan  Ibrahim 
r,  Mahomet  IV. 
ilary  courajre  and 

Turkish  fleets; 
gc  of  the  Darda- 
;he  famous  Vizier 
3  city  of  Candio 
his  siege  was  one 

The  Turks  lost 
it  till  after  a  siege 
;e  surrendered  to 

at  the  same  time 
e  Turks  and  the 
ndia,  reserved,  in 
viz.  Suda,  Spina- 
Clissa,  and  som€ 
I  they  had  seizec 
»m  that  time,  pre- 
vhich  that  against 
an  Empire.    The 
ful  league  formed 
epublic  of  Venice, 
d,  a  series  of  fatal 
ese  misfortunes  to 
ed  to  depose  him. 
Mahomet  IV.,  ter- 
if  Carlowitz,  when 


1 


rERioD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


335 


the  Turks  lost  all  their  possessions  in  Hungary,  except  Temeswar 
and  Belgrade.  They  gave  up  to  Poland  the  fortress  of  Kami- 
niec,  with  Podolia,  and  the  part  of  the  Ukraine  on  this  side  the 
Nieper,  which  had  been  ceded  to  them  by  former  treaties.  The 
Venetians,  by  their  treaty  with  the  Porte,  obtained  possession 
of  the  Morea,  which  they  had  conquered  during  the  war ;  in- 
cluding the  islands  of  St.  Maura  and  Leucadia,  as  also  the  for- 
tresses of  Dalmatia,  Knin,  Sing,  Ciclut,  Gabella,  Castlenuoyo, 
and  Risano.  Finally,  the  Porte  renounced  the  tribute  which 
Venice  had  formerly  paid  for  the  isle  of  Zante ;  and  the  Repub- 
lic of  Ragusa  was  guaranteed  in  its  independence,  with  respect 
to  the  Venetians. 


CHAPTER    IX. 


PERIOD  VIII. 


A.    D 


From  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  French  Revolution. 

1713—1789. 

[During  the  wars  of  the  preceding  period,  arts  and  letters 
had  made  extraordinary  progress  ;  especially  in  France,  where 
they  seemed  to  have  reached  the  highest  degree  of  perfection 
to  which  the  limited  genius  of  man  can  carry  them.  The  age 
of  Louis  XIV.  revived,  and  almost  equalled  those  master-pieces 
which  Greece  had  produced  under  Pericles,  Rome  under  Au- 
gustus, and  Italy  under  the  patronage  of  the  Medici.  This 
was  the  classical  era  of  French  literature.  The  grandeur 
which  reigned  at  the  court  of  that  monarch,  and  the  glory  which 
his  vast  exploits  had  reflected  on  the  nation,  inspired  authors 
with  a  noble  enthusiasm ;  the  public  taste  was  refined  by  imi- 
tating the  models  of  antiquity  ;  and  this  preserved  the  French 
writers  from  those  extravagancies  which  some  other  nations 
have  mistaken  for  the  standard  of  genius.  Their  language, 
polished  by  the  Academy  according  to  fixed  rules,  the  first  and 
most  fun(iamental  of  which  condemns  every  thing  that  doe8 
not  tend  to  unite  elegance  with  perspicuity,  became  the  general 
medium  of  communication  among  the  different  nations  in  the 
civilized  world ;  and  this  literary  conquest  which  France  made 
over  the  minds  of  other  nations,  is  more  glorious,  and  has 
proved  more  advantageous  to  her,  than  that  universal  dominion 
to  which  Louis  XIV.  is  said  to  have  aspired. 

In  the  period  on  which  we  are  now  entering,  men  of  genius 
and  talents,  though  they  did  not  neglect  the  Belles-Lettres, 
devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  those  sciences,  and  that  kind  of 


it  illl  I 


1.. 


'M'li 


.ft 


•fl^ 


■r 


'  *'■: 

if     : 

1  ■  1 
I  i- 


m 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Ipnrninff  the  study  of  which  has  been  diffused  over  nil  classe, 
of  sSw  Seveml  branches  of  mathematics  and  natural  phdo- 
ol  society.     ^^^""^ „        pntirelv  new;   the  knowledge  of  the 

academies  m  Europe.     Natural  *^'>"°^°P' >  .  f^m  'the 

the  laws  and  phenomena  of  namre  S'  Jof  an  iuractive 
^''"'  1  "kSrHSr::enr&dVthe§?scoveriesof  lear^^^ 
;=r,.^rlt^ted;f  those  ^g^^;^^— f  l^^S^ 
S^ScTo^r  tJ^ihy  atS'ciL.olS^gy,  became  a 
branch  of  general  P^>''''^°PH-. «.„,„„,  ot„tes  disturbedbytheam- 

influence  in  general  affairs  ;^^>^";„S^^^^^^^^^  to  an  extent 

That  nation  carr  ed  their  ^^^^^J^^'^'I^?  .^SeTcTal  and  maritime 
which  could  not  fail  to  alarm  '^'^^f'^cZoTihen  own  trade 
states,  and  make  them  perceive  tha^^^^^^^^  „f 

and  independence  ^^^^^^^'^^^.^^^IXy  important  for  their 
equilibrium  on  the  Continent,  u  was   4       J       »     j.^j^  , 

posperitythatbound^^^^^^^^^ 

of  England.     This  gave  rise^  ^^^^^^  ^^xe 

tween  France  a".^  England     a  nvairy  eighteenth  cen- 

particularly  manifested  ^ft^V^^^'^i^^.f;^^  alliance  among  the 
fury,  and  which  ^^'^'^J"^^,^"^  %Ta  later  date,  and  in^on- 
branches  of  the  Ho«8e  of  Bourbon      A  ^^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^ 

sequence  of  the  prmcipes  which  the  ^ng        p  ^^ 

commerce  of  neutral  states,  the  powers  o^   n  j^    "^^^ 

themselves  against  that  '^n*^"/;  .  f  ^^^^J^r^^ 
accused  of  wishing  to  "^P,  "^"^^^^^Jfo/;  hort  time  turned 
-  tf  thrn^^ni'SirS  ops  has  been  able  to  prober, 
her  commerce  and  her  independence.        . 


v^:^;iie:s^m^' 


bjiMi'i 


iver  all  classes 
1  natural  philo- 
)wledgc  of  the  j  j 
1  chiefly  for  the  i 
education,  and  j 
searches.  Geo-  ■ 
vere  brought  to  I 
ferent  scientific  ! 
overed  many  of  • 
■  rose  from  the  | 
jf  an  attractive  j 
reries  of  learned  j 
•himeras  which  i 
ipported  by  the  ' 
logy,  became  a 

urbedbytheam- 
)eace  of  Utrecht, 
any  great  altera 
which  took  place 
which  had  been 
lie  theatre  of  civil 
by  the  success  of 
rtant  advantages 
,  both  in  Europe 
and  gave  her  an 
id  enjoyed  before, 
larine  to  an  extent 
cial  and  maritime 
of  their  own  trade 
itain  a  system  of 
Tiportant'for  their 
nopolizing  power 
kind  of  rivalry  be- 
eflfects  were  more 
e  eighteenth  cen- 
liance  among  the 
r  date,  and  in  con- 
professed  as  to  the 
he  North  leagued 
which  they  were 
I  the  Ninth  Period, 
.  short  time  turned 
en  able  to  preserve 


rsBioD  viii.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


337 


This  preponderance  of  England  is  the  first  change  which  the 
poliiical  system  of  Europe  experienced  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  second  took  place  in  the  North.  Till  that  time,  the  norihem 
countries  of  Europe  had  never,  except  transiently,  had  any  poH- 
lica!  connexions  with  the  South.  Russia,  separated  by  the 
possessions  of  Sweden  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  had  belongt-d 
rather  to  Asia  than  to  our  quarter  of  the  world.  Poland,  fallen 
from  her  ancient  greatness,  had  sunk  into  a  state  of  anarchy  and 
exhaustion.  Denmark  and  Sweden  were  disputing  the  command 
of  the  Baltic,  and  had  no  other  influence  on  the  politics  of  the 
South  than  that  which  Sweden  had  acquired  by  the  personal 
qualities  of  some  of  her  kings.  The  great  war  of  the  North, 
which  broke  out  at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  the  conquests  of  Peter  the  Great,  which  extended  the  limits 
of  his  Empire  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  reduced  Sweden 
to  a  state  of  debility  from  which  she  has  not  yet  recovered, 
enabled  Russia  not  only  to  take  a  distinguished  lead  in  the 
North,  but  to  become  an  important  member  in  the  system  of 
Europe. 

Meantime,  the  foundation  of  the  Prussian  monarchy  gave  rise 
to  a  new  and  intermediate  power  between  the  North  and  the 
South ;  but  that  state  remained  within  the  bounds  of  mediocrity 
until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  At  that  time  the 
genius  of  Frederic  II.  alone  raised  it  to  a  pitch  of  greatness  which 
enabled  it  to  struggle  against  the  superior  forceof  its  neighbours, 
but  without  menacing  the  independence  of  other  states.  This 
growing  power  of  Prussia,  however,  occasioned  a  rivalry  between 
it  and  Austria,  which  for  seventy  years  had  an  influence  on  the 
politics  of  Europe.  It  produced  the  extraordinary  spectacle  of 
an  intimate  alliance  between  two  ancient  rivals,  the  Houses  of 
Austria  and  Bourbon ;  and,  by  dividing  Germany  between  two 
opposite  systems,  it  paved  the  way  for  the  dissolution  of  that 
Empire.  Such  was  the  third  change  which  the  polity  of  Europe 
experienced  in  course  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  fourth  change  was  less  felt  than  the  three  others ;  its 
fatal  consequences  did  not  develope  themselves  until  the  Ninth 
Period.  For  the  first  time  within  the  last  three  centuries,  the 
sovereigns  of  Europe  ventured  to  break  treaties  and  to  violate 
engagements,  to  declare  war  and  undertake  conquests,  without 
alleging  any  other  motives  than  reasons  of  convenience,  and  the 
ambition  of  ag^andizement.  Thus  the  basis  of  the  equilibrium 
system,  the  inviolability  of  possessions  honourably  acquired,  was 
sapped,  and  the  downfall  of  the  whole  system  prepared.  The 
events  of  the  wars  for  the  succession  of  Austria,  furmshed  the 
first  exampl)e»  of  this  contempt  for  treaties ;  Uiey  were  renewed. 


lit,' 


'■  iV  i 


ft'* 


h     ' 


i 


ill 

sit 


1 1 


m 


"WF 


u 


888 


CHAPTER  11. 


"commerce  continued,  in  .he  eighteen*  ";'yi'»„^%»; 

,m.to lion  of  V""  \Xto  »hich  lliey  even  carried  to  exce... 
SX-oVeVJ    dTn  cSnenliil  nff.ir.  wa.  inc,ea»d; 

lt?a  ^SrSTie  n«.sar^  '^^^ZlTj'^r  mO, 
Beside,,  "IXtiirrv  an  i^  genc"  :  h"d  "=«"  »  'l»e'««  "' 

'    '^%^he^e!tra"ordinary  efforts  which  the  powers  of  E^'ope  had 

3i?;stutrdt.werer:ndG^^^^^^ 


i 


I! 


_■  ^-^i    »?»s 


-.«- 


i,  and  by  the 
Bavaria.  Th** 
I  cited,  during 
,  sorts  of  vie- 
long  train  of 

r,  to  be  one  of 
Europe.   The 
1,  and  became,     | 
in.    The  niari-     | 
edthe  greatest 
if  which  were 
gulations.     In 
;  up  numerous 
•ried  to  excess, 
vas  increased ; 
y  in  proportion 
ish  them  with 
on  their  wars, 
the  year  1740, 
led  a  degree  of 
irther  improve- 
tes  experienced     ! 
the  payment  of 
Pitt,  called  the 

of  Europe  had 
the  equilibrium 
of  France  and 
ity,  which  gave 
ts,  industry  and 
ich  the  long  and 
■ere  attentive  to 
echt  and  Stock- 
d  against  every 
rhe  good  under- 
at  Britain  during 
t  of  George  II.— 
Walpole.wasthe 
sed  the  attention 
of  the  Pretender, 
3  of  Spain, 
ring  the  minority 
eace  and  political 
havin?  it  in  vip« 


PBRIOD  VIU.      A.  D.   1713 — 1789. 


839 


lO  remedy  those  disorders  in  the  finance,  which  Louis  XIV.  had 
left  in  so  deplorable  a  state.'  The  King  of  Spain,  on  the  other 
hand,  who  was  desirous  of  reviving  his  rights  to  the  crown  of 
France,  wont  into  the  rash  schemes  of  Cardinal  Alberoni,"  his 
prime  minister,  purporting  to  renew  the  war ;  to  rsconquer  those 
territories  which  the  peace  of  Utrecht  had  dismemberf  d  from 
the  Spanish  monarchy  ;  to  deprive  the  Duke  of  Orleans  of  the 
regency,  and  vest  it  in  the  King  of  Spain  ;  and  to  place  the  «  re- 
tender,  son  of  James  II.,  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain. 

The  treaty  of  Utrecht,  although  it  had  tranquillized  a  great 
part  of  Europe,  was  nevertheless  defective,  in  as  far  as  it  had 
not  reconciled  the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain,  the  two  prin- 
cipal claimants  to  the  Spanish  succession.  The  Emperor 
Charles  VI.  did  not  recognise  Philip  V.  in  his  quality  of  King 
of  Spain ;  and  Philip,  in  his  turn,  refused  to  acquiesce  in  those 
partitions  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  which  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
had  stipulated  in  favour  of  the  Emperor.  To  defeat  the  projects 
and  secret  intrigues  of  the  Spanisii  minister,  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans thought  of  courting  ati  alliance  with  England,  as  being 
the  power  most  particularly  interested  in  maintaining  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  the  fundamental  articles  of  which  had  been  dictated 
by  herself.  That  alliance,  into  which  the  United  Provinces  also 
entered,  was  concluded  at  the  Hague  (Jan.  4, 1717.)  The  arti- 
cles of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  those  especially  which  related  to 
the  succession  of  the  two  crowns,  were  there  renewed  ;  and  the 
Regent,  in  complaisance  to  the  King  of  England,  agreed  to 
banish  the  Pretender  from  France,  and  to  admit  British  com- 
missaries into  Dunkirk  to  superintend  that  port. 

Cardinal  Alberoni,  without  being  in  the  least  disconcerted  by 
the  Triple  Alliance,  persisted  in  his  design  of  recommencing  the 
war.  No  sooner  had  he  recruited  the  Spanish  forces,  and 
equipped  an  expedition,  than  he  attacked  Sardinia,  which  he 
took  from  the  Emperor.  This  conquest  was  followed  by  that 
of  Sicily,  which  the  Spaniards  took  from  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
(1718.) 

France  and  England,  indignant  at  the  infraction  of  a  treaty 
which  they  regarded  as  their  own  work,  immediately  concluded 
with  the  Emperor,  at  London  (Aug.  2, 1718,)  the  famous  Quad- 
ruple Alliance,  which  contained  the  plan  of  a  treaty  of  peace,  to 
be  made  between  the  Emperor,  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the  Duke 
of  Savoy.  The  allied  powers  engaged  to  obtain  the  consent  of 
the  parties  interested  in  this  proposal,  and  in  case  of  refusal,  to 
compel  them  by  force  of  arms.  The  Emperor  was  to  renounce 
his  right  to  the  Sjanish  crovra,  and  to  acknowledge  Philip  V. 
as  the  legitimate  King  of  Spain,  in  consideration  of  his  renoun- 


\1 


^■l'-\ 


'•ill'' 


1 


I  I 
i  • 

i: 


.Art 


•f, 


I  ,    M 


.    " 


i¥" 


m 


340  CHAPTER  IX. 

tunl  7«^^«'-'^'«" '^•"\"''"';''7au  rhv  of  Tuscany,  oi.  o.,...lition  ot 

'The  Duke  of  Savoy  did  not  heMtnte  to  subscribe  to  the  condi-    ' 
J^of^tt  quadruple  ^^^;  ^^,Z '^?r::^^  ^ 
King  of  Spain,  who  persisted  in  his  ^^'"^"^'^J^'T  j      ^^.i  the 
England  declared  war  against  him.     The  i' "[^"'j? '"yT^'V 

i„g  for  seveml  ye.«.     The     «'« '"J^iP^'i  J„  between 

as  to  the  form  of  these  '•'""".^•'^^"'"Jv  JJ^i'j'^jfNetLrk^^ 
lip's  renunciation  of  th^r™?^^"^,^"'*^  demanded 
3hould  be  confirmed  by  the  Spanish  Lortes.     rnuip 


riTTT^FFaiyf^?''^^'**™"^"  •■ 


■Jti^ 


11 


rh  the  trfnly 

ic  EmpcrnT. 

ill,  rpceiving 

»  to  give  up. 

IS  trniiftcrred 

iti'd  to  Don 

[\r(>,  the  oven- 

riim  and  Pla* 

I  condition  ot 

Empire,  aftei     | 

;  Farnesc  and 

ttcr  to  secure 

lo  introduce  a 

[)  be  nuartered 

a.     The  con- 

ment  of  these 

c  to  the  condi- 
rwise  with  the 
n  France  arid 
h  invaded  the 
English  seized 
IS  proceedings 
He  signed  the 
heron  i  from  his 
the  allies  com- 
cily  and  Sardi- 
mer,  and  Victor 

)eace,  however, 
remained  many 
King  of  Spain, 
and  conclude  a 
Congress  was 
1721,  under  the 
disputes  which 
rded  their  meet- 
al  object  was  to 
ciation  between 
;d  by  the  treaty 
was  reluctant  to 
arted  difficulties 
anded  that  Phi- 
he  Netherlands, 
hilip  demanded. 


PKRioD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


341 


In  his  turn,  that  the  rrniitn'iation  of  the  Emperor  with  regord  to 
Spain,  should  lie  rutilicd  l)y  the  States  of  the  Empire.  To  get 
clear  of  this  (llfrieiiltv,  Franc;  and  Eiijiland  agreed,  by  a  special 
compact,  signed  at  I'aris  (Sept.  27,  1721,)  llial  the  renunciations 
of  both  princes,  however  defective  they  might  be,  should  be  held 
valid  under  the  guaranty  of  the  two  mediating  powers. 

Scarcely  was  this  difllculty  settled,  when  another  presented 
itself,  much  more  embarrassing.  This  related  to  the  Company 
of  Ostend,  which  the  Emperor  had  instituted,  and  lo  which,  by 
charter  signed  at  Vienna  (Dec.  19,  1722,)  he  had  granted,  for 
thirty  years,  the  exclusive  privilege  of  trading  to  the  East  and 
We.st  Indies,  and  the  coasts  of  Africa.  That  establishment  set 
the  maritime  powers  nl  variance  with  the  Emperor ;  especially 
the  Dutch,  who  regardeil  it  as  prejudicial  to  their  Iiidian  com- 
merce. They  maintained,  that  according  to  the  trer.ty  of  Mun- 
Hter,  confirmed  by  the  twenty-sixth  article  of  the  Barrier  Treaty 
(1715,)  the  trade  of  the  Spaniards  with  the  East  Indies  was  to 
remain  as  it  was  at  that  time. 

Nothing  in  those  preliminary  discussions  met  with  so  much 
opposition  as  the  grant  of  the  eventual  reversion  and  investiture 
ofTuscany,  Parma,  and  Placentia,  which  the  Emperor  had  en- 
gaged, by  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  lo  give  lo  Don  Carlos,  the 
Infante  of  Spain.  The  Duke  of  Parma,  the  Pope,  and  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  joined  in  opposition  to  it.  Anthony,  the  last 
Duke  of  Parma  and  Placentia,  of  the  House  of  Farnese,  de- 
manded that  the  Emperor  should  never,  during  his  life,  exerci.se 
over  the  dutchy  of  Parma,  the  territorial  rights  established  by 
the  treaty  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance.  The  Pope  also  protested 
loudly  against  that  clause  of  the  treaty  which  deprived  him  of 
the  rights  of  superiority  over  Parma  and  Placentia,  which  his 
predecessors  had  enjoyed  for  several  centuries.  As  for  the 
Grand  Duke  ofTuscany,  John  Gaston,  the  last  of  the  Medici,  he 
maintained,  that  as  his  dutchy  neld  of  God  only,  he  could  never 
permit  that  it  should  be  declared  a  fief  of  the  Empire  nor  recog- 
nise the  Infante  of  Spain  as  heir  of  his  estates,  to  the  prejudice 
of  his  sister's  rights,  the  widow  of  the  Elector  Palatine. 

Charles  VI.  without  stopping  at  these  objections,  laid  the 
business  of  these  investitures  before  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon ;  and, 
after  having  obtained  their  consent,  he  caused  copies  to  be  made 
of  the  letters  of  reversion  and  investiture  in  favour  of  Don  Carlos 
and  his  heirs-nmle.  These  havin<T  been  presented  to  the  Con- 
gress, the  King  of  Spain  refused  to  receive  them  ;  alleging  the 
protests  of  the  Pope,  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany ;  nor 
would  he  agree  to  them,  except  on  condition  of  an  act  of  guaranty 
on  the  part  of  the  mediating  powers.     All  these  difficulties  being 


\  f'l 


* 


fe|^. 


r"-"" 


842 


CHAPTRR   IX. 


«ttled.  and  the  preHnunarie,  closed  they  ntlongthp^^^^^^^^ 
wilh  the  conferonrcH  nt  C.n.bmy  (Anr.l  1724,)  [«'•-'•";;" 
.ion  of  a  drfinitivr  p.-me  h.nwci-n   ih.-  EniptTor,  the   Kn.K  of 
Spain  and   ho  DnkJ  ..f  Savoy.     Evory  thin^  neen.ed  urnved 
at  nn  an      b    t.Tn.ination,  when  son.c  dil  .TCK-es  arc-  hc.tw..cn 
1  ;in.i..ion...rs  of  the  En.p.-ror  and  those  ol   th«  n.cdmt.ng 
nower^  which  oi-i-nsioned  new  interniptionH. 
"^  Moantin.o,  the  Duke  of  Bourhon.  who  had  succeeded  the  Duke 
of  Orlea      ..  .^e  n.inistry.  sent  back  to  Si.ain  the  Infanta  Mana 
3a>?.hter  „"  Philip  V.   wL  had  been,  ^-'^n^.^f^  ttrbl  1 

l^'Initr^fr  Ktmh  av!  ^;;on\ipperda.  ^  who,n  he  had  sent 
^8  e     ov  to  the  Imperial  Court  put  an  end  to  the  d.irerences  bo-    j 
me  n  te  two  powern,  in  despite  of  the  7-1";"- ^  Jj^^^"^;    | 
In  consequence,  i  special  treaty  was  5""'''"'»«*\„^;./'5"5;26       ' 
Uveen  the  Emperor  and  the  K.ng  of  ^P^  .  f  P^' f  ^^e  pro- 
This  treaty  renewed  the  renunciation  ol   PhiliP  V.   » /"c  pro 
vin  es  of  Kaly  and  the  Netherlands,  as  well  as  tliat  o    the  Em- 
pe  or  to  Spain  and  the  Indies.     The  eventual  investiture  o  the 
duchies  of  Parma  and  Placentia,  and  that  of  the  grand  dutchy 
0    Tu™;  were  also  confirmed.     The  only  now  clause  con- 
lained  h   K;  treaty,  was  that  bv  which  the  King  «1  ^^PJ"' '"'J^- 
ooU  to  Ruarantee  he  famous  I^ragmalic  Sanction  of  Charles  VI., 
ii  secured  to  the  daughter  of  that  Pnnce  the  succe^-on  of 
all  his  estates.     It  was  chiefly  on  this  account  that  1  hilip  V. 

became  reconciled  to  the  Court  of  Vienna.  

The  peace  of  Vienna  was  accompanied  by  a  defensive  alliance 
I     JveenTe  Emperor  and  the  Ki\ig  of  Si^in.     Among  other 
Causes,  one  was^hat  the  Emperor  should  '"te^PJ  ^°  «^^3 
1     for  the  Kin<r  of  Spain  the  restitution  of  Gibraltar  and  the  'sla  a 
of  Mfnor^a'';  while  Philip,  on  his  side,  granted  to  the  shippmj 
of  the  Emperor  and  his  subjects  free  entrance  into  his  ports,  and 
a  1  immunities  and  prerogatives  which  were  enjoyed  bv  the 
nations   in   the   strictest  commercial   connexions  with  bpam^ 
Th  secLses  alarmed  England  and  Holland;  and  the  mtimacj 
which  had  been  established  .between  the  Courts  of  V'^""''  ""^^^ 
Madrid  attracted  more  particularly  the  atention  of  the  Duke  ol 
Bourbon  who  dreaded  the  resentment  of  the  King  of  Spain,  as 
?e  had  advised  the  return  of  the  Infanta,     To  prevent  any^uch 
rnnsecmences  he  set  on  foot  a  league  with  England  and  Frus- 
a'c^pa^r^f  counteracting  that  of  Vienna,  w^k  V^  ^^tJ 
at  Herrenhausen,  near  Hanover  (Sept.  3,  1725.)  and  is  known 
bv  the  name  of  the  ilWiaMce  o/ //a7toj)er.  ., 

^AU  Europe  was  divided  between  these  two  alliances.     Hoi- 


'^^^. 


proceeded 

the  conclu- 

the   Kin(f  of 

it'd  iirrivt'd 

isi'  lictwcon 

iiifdintini} 

led  the  Duke 
i'uniii  Maria, 
the  court  of 
s  event  broke 
rei'iilled  his 
n  he  had  sent 
iircrences  bo- 
il of  France, 
t  Vienna  be- 
ril  'M,  1726.) 
V.  to  the  pro- 
,t  of  the  Em- 
;stit\ire  of  the 
grand  dutchy 
w  clause  con- 
Spain  under- 
if  Charles  VI., 
succession  of 
hat  Philip  V. 

I 
•nsive  alliance    j 

Among  other    ' 

pose  to  obtain 

and  the  island 

0  the  shipping 

his  ports,  and 
ijoyed  by  the 
!  with  Spain. 
[I  the  intimacy 
jf  Vienna  and 
if  the  Duke  of 
g  of  Spain,  as 
jvent  any  such 
ind  and  Prus- 
was  concluded 

and  is  known 

liances.     Hol- 


rEHioD  VIII.     A.  D.  171.9 — 1789. 


343 


land,  Sweden,  and  Dennmrk  aciedfd  to  tiie  ivIliaiKo  of  Honover. 
Cutli(!rine  I.  of  Uus.siu,  and  the  prin('i|ml  Ciuholic  Stute.>i  of  tho 
Empire  joined  lliiit  of  Vienna.  Tho  Emperor  even  Buccfcded 
in  (Ictai'liiiig  the  King  of  Prux^ia  from  the  alliance  of  Munovcr 
to  join  liis  own.  Euro|)e  seemed  then  on  the  ivcof  a  general 
war ;  the  ambassadors  to  the  diHereiit  courts  were  retailed.  The 
English  sent  a  numerous  nnd  powerful  fleet  to  America,  the 
Mediterrc.iean,  and  the  Baltic  ;  while  the  Snaniards  coimnenced 
hostilities,  by  laying  siege  to  Gibraltar.  Ihe  death  of  the  Em- 
press of  Russia  (May  17,  1727,)  however,  caused  a  change  in 
tho  disijosition  of  tho  Northern  powers.  The  Emperor,  seeing 
he  could  no  longer  reckon  on  the  assistance  of  Russia,  showed 
no  anxiety  to  second  the  etForts  of  the  Spaniards ;  but  what 
chiefly  contributed  to  the  maintenance  of  peace  was,  that  neither 
France  nor  England  was  desirous  of  war. 

In  this  situation  of  affairs,  the  Po|>e  interposed  his  mediation ; 
and  a  new  preliminary  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris,  which  or> 
dained  that  there  should  be  nn  armistice  for  seven  years ;  that 
the  Company  of  Ostend  should  be  suspended  for  the  same  time  ; 
and  that  a  new  General  Congress  snould  be  held  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

This  congress  was  first  transferred  to  Cambray,  and  thence  tc 
Soissons,  where  it  was  opened  in  1728.  Ambassadors  from 
almost  all  the  Courts  of  Europe  appeared  there ;  und  they  ex- 
pected, with  some  reason,  a  happy  conclusion  of  the  business  ; 
as  most  of  the  difficulties  which  had  embarrassed  the  Congress 
of  Cambray  were  settled  by  the  peace  of  Vienna,  and  as  the  only 
subject  for  deliberation  was  to  settle  the  succession  of  Parma  and 
Tuscany.  But  the  Emperor  having  demanded  that  the  Austrian 
Pragmatic  Sanction  should  be  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  arrange- 
ments for  establishing  the  peace  of  Soissons,  that  incident  be- 
came the  subject  of  new  disputes.  Cardinal  Fleury,  then  prime 
minister  of  France,  having  strongly  opposed  this  claim  of  the 
Court  of  Vienna,  tho  Emperor,  in  his  turn,  threw  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  the  negotiation  at  Soissons.  This  inclined  the  Car- 
dinal to  make  overtures  to  tho  Court  of  Madrid,  with  whom  he 
concerted  a  secret  negotiation,  in  which  he  also  found  means  to 
associate  England. 

This  gave  rise  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  union,  and  oflTensive  al- 
liance, which  was  signed  at  Seville  between  France,  Spain,  and 
England  (November  9,  1729.)  These  powers  engaged  to  gua- 
rantee the  succession  of  Parma  and  Tuscany  in  favour  of  the 
Infante  Don  Carlos ;  and  to  efTect  this,  they  resolved  to  substitute 
six  thousand  Spanish  troops  in  the  Swiss  garrisons,  named  by 
the  Quadruple  Alliance.     The  Dutch  acceded  to  that  treaty,  in 


IJF^ 


'! 


{'■S 


i 


.11. '( 


i 


> 


r 


344 


(JHAPTER  IX. 


ronsideration  of  the  engagement  which  the  contracting  powers 
came  under  to  give  them  entire  satisfaction  with  respect  to  the 

The"lmperor!  finding  the  treaty  of  Seville  concluded  .vith- 
out  his  co-operation,  was  apprehensive  of  having  failed  in  his 
:.rincipal  aim,  viz.  the  adoption  of  the  Austrian  Pragniatic  Sanc- 
tion. He  was  indignant  that  the  allies  at  Seville  should  pre- 
tend to  lav  down  the  law  to  him  touching  the  abolition  ot  tha 
Ostend  Company,  and  the  introduction  of  Spanish  troops  into 
Italy.  Accordingly,  being  determined  not  to  comply,  he  imme- 
diately broke  off  all  relationship  with  the  Court  of  Spain  ;  he 
recalled  his  ambassador,  and  took  measures  to  prevent  the  Spa- 
nish troops  from  taking  possession  of  Italy.  The  last  Duke  of 
Parma,  Anthony  Farnese,  being  dead  (1731,)  he  took  posses- 
sion  of  his  dutchy  by  force  of  arms. 

At  length,  to  terminate  all  these  differences,  the  Kmg  of  t-ng- 
land,  in  concert  with  the  States-General,  opened  a  negotiation 
with  the  Emperor  ;  the  result  of  which  was  a  treaty  of  alhance 
signed  at  Vienna,  between  him,  England  and  Holland  (March 
16  1731  )  In  virtue  of  that  treaty,  the  three  contracting  pow- 
ers' mutually  guaranteed  their  estates,  rights  and  possessions ; 
England  and  Holland,  more  especially,  engaged  to  guarantee 
the°  Austrian  Pragmatic  Sanction  ;  and  the  Emperor,  on  his 
side,  consented  to  the  introduction  of  Spanish  troops  into  Italy, 
and  to  the  su.-ression  of  the  Company  of  Ostend;  he  even 
aereed  that  the  Netherlands  should  never  carry  on  trade  with 
the  Indies,  either  by  the  Ostend  Company,  or  any  other. 

In  consequence  of  this  treaty,  which  was  approved  by  the 

States-General,  Don  Carlos  took  possession  of  Parma  and  P  a- 

centia ;  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  also  recognised  him 

as  his  successor.     Thus  terminated  these  long  disputes  abou 

the  Spanish  Succession,  after  having  agitateu  the  greater  part 

of  Europe  for  upwards  of  thirty  years.         ...       ,    .^^^ 

In  the  midst  of  these  contentions,  a  war  had  arisen  between 

the  Porte  ^.d  the  Republic  of  Venice  ;  in  which  the  Emperor 

Chafles  VI.  was  also  implicated.     The  Turks  were  desirous  of 

reco  Sng  the  Morea,  wLch  they  had  been  obliged  to  abandon 

0  the  Venetians  at  the  peace  of  Carlowitz  ;  but  mstead  of  at- 

tacking  that  Republic,  while  the  Emperor  was  enff  J  wUh  \he 

French  war,  and  unable  to  render  it  assistan.:e,  they  waitfd  till 

the  concfu'l^n  of  the  treaties  of  Utrecht.  Rastadt,  and  Baden, 

Lfore  they  declared  hostilities.     The  pretexts  which  he  Turks 

made  to  justify  this  rupture  were  extremely  frivolous  ,  but  they 

knew  we  1  thatthe  Venetians,  who  had  ived  ,n  the  most  c^n^- 

pletc  security  since  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  had  neglected  to  re- 


iimmmm 


ing  powers 
sped  to  the 

uded  ivith- 
liled  111  his 
matic  Sanc- 
should  pre- 
ition  of  the 
troops  into 
y,  he  imme- 
Spain  ;  he 
ent  the  Spa- 
ast  Duke  of 
took  posses- 
ting  of  Eng- 
1  negotiation 
f  of  alliance, 
and  (March 
racting  pow- 
possessions ; 
to  guarantee 
peror,  on  his 
ps  into  Italy, 
id ;  he  even 
1  trade  with 
other. 

roved  by  the 
rma  ana  Pla- 
;ognised  him 
isputes  about 
greater  part 

isen  between 
the  Emperor 
•e  desirous  of 
i  to  abandon 
nstead  of  at- 
iged  with  the 
ey  waited  till 
and  Baden, 
ch  the  Turks 
»us  ;  but  they 
e  most  com- 
>glected  to  rc- 


PERIOP  VIII.      A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


345 


|»ir  the  fortifications  which  had  been  dcstroj'ed  in  the  war,  and 
that  it  would  be  easy  for  them  to  reconquer  them. 

In  fact,  during  the  campaign  of  1715,  the  Grand  Vizier  noi 
only  recovered  the  Morea,  he  even  dispossessed  the  Venetians 
of  the  places  which  they  still  retained  in  the  Isle  of  Candia ; 
and,  ai  the  commencement  of  the  following  campaign,  they  laid 
MOge  to  the  town  of  Corfu.  Charles  VI.  thought  he  was  bound, 
as  the  guarantee  of  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  to  espouse  the 
lauso  of  the  Venetians  ;  he  declared  war  against  the  Porte,  and 
his  example  was  followed  by  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  Spain, 
who  united  their  fleets  to  those  of  the  Republic.  The  Turks 
were  defeated  in  several  engagements,  and  obliged  to  raise  thr» 
siege  of  Corfu,  after  sacrificing  a  great  many  lives. 

The  campaigns  of  1716  and  1717  in  Hungary,  were  trium- 
phant for  the  armies  of  the  Emperor  ;  Prince  Eugene  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Grand  Vizier,  near  Peterwaradin  (Au- 
gust 5th,)  which  enabled  him  to  invest  Temeswar,  which  he 
carried  after  a  siege  of  six  months,  and  thus  completed  the 
conquest  of  Hungary.  To  crown  his  glory,  that  great  captain 
next  undertook  the  siege  of  Belgrade,  regarded  by  the  1  urks 
as  the  principal  bulwark  of  their  Empire.  The  Grand  Vizier 
marched  to  the  relief  of  the  place,  at  the  head  of  a  formidahi?? 
army.  He  encamped  before  Belgrade,  and  enclosed  the  Impe- 
rial army  within  a  semicircle,  reaching  from  the  Danube  to  the 
Save.  Prince  Eugene  had  then  no  other  alternative  than  to 
leave  his  camp,  and  attack  the  Turks  in  their  intrenchmenls. 
He  took  his  measures  which  such  address,  that,  in  spite  of  the 
great  superiority  of  the  Turks,  he  forced  them  back  to  their 
camp,  and  put  them  completely  to  rout  (Aug.  16,  1717.) 

This  victory  was  followed  by  the  reduction  of  Belgrade,  and 
several  other  places  on  the  Save  and  the  Danube.  The  Porte 
began  to  wish  for  peace  ;  and  as  the  Emperor,  who  had  just  been 
attacked  in  Italy  by  the  Spaniards,  was  equally  desirous  to  put 
aa  end  to  the  war,  both  parties  agreed  to  accept  the  mediation 
of  England  and  Holland.  A  congress  was  opened  at  Passaro- 
witz,  X  small  town  in  Servia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Morau.  A 
peace  was  there  concluded  between  the  three  belligerent  powers 
(July  21,  1718,)  on  the  basi^'  of  the  Uti  pomdetis.  The  Empe- 
ror retained  Temeswar,  Orsova,  Belgrade,  and  the  part  of  Wal- 
lachia  lying  on  this  side  of  the  river  Aluta ;  as  also  Servia,  ac- 
cording to  the  limits  determined  by  the  treaty,  and  both  banks 
of  the  Save,  from  the  Drino  to  the  Unna.  The  Venetians  lost 
the  Morea,  but  they  retained  several  places  in  Her/egovma, 
Dalmatia,  and  Albania,  which  they  had  conquered  during  the 
war.  The  Porte  restored  to  them  the  Island  of  Cerigo  in  ih»» 
Archipeingct. 


I 

h 


j.  1. 


,^l 


.%[- 


■ 


wm 


L  \  \ 


i!ii 


I,. 


1 


846 


CHAPTER  IX. 


The  success  of  Charles  VI.  in  this  war  procured  some  new 
adva..tages  to  his  house,  on  the  part  of  the  States  of  Hungary.     ; 
The  Diet  of  1687,  in  vesting  the  hereditary  right  of  that  king- 
ar.n  in  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  had  restricted  that  right,  solely 
to  the  male  descendants  of  the  House  of  Austria;  and  Charles 
VI  ,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  had  acknowledged  the  dec 
tive  right  of  the  States,  in  case  he  should  happen  to  die  without 
leaving  any  male  offspring.     This  prince,  find'"g  fft«7^1;4« 
that  he  had  no  other  children  left  than  the  two  daughters  by  his 
marriage  with  Elizabeth  princess  of  Brunswick,  and  being  desi- 
rous  of  securing  to  them  the  succession  of  Hun^iy  as  well  as 
his  other  estates,  assembled  a  Diet  at  Presburg  (1722,)  and  there 
engaged  the  States  of  the  kingdom  to  extend  the  right  of  sue- 
cession  to  females,  according  to  the  order  which  he  had  estab- 
lished  in  the  Austrian  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  published  some 

^^Arevohd'on  happened  in  the  government  of  Sweden  imme- 
diately  after  the  death  of  Charles  XII.  and  before  the  grea  war 
of  the  North  was  quite  ended.     Reduced  to  a  state  of  great  dis- 
tress  by  the  folly,  ambition,  and  inflexible  obstinacy  of  that  prince, 
Sweden  saw  her  finest  provinces  occupied  by  the  enemy,  her 
commerce  annihilated,  her  armies  and  her  fleets  destroyed. 
Thev  attributed  these  disasters  chiefly  to  t.ie  absolute  power  ol 
Charles  XII.,  and  the  abuse  he  had  made  of  it.     1  he  only  reme- 
dy for  so  many  evils,  they  conceived,  was  to  abolish  a  power 
vvhich  had  become  so  pernicious  to  the  State.     As  Chyles  had 
never  been  married,  the  throne,  according  to  the  hereduary  law 
established  in  Sweden,  passed  to  the  son  of  the  dutchess  oi  Hoi- 
stein-Gottorp,  eldest  sister  of  Charles  ;  but  the  Senate  of  Sv  eden 
preferred  to  him  the  princess  Ulrica  Eleonora,  younger  sister  ot 
Ihe  late  king ;  because  of  the  declaration  she  had  made,  renoun- 
cing all  absolute  power,  and  consenting  to  hold  the  crown  only 
bv  the  free  election  of  the  States  of  the  kingdom.     The  States, 
in  an  assembly  held  at  Stockholm,  in  the  beginning  of  1719,  de 
blared  the  throne  vacant,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  election  oi 
the  princess.     With  their  act  of  election,  they  presented  her  with 
I    a  new  form  of  government,  and  an  act  known  by  the  name  ot 
I     the  Royal  Assurance,  which  imposed  new  hnntations  on  the 
'     royal  authority.     The  princess  signed  these  acts  (February  jh) 
i     and  the  States  declared  that  whoever  should  attempt  to  restore 
■     absolute  power,  should  be  considered  as  a  traitor  to  his  country. 
The  government  was  intrusted  to  the  queen  conninctly  with 
:     the  Senate ;  while  the  legislative  power  was  reserved  to  the 
Slates,  to  meet  regularly  every  three  years.     The  q"een  had 
the  right  of  proposing  bills  or  ordinances  :   but  before  these 


i!f*ff::^"t?;-fnr-if.  :?,%r-£~" 


PERIOD  7111.      A.  D.   1713 — 1789. 


347 


i  some  new 
of  Hungary, 
if  that  king- 
,  right,  solely 
and  Charles 
ged  the  elec- 
)  die  without 
g  afterwards 
ghters  by  his 
id  being  desi- 
ry  as  well  as 
22,)  and  there 
right  of  suc- 
he  had  estab- 
iblished  some 

vveden  imme- 
the  great  war 
e  of  great  dis- 
of  that  prince, 
le  enemy,  her 
;ts  destroyed, 
jlute  power  of 
"he  only  reme- 
olish  a  power 
s  Charles  had 
tierediiary  law 
Itches?  of  Hol- 
late  of  Sv  eden 
unger  sister  of 
made,  renoun- 
he  crown  only 
.     The  States, 
ig  of  1719,  de 
the  election  ol 
rented  her  with 
)y  the  name  of 
itations  on  the 
(February  21,) 
empt  to  restore 
to  his  country, 
conjunctly  with 
•eserved  to  the 
rhe  queen  had 
It  before  these 


could  have  the  force  of  law,  they  were  to  be  submitted  to  the 
examination  of  the  States,  without  whose  consent  war  was  never 
10  be  proclaimed.     As  for  the  deliberations  of  the  Senate,  it  was 
resolved,  that  they  should  be  decided  by  a  plurality  of  suffrages, 
that  the  queen  should  havf  two  votes,  and  a  casting  vote  be- 
sides.    Thus,  the  chief  power  was  vested  in  the  hands  of  the 
Senate,  the  members  of  which  resumed  their  ancient  title  of 
Senators  of  the  kingdom,  instead  of  that  of  Counsellors  to  the 
King,  which  had  been  bestowed  on  them  at  the  revolution  of 
1680.     Ulrica  Eleonora  afterwards  resigned  the  crown  lO  her 
husband  prince  Frederic  of  Hesse-Cassel.     The  States,  in  their 
election  of  that  prince  (May  22, 1720,)  ordained  that  the  Queen, 
in  case  she  should  survive  her  husband,  should  be  reinstated  in 
her  rights,  and  resume  the  crown,  without  the  necessity  of  a  new 
deliberation  of  the  Slates.     Frederic,  by  the  Royal  Assurance, 
and  the  form  of  government  which  he  signed,  agreed  to  certain 
new  modifications  of  the  royal  power,  especially  concerning  ap- 
pointments to  places  of  trust.     By  these  different  stipulations, 
and  the  changes  which  took  place  in  consequence,  the  power  of 
the  Swedish  kings  was  gradually  reduced  to  very  narrow  limits. 
It  was  so  much  the  more  easy  to  make  encroachments  o"  the 
royal  power,  as  the  King,  by  a  radical  defect  in  the  new  form 
of  government,  had  no  constitutional  means  of  preserving  the 
little  authority  that  was  left  him. 

The  death  of  Augustus  II.  of  Poland,  occasioned  new  dis- 
turbances, which  passed  from  the  North  to  the  South  of  Europe 
and  brought  about  great  changes  in  Italy.  Louis  XV.  took  the 
opportunity  of  that  event  to  replace  Stanislaus  on  the  throne  of 
Poland,  who  was  his  father-m-law,  and  the  former  proteg^  of 
Charles  XII.  The  Primate,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Polish 
nobility  being  in  the  interest  of  that  prince,  he  was  consequently 
elected  (Sept.  12,  1733.) 

Anne  Iwanowna,  dutchess-dowager  of  Courland,  and  niece  of 
Peter  the  Great,  had  just  ascended  the  throne  of  Russia ;  having 
succeeded  Peter  II.  (June  20,  1730,)  who  was  cut  off  in  the 
flower  of  his  age  without  leaving  any  progeny.  The  grandees, 
in  conferring  the  crown  on  Anne,  had  limited  her  power  by  a 
capitulation  which  they  made  her  sign  at  Mittau,  but  which  she 
cancelled  immediately  on  her  arrival  at  Moscow.  That  princess, 
dreading  the  influence  of  France  in  Poland,  in  case  of  a  war 
between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  espoused  the  interests  of  Augus- 
tus III.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  son  of  the  late  King,  whom  she 
wished  to  place  on  the  Polish  throne.  Part  of  the  Polish  nobility, 
withdrawing  from  the  field  of  election,  and  supported  by  a  Rus* 
sian  army,  proclaimed  that  prince,  in  opposition  to  Stanislaus, 
ihe  proteg^  of  France. 


iil'N 


I,     i 


ii-ll 


in' 


"( 


s 


348 


CHAPTER  IX. 


The  Russians,  reinforced  by  the  Saxon  troops,  seized  Warsp.'.v      . 
and  compelled  Stanislaus  to  retire  to  Dantzic,  where  he  was  be- 
sieged by  a  Russian  army,  under  command  of  Field-Marshal 
Munich,  and  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  flight.     Louis  XV.  wish-     ! 
ing  to  avenge  this  injury  offered*  to  his  father-in-law,  and  not     : 
being  in  a  condition  to  attack  Russia,  resolved  to  declare  war 
against  the  Emperor ;  ,.a  the  ground  that  he  had  marched  an     j 
army  to  the  frontiers  of  Poland,  for  supporting  the  election  of 
the  Saxon  prince. 

Spain  and  Sardinia  espoused  the  cause  of  Stanislaus,  which 
seemed  to  them  to  be  the  cause  of  Kings  in  general ;  while  the 
Emperor  saw  himself  abandoned  by  England   and  Holland, 
whose  assistance  he  thought  he  might  claim,  in  virtiie  of  the 
guarantee  which  the  treaty  of  Vienna  had  stipulated  in  his  fa- 
vour.    But  these  powers'  judged  it  more  for  their  interests  to 
preserve  strict  neutrality  in  this  war,  on  the  assurance  which 
France  had  given  the  States-General,  not  to  make  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  the  theatre  of  hostilities.     The  French  commenced 
operations  by  directing  the  Count  de  Belleisle  to  seize  Lorraine, 
the  sovereign  of  which,  Francis  Stephen,  son  of  Duke  Leopold 
was  to  have  married  Maria  Theresa,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Em- 
peror Charles  VL     About  the  same  time,  Marshal  Berwick 
passed  the  Rhine  at  the  head  of  the  French  army,  and  reduced 
the  fortress  of  Kehl.     By  thus  attacking  a  fortress  of  the  Em- 
pire, France  gave  the  Emperor  a  pretext  for  engaging  the  Ger-, 
manic  Bodv  in  his  quarrel.     In  fact,  he  declared  war  against 
France  and  her  allies ;  which  induced  the  French  to  seize  seve- 
ral places  on  the  Moselle,  and  to  reduce  the  fortress  of  Philips- 
burg,  at  the  siege  of  which.  Marshal  Berwick  was  slain  (June 
12,  1734.)  ,    ,  ^        . 

The  principal  scene  of  the  war  then  lay  in  Italy  ;   where  the 
campaigns  of  1734  and  1735  were  most  glorious  for  the  allies. 
After  the  two  victories  which  they  had  gained  over  the  Impe- 
rialists near  Parma  (Ju'.e  29,)  and  Guastalla  (Sept.  17,)  they 
made  themselves  master  of  all  Austrian  Lombardy,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Mantua,  which  they  laid  under  blockade. 
A  Spanish  army,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Montemar,  ac- 
companied by  the  Infante  Don  Carlos,  directed  their  march  on 
Naples,  which  threw  open  its  gates  to  the  Spaniards.     The 
victory   which  they  gained  over  the  Imperialists  at  Bitonto 
(May  25,)  decided  the  fate  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.     After 
this  conquest,  the  Infante  passed  to  Sicily.     He  soon  reduced 
that  island,  and  was  crowned  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  at  Pa- 
lermo (July  3,  1735.) 

The  Emperor,  overwhelmed  by  so  many  reverses,  and  unaWo 


4i 


led  Warsp.'.v 
e  he  was  be- 
ield-Marshal 
s  XV.  wish- 
aw,  and  not 
declare  war 
marched  an 
election  of 

islaus,  which 
1;  while  the 
ind  Holland, 
virtue  of  the 
ted  in  his  fa- 
ir interests  to 
urance  which 
the  Austrian 
h  commenced 
eize  Lorraine, 
)uke  Leopold 
;er  of  the  Em- 
shal  Berwick 
,  and  reduced 
ss  of  the  Em- 
iging  the  Ger-, 
d  war  against 
I  to  seize  seve- 
;ss  of  Philips- 
as  slain  (June 

ly ;  .".here  the 
for  the  allies, 
ver  the  Impe- 
lept.  17,)  they 
irdy,  with  the 
ider  blockade. 
Montemar,  ac* 
leir  march  on 
aniards.  The 
sts  at  Bitonto 
^Taples.  After 
soon  reduced 
Sicilies  at  Pa- 

les,  and  unablo 


fill 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


349 


•0  withstand  the  powers  leagued  against  him,  eagerly  solicited 
assistance  from  Russia.  The  Empress  Anne,  who  saw  the  war 
loiminated  in  Poland,  and  Augustus  in  quiet  possession  of  the 
throne,  despatched  a  body  of  ten  tliousand  auxiliaries,  under 
the  command  of  General  Count  de  Lacy,  into  Germany,  m  thf 
i^pring  of  the  year  1735.  These  troops,  the  first  Kussians  who 
had  appeared  in  that  country,  joined  the  Imperial  army  on  the 
Rhine,  which  was  commanded  by  Prince  Eugene.  That  Gene- 
ral, however,  did  not  succeed  in  his  design  of  transferring  the 
seat  of  war  to  Lorraine. 

Matters  were  in  this  situation,  when  the  maritime  powers  in- 
terposed their  good  offices  for  restoring  peace  between  the  Em- 
peror and  the  States  leagued  against  him.  Cardinal  Fleury, 
perceiving  that  their  mediation  was  not  agreeable  to  the  Impe- 
rial Court,  took  the  resolution  of  concerting  a  secret  negotia- 
tion with  the  Emperor,  the  result  of  which  was  a  treaty  of  pre- 
liminaries ;  although  much  deliberation  was  necessary  before 
coming  to  the  conclusion  of  a  definitive  peace.  This  was  at 
lengtli  signed  at  Vienna,  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and  the 
Empire,  on  the  8th  of  November  1738.  The  former  treaties  of 
Westphalia,  Nimeguen,  Ryswick,  Utrecht,  and  the  Quadruple 
Alliance,  were  admitted  as  the  basis  of  this  treaty.  Stanislaus 
renounced  the  throne  of  Poland,  and  retained  the  title  only 
during  his  life.  They  gave  him,  by  way  of  compensation,  the 
dutchies  of  Lorraine  and  Bar,  on  condition  that,  at  his  death, 
they  should  revert  with  full  rig.it  to  France.  The  single  coun- 
ty of  Falkenstein,  with  its  appurtenances  and  dependencies, 
was  reserved  for  Francis,  Duke  of  Lorraine.  In  exchange  for 
the  dutchy  which  he  abdicated,  that  prince  received  the  grand 
dutchy  of  Tuscany,  whose  last  possessor,  John  Gaston,  of  the 
House  of  Medici,  had  just  died  without  leaving  any  posterity 
(1737.)  The  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  with  the  ports  of 
Tuscany,  were  secured  to  Don  Carlos  and  his  descendants, 
male  and  female ;  and,  in  failure  of  them,  to  the  younger  bro- 
thers of  that  prince,  and  their  descendants.  On  his  part,  Don 
Carlos  ceded  to  the  Emperor  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and  Pla- 
centia,  and  even  renounced  the  rights  which  former  treaties  had 
given  him  over  the  grand  dutchy  of  Tuscany.  They  restored 
to  the  Emperor  all  that  had  been  taken  from  him  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  Milan  and  Mantua ;  with  the  reservation  of  the  dis- 
tricts of  ^^ovara  and  Tortona,  which  he  was  obliged  to  cede  lo 
Charles  i^imanuel  III.,  King  of  Sardinia,  together  with  San- 
Pidele,  Torre  di  Forti,  Gravedo,  and  Campo-Maggiore  ;  is  also 
the  territorial  superiority  of  the  fiefs  commonly  called  Langhcs, 
to  be  held  entirely  as  Imperial  fiefs.     Finally,  France  under- 


iiH 


I*:: 


\\ . 


,:    i 


w 


.■:.■' 

I'll 

,li 

It-   '.' 

'(     'it 

i 

1  ■ 

,|:-,i 

Ik 

ijljIH  \ 


w. 


850 


CHAPTER  IX. 


took,  in  the  most  authentic  form,  to  guarantee  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  of  the  Emperor. 

The  Kinf's  of  Spain  and  Sardinia  were  not  satishcd  with  ihe 
conditions  of  this  treaty.  The  former  wished  to  preserve  the 
•nand  dutohy  of  Tuscany,  with  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and 
Placentia  ;  and  the  other  had  expected  to  obtain  a  larger  portion 
M'  Lombardy.  Thus,  these  princes  long  hesitated  to  admit  the 
articles  agreed  to  between  the  courts  of  France  and  Vienna ; 
nor  did  they  give  their  consent  until  the  year  1739. 

While  these  disputes  about  the  succession  of  Poland  occupied 
a  trreat  part  of  Europe,  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Turks  and 
the  Russians,  in  which  Austria  was  also  implicated.     The  Em- 
cress  Anne  of  Russia,  wishing  to  recover  Azoflf,  and  repair  the 
loss  which   Peter  the  Great  had  sustained  m  his  unfortunate 
campaign  on  the  Pruth,  took  advantage  of  the  war  between  the 
Turks  and  the  Peraians,  to  form  an  alliance  with  Khouli  Khan, 
the  famons  conqueror  of  the  East,   who   had  just  subverted 
the  ancient  dynasty  of  the  Sophis  of  Persia.     The  incursions 
which  the  Tartars  had  made  at  diflerent  times  into  the  Russian 
provinces,  without  the  Porte  thinking  proper  to  check  them, 
served  as  a  motive  for   the  Empress  to  order  an  expedition 
against  the  Turks  (1735,)  and  to  declare    /ar  against  the  Porte 
soon  after.     It  was  during  the  campaign  of  1736  that  Count 
Lacy  madf^  himself  master  of  Azoti;  and  that  Marshal  Munich, 
after  having  forced  the  lines  at  Perekop,  penetrated  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  Crimea ;  but  having  in  that  expedition  lost  many 
of  his  men  by  famine  and  disease,  he  found  it  impossible  to 
maintain  himself  in  that  peninsula. 

The  Emperor  offered  himself  at  first  as  a  mediator  between 
the  belligerent  powers.    A  conference  was  opened  at  Niemerow 
in  Poland,  which  proved  fruitless.     The  Russians  who  had  just 
!    taken  Oczakoff,  emboldened  by  their  success,  were  desirous  to 
I    continue  the  war  ;  while  the  Emperor,  without  reflecting  on  the 
i    bad  condition  of  his  military  strength,  and  the  loss  which  he 
I    had  sustained  by  the  death  of  the  celebrated  prince  Eugene 
I    (April  21,  1736,)  thought  only  of  sharing  the  conquest  with  the 
'    Russians.     He  then  laid  aside  the  character  of  mediator,  to 
'     Tct  on  the  defensive  against  the  Turks  ;  but  he  had  soon  rea- 
I    son  to  repent  of  this  measure.     The  Turks,  encouraged  by  the 
i    famous  Count  de  Bonneval,  gained  considerable   advantages 
j    over  the   Austrians  ;  and  in  course  of  the  campaigns  of  17J7 
!    and  1738,  thev  dislodged  them  f    m  Wallachia  and  Servia,  re- 
!    took  Orsova,  and  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Belgrade  in  1739. 
The  Court  of  Vienna,  in  a  state  of  great  consternation,  had 
recourse  to  the  mediation  of  M.  de  VilTeneuVe.  the  French  am- 


4J 


•j. 


le  PragnAtic 

ified  with  ihe 
preserve  the 
f  Parma  and 
arger  portion 

to  admit  the 
and  Vienna; 
J. 

land  occupied 
he  Turks  and 
d.     The  Em-    1 
nd  repair  the    | 
s  unfortunate    1 
r  between  the    \ 
Khouli  Khan,    | 
ust  subverted 
i'he  incursions 
o  the  Russian 
)  check  them, 
an  expedition 
linst  the  Porte 
'36  that  Count 
irshal  Munich, 
ted  into  the  in- 
tion  lost  many 

impossible  to 

liator  between 
d  at  Niemerow 
s  who  had  just 
ere  desirous  to 
eflecting  on  the 
loss  which  he 
prince  Eugene 
iquest  with  the 
of  mediator,  to 
had  soon  rea- 
^ouraged  by  the 
ble  advantages 
ipaigns  of  1737 
and  Servia,  re- 
ade  in  1739. 
isternation,  had 
the  French  ajn- 


PERIOD  Vlll.     A.  D.  1713 — 1799. 


351 


tossador  a^  Constantinople,  to  sue  for  peace  with  the  Porte ; 
Count  Neipperg,  who  was  sent  by  the  Emperor  to  the  Turkish 
camp  before  Belgrade,  signed  there,  with  too  much  precipita- 
tion, a  treaty,  under  very  disadvantageous  terms  for  Austria : 
and  the  Empress  Anne,  who  had  intrusted  the  French  ambas- 
sador with  her  full  powers,  consented  also  to  a  peace  very  un- 
favourable for  Russia,  notwithstanding  the  brilliant  victory 
.vhich  Marshal  Munich  had  gained  over  the  Turks  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Choczim  (Oct.  28,  1739,)  which  was  followed  by 
the  capture  of  that  place,  and  the  conquest  of  Moldavia  by  the 
Russians. 

The  Emperor,  by  that  peace,  ceded  to  the  Porte,  Belgrade, 
Sabatz,  and  Orsova,  with  Austrian  Servia  and  Wallnchia.  The 
Danube,  the  Save,  and  the  Unna,  were  ngain  settled  as  the 
boundary  between  the  two  Empires ;  ^nd  Austria  preserved 
nothing  but  the  Banat  of  Temcswar,  of  all  that  had  been  ceded 
to  her  by  the  peace  of  Passarowitz.  The  Austrian  merchants, 
however,  were  granted  free  pas.sage  into  and  out  of  the  king- 
doms and  provinces  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  both  by  sea  and 
land,  in  their  own  vessels,  with  the  flag  and  letters-patent  of  the 
Emperor,  on  condition  of  their  paying  the  accustomed  dues. 

Russia  surrendered  all  her  conquests,  and  among  others 
Choczim  and  Moldavia.  The  boundaries  between  the  two  Em- 
pires were  regulated  by  different  special  agreements.  The  for- 
tress of  AzofT  was  demolished ;  and  it  was  stipulated  that  Russia 
should  not  construct  any  new  fortress  within  thirty  versts  of  that 
place,  on  the  one  side ;  nor  the  Porte  within  thirty  versts,  on  the 
side  of  the  Cuban.  Russia  was  even  interdicted  from  having 
and  constructing  fleets  or  other  naval  stores,  either  on  the  Sea 
of  AzofT  or  the  Black  Sea.  The  Zaporog  Cossacs  continued 
under  the  dominion  of  Russia,  which  obtained  also  from  the 
Porte  the  acknowledgment  of  the  Imperial  title.  The  peace  be- 
tween Russia  and  the  Porte  was  declared  perpetual ;  but  they 
limited  that  between  Austria  and  the  Porte  to  twenty-seven 
years.  The  latter  was  renewed  under  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa  ;  and  rendered  also  perpetual,  by  an  agreement  which 
that  princess  concluded  with  the  Porto,  May  25,  1747. 

The  succession  to  Charle*- VL.the  last  male  descendant  of  the 
House  of  Hapsburfj,  who  died  October  20th  1740,  kindled  a  new 
general  war  ir   Europe.     That  prince,  in  the  year  1713,  had 

fublishijd  an  order  of  succession,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
'ragmatic  Sanction,  which  decreed,  that  failing  his  lineal  heirs- 
male,  his  own  daughters  should  succeed  in  preference  to  those 
of  his  brother  the  Emperor  Joseph  I. ;  and  that  the  succession 
of  his  daughters  should  be  regulated  according  to  the  order  of 


W 


f'J  \ 


mi/. 


I 


III 


:11: 


nrimojrcniture,   so  thai  ihc  elder  should  be  preferred  to  the     , 
Vounffcr,  and  that  she  alone  should  inherit  his  whole  eatate*.     , 
He  took  <rrcat  pains  to  Ret  this  order  approved  by  the  differenl 
hereditary  States  of  Austria,  as  well  as  bv  the  daughters  of  his     ; 
brother  Joseph  1.,  and  by  the  husbands  of  these  princesses,  the     , 
Electors  of  Saxony  and  liavaria.     He  even  obtained,  by  degrees 
the  sanction  of  all  the  principal  powers  of  Europe.     But  though 
his  external  policy  had  been  very  active  m  securing  the  rights 
of  his  eldest  daughter  Maria  Theresa,  he  neglected  those  mea- 
sies  to  which  he  ought  rather  to  have  directed  his  attention. 
The  wretched  state  in  which  he  left  his  finances  and  his  army, 
encouraged  a  number  of  pretenders,  vho  disputed  the  succession 

''''oV\k)U' claimants,  the  principal  was  the  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
who.  as  being  descended  from  Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Fer- 
dinand  I.,  advanced  the  claims  of  the  females  of  thee Ider  hne, 

against  those  of  the  younger ;  f  """^^^  «" ''^t'°"f  r'„v1^  „; 
riace  between  that  princess  and  Albert  V.  Duke  of  Bavaria,  as 
well  as  on  the  will' f  Ferdinand  I.  The  El-t«ro  Saxony, 
then  Kin-  of  Poland,  although  he  had  approved  of  the  Prag- 
malic  Sanction,  claimed  the  succession,  as  being  husband  of  the  , 
e  der  of  the  daughters  of  Joseph  I.,  and  in  virtue  of  a  compact  be- 
titenhetwobrolhers.JosephI.andCharlesVI..whichprov^ 

that  the  daughters  of  Joseph  should,  under  all  circumstances,  be 
nrefen-ed  to  those  of  Charles.  .     ■•     j         „f  n« 

•^  Philip  v..  King  of  Spin,  laid  claim  to  the  kingdoms  of  Bo- 
hp.nia  and  Huncrarv.     He  grounded  his  rights  on  an  agreement 
i    (Sr  we  nSip  HI.  of  Spain  and  Ferdinand  of  Austria 
!    afterwards  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  H. ;  ^/'^^-^'^^  '«  .^'»^  f 
!    ?hese  kin-doms  were  to  pass  to  the  descendan  s  of  Phihp  HI., 
I     fan  ng  the  male  line  of  Ferdinand.     A  war  had  ""^en  beuveen 
i     Spain  and  England  on  account  of  the  clandestine  traffic  which 
I    The  English  carried  on  in  Spanish  America,  under  favour  of  the 
I    .LuTcM^xe  Assiento^   Philip  V.  thought  of  turning  these 
;    dSences   eblive  to  the  Austrian  succession  to  his  own  advan- 
tose  either  for  drawing  France  into  an  alliance  with  h.m  against 
England  or  to  procure  for  his  son  Don  Phiip  a  settlement  m 
Italy,  at  the  expense  of  the  daughter  of  Char  es  VI. 
Kederic  H.   King  of  Prussia,  who  had  jusl  succeeded  hw 
;    father  Frederic  William  I.,  judged  this  a  favourable  time    or 
^      urning  his  attention  to  the  affairs  of  his  own  kingdom,  and  fro- 
fitting  bv  the  troops  and  treasures  which  his  father  had  leJt. 
WUh  this  view,  he   revived  certain   claims  of  his  family  to 
.Tv  ral  Sitciies'  and  principalities  in  Silesia,  of  ff  ^js  an- 
ceslors,  he  maintained,  had  been  unjustly  deprived  by  Austria 


fened  to  the 
whole  estates. 

the  differonl 
ighters  of  his 
rincesses,  the 
d,  by  degrees, 
But  though 
ing  the  rights 
ed  tliose  mea- 

his  attention, 
and  his  army, 
the  succession 

:or  of  Bavaria, 
ughter  of  Fer- 
the  elder  line, 
jntract  of  mar- 
of  Bavaria,  as 
or  of  Saxony, 
1  of  the  Prag- 
husband  of  the 
fa  compact  be- 
vhich  provided, 
cumstances,  be 

n£jdoms  of  Bo- 
i\  an  agreement 
uid  of  Austria, 
ding  to  which 
i  of  Philip  III., 
arisen  between 
le  traffic  which 
er  favour  of  the 
i(  turning  these 
his  own  advan- 
'ith  him  against 
a  settlement  in 
VI. 

[  succeeded  his 
iirable  time  for 
igdom,  and  pro- 
father  had  left. 
if  his  family  to 
f  which  his  an- 
ved  by  Austria 


I     t 


TERior  vui.    A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


353 


Finally,  the  King  of  Sardinia  laid  claim  to  the  whole  dutchy  of 
Milan ;  grounded  on  the  contract  of  marriage  between  his  an- 
cestor, Charles  Emanuel  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  the  daughter  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  The  Court  of  France,  wishing  to  avail 
herself  of  these  circumstances  for  humbling  Austria,  her  ancient 
rival,  set  on  foot  a  negotiation  with  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and 
engaged  to  procure  him  the  Imperial  crown,  with  a  part  of  thr 
territories,  of  which  he  had  deprived  Austria. 

An  alliance  was  concluded  between  France,  Spain,  and  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  which  was  joined  also  by  the  Kings  of  Prus- 
sia, Poland,  Sardinia,  and  the  two  Sicilies ;  and  to  prevent 
Russia  from  affording  assistance  to  Maria  Theresa,  they  pre- 
vailed on  Sweden  to  declare  war  against  that  power.  The 
Court  of  Vienna  having  complained  of  these  resolutions  of  the 
French  Cabinet,  which  were  directly  opposed  to  the  condition? 
of  the  last  treaty  of  Vienna,  Cardinal  Fleury,  who  had  been 
drawn  into  that  war  by  the  intrigues  of  M.  De  Belleisle,  alleged 
in  his  own  justification,  that  the  guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  which  France  had  undertaken  by  that  treaty,  pre* 
supposed  the  clause  Sine  prejudicio  tertii ;  that  is  to  say,  that 
France  never  intended,  by  that  guarantee,  to  prejudice  the  just 
claims  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria. 

The  most  active  of  the  enemies  of  Maria  Theresa  was  the 
King  of  Prussia,  who  entered  Silesia  in  the  month  of  December 
1740.  While  he  was  occupied  in  making  that  conquest,  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  reinforced  by  an  army  oif  French  auxiliaries) 
took  possession  of  Upper  Austria ;  but,  instead  of  marching  di- 
rectly upon  Vienna,  he  turned  towards  Bohemia,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  conquering  it.  Meantime,  the  Electoral  Diet,  which  was 
assembled  at  Frankfort,  conferred  the  Imperial  dignity  on  that 
prince,  (Jan.  24,  1742,)  who  took  the  name  of  Charles  VII. 
Nothing  appeared  then  to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Austrian  monarchy,  according  to  the  plan  of  the  allied  powers. 
The  Elector  of  Bavaria  was  to  have  Bohemia,  the  Tyrol,  and 
the  provinces  of  Upper  Austria ;  the  Elector  of  Saxony  was  to 
have  Moravia  and  Upper  Silesia ;  and  the  King  of  Prussia  the 
remainder  of  Silesia.  As  for  Austrian  Lombardy,  it  was  des- 
tined for  Don  Philip,  the  Infante  of  Spain>.  Nothing  was  letl  to 
the  Queen,  except  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  with  Lower  Aus- 
tria, the  Dutchies  of  Carinthia,  Stiria  and  Camiola,  and  the 
Belgic  Provinces.  In  the  midst  of  these  imminent  dangers, 
Maria  Theresa  displayed  a  courage  beyond  her  age  and  sex. 
Aided  by  the  supplies  of  money  which  England  and  Holland 
furnished  her,  and  by  the  generous  efforts  which  the  Hungarian 
nation  made  in  her  favour,  she  succeeded  in  calming  the  storm 

23. 


I 
1 

k 

■■ti    H 


V  (♦. . 


i    I.    I 

i. 


LI 


n 


II  is 


CHAPTER  It.  1 

oat 

repulsing  the  enemy  with  vigour,  and  dissolving  the  grand 
leLue  which  had  been  formed  agamst  her. 

"^tCkT  of  Sardinia,  who  dreaded  the  p,epondenn»  of  the 
Bo^boK  Imly  liWew  »  abandoned  .he  gr,.nd  «"i«"».  «"J 

Sic.hes  J«»"f J'' S^'ir'^VreateSed  to  bombard  the  city,  and 

powi.ia  ilia   fe  »„„'•  .1   Hanoverians,  and  Hessians. 

defeated  the  Ffench  at  Dettingen  (June  27. 17«.!     They  we™ 

£=tnrtS'«.S„;o»el=en?lcrth?^^^ 
lienerai  seni,  "i  *  ot' Vienna.  Last  v.  that  pnnce,  m  order 

S=«Ka™...^^ 

*"/,d'»  th    Kinrof  sS.  he  territor/of  Pa.ia,  betwee" 

Si^.fSoi.nnd'^iy.edtcf"^^^^^^^^ 

wSo  In  for  the  «rviee  of  .he  Queen,  in  oon„derat,on  of  the 
.applies  which  England  promised  to  pay  him. 

,i'drt.?^:^i.'.t;rst"S;«J!iretrn"h"fr.n. 


ig  the  grand 

two  victoriei 

^ziislau  (May 

Moravia,  and 

iieen  to  get  rid 

Iritain  having 

ireslau,  which 

Berlin  (July 

to  the  King  of 

ing  the  princi- 

's  of  Tmppau, 

a  was  soon  fol- 

med  at  the  sud- 

acceded  to  the 

ith  the  Queen 

nderance  of  the 
d  alliance,  and 
compact  which 
rds  then  turned 
king  of  the  two 
English  squad- 
ird  the  city,  and 
inbardy,  and  re- 
f  service  which 
ing  one  of  the 
1,  he  sent  to  her 
s,  and  Hessians, 
■my,  fought  and 
3.)     They  were 
lich  the  States- 
which  they  had 
;t  prince,  in  order 
)  the  interests  of 
hich  the  Queen 
Pavia,  between 
'laceiitia,  and  the 
y  claimed  to  the 
•I,  abandoned  all 
port  an  army  of 
isjderalion  of  the 

he  Queen  recon- 
the  French  from 


\] 


rKKmri  viii.     a.  d.  17  J 3 — 1789. 


355 


Bavaria,  and  drove  them  even  beyond  the  Rhino  The  Emperor 
•  /htirliJ*  VII.  van  obliged  to  transfer  his  residence  from  Munich 
U)  Fniiikfitrt  on  the  Maiiio.  France,  who  had  never  acted  till 
lii'^n  but  as  ihe  ally  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  resolved,  m  con- 
seijuence  of  these  events,  formally  to  declare  war  against  the 
Queen  and  the  King  of  Great  Britain  (March  15,  1744.)  The 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  broke  his  neutrality,  and  again  joined 
his  troops  with  the  Spanish  army,  who  were  acting  against  the 
Queen  and  her  ally  the  King  of  Sardinia.  The  war  was  now 
carried  on  with  fresh  vigour.  Louis  XV,  attacked  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  in  person,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  Union,  at 
Frankfort,  between  the  Emperor,  and  several  principal  States 
of  the  Empire.  By  this  treaty  it  was  stipulatea,  that  the  allied 
princes  should  unite  their  forces,  and  constrain  the  Queen  to 
acknowledge  the  Emperor  Charles  VII,,  and  reinstate  him  in 
his  hereditary  dominions. 

It  was  in  consequence  of  this  treaty,  that  the  King  of  Prussia 
again  commenced  the  war,  and  made  an  attack  on  Bohemia. 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  who  had  invaded  Alsace,  at  the 
head  of  an  Austrian  army,  was  obliged  to  repass  the  Rhine,  and 
march  to  the  relief  of  that  kingdom.  The  French  penetrated 
into  Germany,  and  while  Louis  XV.  laid  siege  to  Friburg  in 
Brisgaw,  General  Seckendorf,  who  commanded  the  Imperial 
army,  reconquered  Bavaria.  Charles  VII.,  who  was  then  re- 
stored to  his  estates,  returned  to  Munich. 

During  these  transactions,  an  unforeseen  event  happened, 
which  changed  the  state  of  affairs.  The  Emperor  died  at  the 
early  age  of  forty-seven  (Jan.  20,  1745,)  and  his  son  Maximilian 
Joseph  II.,  used  all  expedition  to  make  up  matters  with  the 
Queen.  By  the  special  treaty,  which  he  concluded  with  her  at 
Fuessen  (April  22,  1745,)  he  renounced  the  claims  which  his 
father  had  made  to  the  succession  of  Charles  VI,  He  again 
signed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  satisfied  with  being  maintained 
in  the  possession  of  his  patrimonial  estates.  The  French  had 
in  vain  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  election  of  the  Grand  Duke 
of  Tuscany  to  the  Imperial  throne,  who  had  been  associated 
with  his  wife,  Maria  Theresa,  in  the  government  of  her  heredi- 
tary dominions.  That  prince,  however,  was  elected  at  Frank- 
fort, under  the  protection  of  the  Austrian  and  Pragmatic  armies. 

An  alliance  had  been  concluded  at  Warsaw  between  Maria 
Theresa,  Poland,  England,  and  Holland  (Jan.  8,  1745.)  Au- 
gustus III.  had  engaged,  as  Elector  of  Saxony,  to  despatch  an 
army  of  thirty  thousand  men  to  the  Queen's  assistance,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  subsidies  which  England  and  Holland  had  pro- 
mised to  pay  him      That  army  being  joined  by  the  Austrian^, 


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liud  nHvaticod  into  Silesia,  whon-  they  """tnincfl  n  totnl  dc»fra» 
near  Holierifripdlicr^'  (Junf  1.)  'I'lio  vitlorimia  Kin;,'  of  IVub'ib 
returned  to  Bylictniii,  nnd  tliero  dofcntrd  ilio  niiics  n  swnrifl 
time,  near  Sorr,  in  the  Circle  of  Konifjrat/  (Sept.  HO.)  He  then 
attacked  SaX'Hv ,  in  order  to  I'ompcl  the  (.iueen  to  iimKe  peofe. 
by  hara.ssinjj  ifn  !'"leclor  her  ally.  The  victory,  wliich  ho  gain- 
ed over  the  Saxons  at  Ke.iselsdorf  (Dec.  l/j,)  made  him  mastpr 
of  Dresden,  and  the  whole  Electorate,  wliich  he  laid  under  con- 
iribu  ion.  These  victories  accelerated  the  peace  between  the 
King  of  Prussia,  the  Queen,  and  the  Elirtor  of  Saxony,  which 
Wfis  Nigtied  at  Dresden,  under  the  medial  ion  of  (Inat  Jlritain. 
Tlie  Khig  of  Prussia  restored  to  the  Elector  all  hi  •I'lates,  the 
latter  promising  to  pay  him  a  million  of  Itnnerial  crowns.  The 
Queen  jjave  up  Silesia  and  theComteof  Glatz  ;  while  the  id.ig, 
as  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  acmiiesced  in  the  eie(  ti(/ii  v{ 
Francis  I.  >'■  he  Imperial  throne.  The  Kinp  of  England,  the 
Dutch,  and  -te  States  of  the  Empire,  undertook  to  guara'itec 
these  stipuluu.  ^;is. 

The  treaties  of  Fuessen  and  presden  restored  tranquillity  to 
the  Empire ;  but  the  war  was  contiimed  in  the  Netherlands, 
Italy,  and  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  The  Ff  nch,  under 
the  conduct  of  Marshal  Saxc,  distinguished  themst-lves  in  the 
Netherlands.  The  victories  which  they  gained  over  the  allie? 
at  Fontenoy  (May  11,  1745,)  and  at  Rocoux  (Oct.  11, 1746,)  pro- 
cured them  the  conquest  of  all  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  excep» 
the  towns  and  fortresses  of  Luxemburg,  Limburg,  and  Guoldres 

Charles  Edward,  son  of  the  Pretender,  encouraged  and  assist- 
ed by  the  Court  of  France,  landed  in  Scotland  in  August  1746. 
Being  joined  by  a  number  of  partisans,  whom  he  found  in  that 
kingdom,  he  caused  his  father  to  be  proclaimed  at  Perth  and 
Edinburgh,  assuming  to  himself  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  Regent  of  the  three  kingdoms.  The  victory  which  he  gain- 
ed near  Prestonpans  over  the  English  troops,  rendered  him  mas- 
ter of  all  Scotland.  He  next  invaded  England,  took  Carlisle, 
and  advanced  as  far  as  Derby,  spreading  terror  and  consternation 
in  London.  George  II.  was  obliged  to  recall  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, with  his  troops,  from  the  Netherlands.  That  Prince 
drove  back  the  Pretender,  retook  Carlisle,  and  restored  tranquil- 
lity in  Scotland,  by  defeating  the  Rebels  near  Culloden  in  the 
Highlands.  Charles  Edward  was  then  reduced  to  the  necessity 
of  concealing  himself  among  the  mountains,  until  the  month  of 
October  following,  when  he  found  means  to  transport  himself  to 
France. 

The  campaign  of  1745  in  Italy  was  glqrious  for  the  French, 
and  their  allies  the  Spaniards.     Tne  Republic  of  Genoa,  being 


ti  total  dpfrt* 
iii),'()f  I*ruB»<« 
lies  ft    Nf'Colid 

)().)     Hf  thnn 
T  iiinko  pcn'^e, 
irlucli  lie  gain- 
lo  him  irmster 
lid  iimliT  con- 
(>  belwfcn  the 
Snxony,  which 
Grcftt  Britain. 
Ill-  ^.'I'liites,  the 
crowns.    The 
while  tho  King, 
the  eie(:li(/ii  of 
f  Englaiifl.  the 
k  to  guarasitoe 

1  tranquillity  to 
.e  Netncrlnnds, 
!  French,  under 
emwlvcs  in  the 
1  over  the  allief     j 
1. 11, 1746.)  pro-     I 
hcrlands,  excep*     i 
5,  and  Gueldres 
•aged  and  assist- 
n  August  1745. 
he  found  in  that 
?d  at  Perth  and 
'rince  of  Wales, 
y  which  he  gain- 
idered  him  mas- 
id,  took  Carlisle, 
ind  consternation 
le  Duke  of  Cum- 
s.    That  Prince 
restored  tranquil- 
r  CuUoden  in  the 
id  to  the  necessity 
ntil  the  month  of 
msport  himself  to 

IS  for  the  French, 
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PERIOD  VIU.      A.  D.  1713 — 1780. 


357 


offended  at  the  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Worms,  which  took  from 
them  the  marquisate  of  Finale,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  two 
rrowiis,  and  facilitated  the  junction  of  the  French  army  of  the 
Alps  with  that  of  Lombardy.  One  effect  of  this  junction  was 
the  conquest  of  Piedmont,  as  also  of  Austrian  Lombardy,  except- 
ing the  cities  of  Turin  and  Mantua,  which  the  allies  had  laid 
under  blockade. 

The  fate  of  the  war,  however,  experienced  a  new  change  in 
Italy,  at  the  opening  of  the  following  campaign.  Maria  The- 
resa, disengaged  from  the  war  with  Prussia,  sent  considerable 
reinforcements  into  Lombardy,  which  gave  her  arms  a  superi- 
ority over  those  of  the  allies.  The  French  and  Spaniards  were 
stripped  of  all  their  conquests,  and  sustained  a  grand  defeat  at 
Placentia  (June  16,  1746,)  which  obliged  them  to  beat  a  retreat. 
To  add  to  their  misfortunes,  the  new  King  of  Spain,  Ferdinand 
VI.,  who  had  just  succeeded  his  father,  Philip  V.,  being  dis- 
pleased with  the  Court  of  France,  and  unfavourably  inclined 
towards  his  brother  Don  Philip,  recalled  all  his  troops  from  Ita- 
ly. The  French  had  then  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  fol- 
low the  Spaniards  in  their  retreat.  Italy  was  abandoned  to  the 
Austrians,  and  the  French  troops  again  returned  to  Provence. 
The  whole  Republic  of  Genoa,  with  its  capital,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Austrians.  The  King  of  Sardinia  took  possession  of 
Finale,  Savona,  and  the  western  part  of  the  Republican  terri- 
ritory.  The  Austrians,  joined  by  the  Piedmontese,  made  a 
descent  on  Provence,  and  undertook  the  siege  of  Antibes. 

An  extraordinary-event  produced  a  diversion  favourable  for 
France,  and  obliged  the  Austrians  and  Piedmontese  to  repass 
the  Alps.  The  Genoese  being  maltreated  by  the  Austrians, 
who  had  burdened  them  with  contributions  and  discretionary 
exactions,  suddenly  rose  against  their  new  masters.  The  in- 
surgents, with  Prince  Doria  at  their  head,  succeeded  in  expel- 
ling them  from  Genoa  (Dec.  1746.)  General  Botta,  who  com- 
manded at  Genoa,  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  stores  and  equip- 
age, that  he  might  the  more  quickly  escape  from  the  territory 
of  the  Republic.  The  siege  of  Antibes  was  raised  ;  the  allies 
repassed  the  Alps,  and  blockaded  Genoa.  But  the  French  hav- 
ing sent  powerful  supplies  by  sea  to  that  city,  and  at  the  same 
time  made  a  vigorous  attack  on  the  side  of  Piedmont,  relieved 
the  Genoese,  and  obliged  the  enemy  to  retreat. 

In  1747,  the  Fretich,  who  were  already  masters  of  the  Aus- 
trian Netherlands,  attacked  and  conquered  Dutch  Flanders. 
They  blamed  the  Dutch  for  having  sent  constant  supplies  to 
Maria  Theresa,  for  having  invaded  the  French  territory  anv'i 
granted  n  retreat  through  their  own  to  Ju*  I'lioiny  s  iroo()!»,  ..iiej 


I 


H 


P!       ^ 


/  - 


the  battle  of  Fontenoy.  This  invasion  spread  terror  in  the 
province  of  Zealand,  who  thus  saw  themselves  deprived  of  their 
barrier,  and  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  the  French.  The  parti- 
sans of  the  Prince  of  Orange  took  advantage  of  that  circum- 
stance to  restore  the  Stadtholdership.  This  dignity,  as  well  as 
that  of  Captain  and  Admiral-General  of  the  Republic,  had  re- 
mained vacant  since  the  death  of  William  III. 

William  IV.,  Prince  of  Nassau-Dietz,  though  he  was  testa- 
mentary heir  to  that  prince,  had  only  obtained  the  Stadtholder- 
ship of  Friesland,  to  which  was  afterwards  added  that  of  Gro- 
ningen  and  Gueldres ;  but  the  efforts  which  he  made  to  obtain 
the  other  offices  and  dignities  of  the  ancient  Princes  of  Orange, 
proved  ineffectual.  The  four  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand, 
Utrecht,  and  Overyssel,  persisted  in  their  free  government,  and 
even  refused  the  Prince  the  office  of  General  of  Infantry,  which  he 
had  requested.  France,  by  attacking  Dutch  Flanders,  contribu- 
ted to  the  elevation  of  William.  There  was  a  general  feeling  in 
his  favour  in  those  provinces  which  had  no  Stadtholder ;  the  peo- 
ple of  the  different  towns  and  districts  rose  in  succession,  and 
obliged  the  magistrates  to  proclaim  William  IV.  as  Stadtholder 
and  Captain-General.  This  revolution  was  achieved  without 
disturbance  ;  and  without  any  obstacle  on  the  part  of  those  who 
had  an  interest  in  opposing  it,  but  who  were  obliged  to  yield  to 
the  wishes  of  the  people.  They  even  went  so  far  as  to  declare 
the  Stadtholdership,  as  well  as  the  offices  of  Captain  and  Admi- 
ral-General, hereditarj'  in  nil  the  Prince's  descendants,  male 
and  female — ^a  circumstance  unprecedented  since  the  foundation 
of  the  Republic. 

This  change  which  happened  in  the  Stadtholdership  did  not, 
however,  prevent  the  French  from  making  new  conquests. 
They  had  no  sooner  got  possession  of  Dutch  Flanders,  than 
they  attacked  the  town  of  Maestricht.  The  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land having  advanced  with  the  allied  army  to  cover  the  town,  a 
bloody  battle  took  place  near  Laveld  (July  2,  1747,)  which  was 

¥  lined  by  the  French,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Saxe. 
he  fortress  of  Bergen-op-Zoom,  which  was  deemed  impregna- 
ble by  its  situation  and  the  marshes  which  surrounded  it,  was 
carried  by  assault  by  Count  Lewendal,  two  months  after  he  had 
opened  his  trenches. 

However  brilliant  the  success  of  the  French  arms  was  on  the 
Continent,  they  failed  in  almost  all  their  maritime  expeditions. 
The  English  took  from  them  Louisburg  and  Cape  Breton  in 
America ;  and  completely  destroyed  the  French  marine,  which 
had  been  much  neglected,  under  the  ministry  of  Cardinal  Fleu- 
ry.     All  the  belligerent  powers  at  length  felt  the  necessity  of 


m: 


\  terror  in  the 
jprived  of  their 
J.     The  parti- 
f  that  circum- 
litv,  as  well  a» 
)ublic,  had  re- 
he  was  testa- 
le  Stadtholder- 
:d  that  of  Gro- 
Tiade  to  obtain 
ices  of  Orange, 
land,  Zealand, 
•vernment,  and 
intry,  which  he 
ders,  contribu- 
neral  feeling  in 
older ;  the  peo- 
uccession,  and 
as  Stadtholder 
lieved  without 
"t  of  those  who 
ged  to  yield  to 
vc  as  to  declare 
tain  and  Admi- 
:endants,   male 
the  foundation 


ership  did  not, 
sw  conquests, 
""landers,  than 
e  of  Cumber- 
'er  the  town,  a 
7,)  which  was 
ilarshai  Saxe. 
led  impregna- 
iinded  it,  was 
s  after  he  had 

ns  was  on  the 
e  expeditions, 
ipe  Breton  in 
larine,  which 
ardinal  Fleu- 
!  necessity  of 


PERIOD  vm.    A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


8S9 


peace  ;  and  there  were  two  events  which  tended  to  accelerate 
it.  The  Empress  of  Russia,  conformable  to  the  engagements 
into  which  she  had  entered  with  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and 
London,  by  the  treaties  of  1746  and  1747,  had  despatched 
Prince  Repnin  to  the  Rhine,  at  the  head  of  30,000  men.  Mar- 
shal Saxe,  at  the  same  time,  had  laid  siege  to  Maestricht,  in 
presence  of  the  enemy,  who  were  80,000  strong.  The  taking 
of  that  city  would  have  laid  open  all  Holland  to  the  French,  and 
threatened  the  Republic  with  the  most  disastrous  consequences. 

A  preliminary  treaty  was  then  signed  at  Aix-ia-Chapelle, 
which  was  followed  by  a  definitive  peace  (Oct.  18, 1748.)  There 
all  former  treaties  since  that  of  Westphalia  were  renewed ;  a 
mutual  restitution  was  made  on  both  sides,  of  all  conquests 
made  during  the  war,  both  in  Europe,  and  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies ;  and  in  consideration  of  the  important  restitutions  which 
France  had  made  on  the  Continent,  they  ceded  to  Don  Philip, 
the  son-in-law  of  Louis  XV.,  and  brother  of  Don  Carlos,  the 
dutchies  of  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Guastalla ;  to  be  possessed 
by  him  and  his  lawful  heirs  male.  The  treaty  of  preliminaries 
contained  two  conditions  upon  which  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and 
Guastalla  should  revert  to  the  Queen,  and  that  of  Placentia  to 
the  King  of  Sardinia  ;  viz.  (1.)  Failing  the  male  descendants  of 
Don  Philip.  (2.)  If  Don  Carlos,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  should 
be  called  to  the  throne  of  Spain.  In  this  latter  case,  it  was  pre- 
sumed that  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  should  pass  to  Don 
Philip,  the  younger  brother  of  that  prince;  but  they  did  not 
seem  to  recollect  that  the  peace  of  Vienna  (1738)  had  secured 
this  latter  kingdom  to  Don  Carlos,  and  all  his  descendants  male 
and  female  ;  and  consequently,  nothing  prevented  that  prince, 
should  the  case  so  happen,  from  transferring  the  Two  Sicilies  to 
one  of  his  own  younger  sons ;  supposing  even  that  he  were  not  per- 
mitted to  unite  that  kingdom  with  the  Spanish  monarchy.  The 
plenipotentiaries  having  perceived  this  oversight  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  preliminaries,  took  care  to  rectify  it  in  the  defini- 
tive treaty,  by  thus  wording  the  second  clause  of  the  reversion, 
"  Shotdd  Don  Philip,  or  any  of  his  descendants,  be  either  called 
to  the  throne  of  Spain,  or  to  that  of  the  Two  Sicilies." 

The  Empress  agreed  to  this  change,  but  the  King  of  Sardinia 
was  not  so  complaisant.  In  respect  to  him,  it  was  necessary  to 
make  the  definitive  treaty  entirely  conformable  to  the  prehmi- 
naries.  It  was  this  circumstance  which  prevented  the  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  from  acceding  to  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
By  that  treaty  the  King  of  Sardinia  was  confirmed  in  those  dif- 
ferent  possessions  in  the  Milanois  which  the  treaty  of  Worms 
had  adjudged  him.    These,  however,  did  not  include  that  part  of 


[■. 


•■'  t, 


.  ,   i 


J.!.-: 


*;  I  iiij«;^'ii 


■^b^hmImmmAm 


360 


CHAPTER  IX. 


Placentia  which  had  just  been  ceded  to  Don  Phihp;  nor  the 
marquisatc  of  Finale,  which  the  Genoese  retained.     That  Re- 
public, and  the  Duke  of  Modena,  who  had  always  been  the  ally 
of  France,  were  restored  to  the  same  state  in  which  they  were 
before  the  war.     Silesia  was  guaranteed  to  the  Kii^  of  Prussia 
by  the  whole  of  the  contracting  powers.     As  for  England,  be- 
sides the  guarantee  of  the  British  succession  in  favour  of  the 
House  of  Hanover,  she  obtained  a  renewal  of  the  expulsion  oJ 
the  Pretender  from  the  soil  of  France ;  while  this  latter  power, 
victorious  on  the  continent,  consented  to  revive  the  humiliating 
clause  in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  which  ordered  the  demolition  of 
the  Port  of  Dunkirk.     The  only  modification  which  was  made 
to  this  clause  was,  that  the  fortifications  of  the  place  on  the 
land  side  should  be  preserved.     Lastly,  by  the  sixteenth  article 
of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  contract  of  the  Assiento  re- 
specting the  slave  trade  granted  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Ijtrccht,  was  renewed  in  favour  of  the  English  Company  of  the 
Assiento,  for  the  four  years  in  which  that  trade  had  been  inter- 
rupted during  the  war.  *  u        i-  •    i 
This  peace  produced  no  considerable  change  on  the  political 
state  of  Europe ;  but  by  maintaining  the  King  of  Prussia  in  his 
conquest  of  Silesia,  it  raised  a  rival  to  Austria  in  the  very  centre 
of  the  Empire.     The  unity  of  the  Germanic  body  was  thus 
broken,  and  that  body  divided  between  the  two  leading  powers, 
Austria  and  Prussia.     The  system  of  aggrandizement  and  con- 
venience which  Frederic  the  Great  had  put  in  practice  for  de- 
priving Austria  of  Silesia  came  afterwards  into  vogue  ;  and  by 
gradually  undermining  the  system  of  equilibrium,  which  former 
treaties  had  introduced,  it  occasioned  new  revolutions  in  Europe. 
The  dispute  about  the  Austrian  succession,  extended  its  in- 
fluence to  the  North,  where  it  kindled  a  war  between  Russia  and 
Sweden.     The  Empress  Anne,  a  little  before  her  death  (Oct.  17, 
1740,)  had  destined  as  her  successor  on  the  throne  of  Russia,  the 
young  prince  Iwan  or  John,  the  son  of  her  niece  Anne  of  Meck- 
lenburg, by  Prince  Anthony  Ulric  of  Brunswick.  The  Regency 
during  the  minority  of  Iwan,  was  conferred  on  her  favourite 
Biron,  whom  she  had  raised  to  the  first  offices  of  the  state,  and 
created  Duke  of  Courland.     The  mother  of  the  young  Emperor, 
indignant  at  seeing  the  management  of  affairs  in  the  hands  of  a 
favourite,  gained  over  to  her  interests  Field-Marshal  Munich, 
by  whose  assistance  the  Duke  of  Courland  was  arrested  and 
banished  to  Siberia,  whilst  she  herself  was  proclaimed  Grand 
Dutchess  and  Regent  of  the  Empire.  ,  . 

The  ministry  of  this  princess  were  divided  in  their  opinions, 
on  the  subject  of  the  war  about  the  Austrian  succession.    Some 


tiaita 


.  [)i  I  III   iiiwir-r  •  r--^'-- 


iiMiiiiifiiiirif^^*"^' 


•m 


;  nor  the 

That  Re- 

!en  the  ally 

they  were 

of  Prussia 

ngland,  be- 

irour  of  the 

expulsion  o( 

liter  power, 

humiliating 

imolition  of 

was  made 

ace  on  the 

enth  article 

Assiento  re- 

le  treaty  of 

pany  of  the 

been  inter- 

the  political 
ussia  in  his 
very  centre 
y  was  thus 
ling  powers, 
nt  and  con- 
ctice  for  de- 
ne ;  and  by 
hich  former 
5  in  Europe, 
inded  its  in- 
1  Russia  and 
ith  (Oct.  17, 
'  Russia,  the 
ne  of  Meek- 
he  Regency 
er  favourite 
e  state,  and 
ig  Emperor, 
!  hands  of  a 
al  Munich, 
rrested  and 
med  Grand 


!ir  opmions, 
lion.    Some 


tERtoD  vni.    A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


361 


(iupported  the  cause  of  Prussia,  with  which  Russia  had  jusi  r*"- 
iicwcd  her  treaties  of  alliance;  while  others  were  inclined  for 
AuMrin,  the  ancient  ally  of  Russiii.  This  latter  party  having 
prevailed,  France,  in  order  to  prevent  Russia  from  assistnig 
Maria  Theresa,  thought  proper  to  give  her  some  ofcupaiion  in 
the  North.  It  was  by  no  means  difficult  to  raise  Sweden 
against  her ;  where  the  faction  of  the  Hatx,  then  the  ruling 
party,  was  entirely  devoted  to  the  French  interest.  This  fac- 
tion, which  was  opposed  by  that  of  the  Bonnets,  or  Caps,  re- 
newed the  treaty  of  subsidy  with  France,  and  also  concluded  a 
treaty  of  perpetual  alliance  against  Russia  (Dec.  22,  1739.) 
Encouraged  by  the  young  nobles,  they  flattered  themselves  that 
the  time  was  come,  when  Sweden  would  repair  the  losses  which 
she  had  sustained  by  the  foolish  expeditions  of  Charles  XII. 

A  Diet  extraordinary  was  assembled  at  Stockholm  (Aug. 
1741,)  which  declared  war  against  Russia.  They  alleged, 
among  other  motives,  the  exclusion  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  the  Duke  of  Holstein-Gotlorp, 
from  the  throne  of  Russia  ;  the  assassination  of  Major  Sinclair, 
who  had  been  murdered,  as  the  Swedes  aflirmed,  by  the  emis- 
saries of  Russia,  while  bearing  despatches  from  Constantinople 
tor  the  Swedish  Court,  and  when  he  was  passing.through  Silesia 
on  his  way  to  Stockholm.  This  declaration  of  war  had  been 
made,  before  the  Swedes  could  take  those  measures  which  pru- 
dence should  have  dictated.  They  had  neither  an  army  fit  for 
action,  nor  stores  prepared  in  Finland  ;  and  their  General,  Count 
Lewenhaupt,  had  nothing  to  recommend  him  but  his  devotion 
to  the  ruling  party.  Sweden  had  flattered  herself  that  the  Turks 
would  recommence  the  war  with  Russia,  and  that  she  would 
thus  find  resources  in  the  alliance  and  subsidies  of  France.  The 
first  action,  which  took  place  near  Wilmanstrand  (Sept.  3,  1741) 
was  quite  in  favour  of  the  Russians ;  a  great  number  of  Swedes 
were  there  either  killed  or  made  prisoners,  and  the  town  of  Wil- 
manstrand was  carried  sword  in  hand. 

Meantime  a  revolution  happened  at  St.  Petersburg,  which 
seemed  to  have  brought  about  a  favourable  change  for  the  Swe- 
dish government.  The  Princess  Elizabeth,  supported  by  the 
Marquis  de  la  Chetardie,  minister  of  France,  and  by  a  company 
of  the  guards  whom  she  had  drawn  over  to  her  interest,  seized 
the  Regent  Anne,  her  husband  the  Prince  of  Brunswick,  and  the 
young  Emperor ;  all  of  whom  she  sent  into  exile,  and  caused 
herself  to  be  proclaimed  Empress.  The  Swedes,  who  had  flat- 
tered themselves  with  having  aided  in  placing  that  princess  on 
the  throne,  immediately  entered  into  negotiations  with  her  ;  but 
as  they  carried  their  pretensions  too  high,  the  conference  was 
broken  ofl*.  and  the  war  continued. 


•iii». 


I- 


'*' 


■ifci    ■=  ' 


it 


V:f 


302 


CHAPTBR  IZ. 


The  campaign  of  1742,  proved  also  unfortunate  for  Sweden. 
Iheir  iinny  in  Finland,  though  equal  in  point  of  strength  to  that 
of  Russia,  durst  not  keep  the  field.  They  abandoned  all  their 
best  posts  one  after  another,  and  retired  towards  Helsingfors. 
beyond  the  ri .  er  Kyrnen.  Shut  up  in  this  position,  and  besieg- 
ed by  sea  and  land,  they  were  obliged  to  capitulate.  The  Swe- 
dish troops  returned  home,  the  Finnish  regiments  laid  down 
Itieir  arms,  and  the  whole  of  Finland  surrendered  to  the  Russians. 

The  States  of  Sweden  having  assembled  under  these  circum- 
stances, and  bcMig  desirous  of  an  accommodation  with  Russia, 
offered  the  tiirone  of  Sweden  to  Charles  Ulric,  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp,  and  nephew  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth.  That  prince, 
however,  declined  the  offer  of  the  Diet.  He  had  just  been  de- 
clared Grand  Duke,  and  presumptive  heir  to  the  Russian  Em- 
pire, and  had  embraced  the  Greek  religion.  This  intelligence 
astounded  the  Diet,  who  then  placed  on  the  list  of  candidates  for 
the  throne,  the  Prince  Royal  of  Denmark,  the  Duke  of  Deux- 
Ponls,  and  the  Bishop  of  Lubec,  uncle  to  the  new  Grand  Duke 
of  Russia.  A  considerable  party  were  inclined  for  the  Prince  of 
Denmark ;  and  they  were  on  the  point  of  renewing  the  ancient 
union  of  the  three  kingdoms  of  the  North  in  his  favour.  To 
prevent  an  election  so  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  Prussia,  the 
Empress  abated  from  the  rigour  of  her  first  propositions,  and 
offered  to  restore  to  the  Swedes  a  great  part  of  their  conquests, 
on  condition  of  bestowing  their  throne  on  Prince  Adolphus  Fre- 
deric, Bishop  of  Lubec.  This  condition  having  been  acceded 
to,  Prince  Frederic  was  elected  (July  3, 1743 ;)  the  succession  to 
descend  to  his  male  heirs.  A  definitive  peace  was  then  conclu- 
ded between  Russia  and  Sweden,  at  Abo  in  Finland. 

Sweden,  by  thus  renouncing  her  alliance  with  the  Porte,  rati- 
fied anew  all  that  she  had  surrendered  to  Russia  by  the  peace  of 
Nystadt.  Moreover,  she  ceded  to  that  Crown  the  province  of 
Kymenegard  in  Finland,  with  the  towns  and  fortresses  of  Frie- 
dricsham  and  Wilmanstrand ;  as  also  the  parish  of  Pyttis,  l)ring 
to  the  east  of  the  Kymen,  and  the  ports,  places,  and  districts, 
situated  ut  the  mouth  of  that  river.  The  islands  lyinff  on  the 
south  and  west  of  the  Kymen  were  likewise  included  in  thin 
cession  ;  as  were  also  the  town  and  fortress  of  Nyslott,  with  its 
territory.  All  the  rest  of  Finland  was  restored  to  Sweden,  to- 
gether with  the  other  conquests  which  Russia  had  made  during 
the  war.  The  Swedes  were  permitted  to  purchase  annually  in 
the  Russian  Ports  of  the  Baltic,  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  grain 
to  the  value  of  50,000  rubles,  without  paying  any  export  duty. 

Portugal,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  became 
the  scene  of  various  memorable  events,  which  attracted  general 


^mim 


te  for  Sweden. 
strength  to  that 
doneu  all  their 
ds  Helsingfors. 
ion,  and  besieg- 
ite.  The  Swe- 
ants  laid  down 
to  the  Russians, 
sr  these  circum- 
}n  with  Russia, 
uke  of  Holstein- 
.  That  prince, 
id  just  been  de- 
e  Russian  Em- 
'his  intelligence 
)f  candidates  for 
Duke  of  Deux- 
ew  Grand  Duke 
for  the  Prince  of 
ving  the  ancient 
lis  favour.  To 
s  of  Prussia,  the 
)ropositions,  and 
their  conquests, 
2  Adolphus  Fre- 
ig  been  acceded 
the  succession  to 
vas  then  conclu- 
dand. 

h  the  Porte,  rati- 
i  by  the  peace  of 
t  the  province  of 
irtresses  of  Frie- 
h  of  Pyttis,  lying 
es,  and  districts, 
ids  lyin?  on  the 
included  in  thin 
Nyslott,  with  its 
d  to  Sweden,  to- 
lad  made  during 
lase  annually  in 
f  Finland,  grain 
tiy  export  duty, 
century,  became 
attracted  general 


PERtOD  ▼III.      A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


3G3 


attention.  John  V.,  who  had  governed  that  kingdom  from  1706 
till  1750,  had  fallen  into  a  state  of  weakness  and  dotage,  and 
abandoned  the  reins  of  government  to  Don  Gaspard,  his  confer- 
sor,  under  whoite  administration  numerous  abuses  hud  crept  into 
the  state.  Joseph  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  John  V.,  on 
ascending  the  throne  (July  31,  1750,)  undertook  to  reform  these 
abuses.  By  the  advice  of  his  minister,  Sebastian  De  Curvulho, 
afterwards  created  Count  D'Oeyras,  and  Marquis  De  Pombal, 
he  turned  his  attention  to  every  branch  of  the  administration. 
He  patronized  the  arts  and  sciences,  encouraged  agriculture, 
manufactures,  and  commerce  ;  regulated  the  finances  ;  and  used 
every  effort  to  raise  the  army  and  navy  of  Portugal  from  that 
state  of  languor  into  which  they  had  fallen.  These  innovations 
could  not  be  accomplished  without  exciting  discontent  in  the 
different  orders  of  the  state.  The  minister  increased  this  by  his 
inflexible  severity,  and  the  despotism  which  he  displayed  in  the 
exercise  of  his  ministerial  functions ;  as  well  as  by  the  antipathy 
which  he  showed  against  the  nobility  and  the  mmisters  of  reli- 
gion. The  Companies  which  ho  instituted  for  exclusive  com- 
merce to  the  Indies,  Africa,  and  China,  raised  against  him  the 
whole  body  of  merchants  in  the  kingdom.  He  irritated  the  no- 
bility by  the  contempt  which  he  testified  towards  them,  and  by 
annexing  to  the  Crown  those  immense  domains  in  Africa  and 
America,  which  the  nobles  enjoyed  by  the  munificence  of  former 
kings.  The  most  powerful  and  the  mo.st  dangerous  enemies  of 
this  minister  were  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  had  ventured  to  attack 
openly,  and  had  even  ordered  to  be  expelled  from  Portugal. 
This  event,  which  was  attended  with  remarkable  consequences, 
must  be  described  more  fully. 

During  the  life  of  John  v.,  a  treaty  had  been  signed  between 
the  Courts  of  Madrid  and  Lisbon  (1750,)  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Portuguese  colony  of  St.  Sacrament  and  the  northern  bank  of 
the  river  La  Plata  in  America,  were  ceded  to  Spain,  in  exchange 
for  a  part  of  Paraguay.  King  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Uru- 
guay. This  treaty  wa^,  ...i  the  point  of  being  carried  into  exe- 
cution ;  the  commissioner  :ippointed  for  this  purpose  had  com- 
menced their  labours ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territories 
opposed  the  exchange,  as  did  several  individuals  in  both  Courts. 
The  Jesuits  were  suspected  of  being  the  authors  and  instigators 
of  that  opposition.  In  the  territories  which  were  to  be  ceded  to 
Portugal,  they  had  instituted  a  republic  of  the  natives,  which 
they  governed  as  absolute  masters ;  and  which  they  were  afraid 
would  be  subverted,  if  the  exchange  in  question  should  take 
place.  They  used  every  means,  therefore,  to  thwart  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  two  courts ;  and  it  is  alleged  they  even  went  so  fai 


II 


'!■■.. 


'iU    ■  1 


'■iH.{ 


.#• 


,y^ 


r 


864 


CHAPTER  IX. 


as  10  excito  a  rebellion  amonp  the  inhabilanlf  of  the  countries  to 
bo  cxiliariged.  The  ((.iispciuciicc  was.  a  long  and  expensive 
war  between  the  two  crowns,  which  orcu«ioned  much  bloodshed 
and  cosi  I'oriugul  alone  ne.irly  twenty  millions  of  cruzados. 

In  the  midst  of  these  events,  there  occurred  a  terrible  earth- 
quake, which,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  demolished  the  greater 
part  of  Lisbon,  and  destroyed  between  twenty  and  thirty  '.hou- 
wnd  of  its  inhabitants  (Nov.  1,  1765.)  Fire  consumed  what- 
ever had  escaped  from  the  earlh(|uake  ;  while  the  overflowing 
of  the  sea,  cold  and  famine,  added  to  the  horrors  of  these  ca- 
iamities,  which  extended  even  over  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom. 
The  Jesuits  were  reproached  for  having,  at  the  time  of  this  distres- 
sing event,  announced  new  disasters,  which  were  to  overwhelm 
Portugal,  as  a  punishment  for  the  sins  of  which  the  inhabitants 
had  been  guilty.  These  predictions,  added  to  the  commotions 
which  still  continued  in  Brazil,  served  as  a  pretext  for  depriving 
the  Jesuits  of  their  office  of  Court-confessors,  shutting  them  out 
from  the  palace,  and  even  interdicting  them  from  hearing  con 
fessions  over  the  whole  kingdom.  ,     v     . 

The  outrage  which  was  committed  against  the  King  s  person 
immediately  after,  furnished  the  minister  with  another  pretext 
against  that  religious  order.  The  King,  when  going  bv  night 
to  Belem,  (Sept.  3,  1758,)  was  attacked  by  assassins,  who  mis- 
took  him  for  another,  and  fired  several  shots  at  him,  by  which 
he  was  severely  wounded.  Several  of  the  first  nobles  in  the 
kingdom  were  accused,  among  others  the  Duke  d'Aveiro,  the 
Marquis  and  Marchioness  de  Tavora,  the  Count  d'Atougia,  &c. 
as  being  the  ringleaders  in  this  plot  against  the  King's  life,  who 
were  sentenced  to  execution  accordingly,  [but  their  innocence 
was  afterwards  fully  established.] 

The  Jesuits  were  also  implicated  in  this  affair,  and  publicly 
declared  accomplices  in  the  King's  assassination.  They  were 
proscribed  as  traitors  and  disturbers  of  the  public  peace  ;  then 
goods  were  confiscated;  and  every  individual  belonging  to  the 
order  was  embarked  at  once  at  the  several  ports  of  the  king 
doin,  without  any  regard  to  age  or  infirmities,  and  transported 
to  Civita  Vecchia  within  the  Pope's  dominions.  The  Portu 
guese  minister,  apprehensive  that  this  religious  order,  if  pre- 
served in  the  other  states  of  Europe,  would  find  means,  sooner 
or  later,  to  return  to  Portugal,  used  every  endeavour  to  have 
their  Society  entirely  suppressed.  He  succeeded  in  this  at- 
tempt by  means  of  the  negotiations  which  he  set  on  foot  with 
several  of  the  Catholic  courts.  In  France  the  Society  was 
dissolved,  in  virtue  of  the  decrees  issued  by  the  narhameni 
(1762.)  Paris  set  the  first  example  of  this.  Iy0ui.s  XV.  declared. 


mMMMM"^' 


countrieH  to 

nd  expensive 

ch  bloodshed 

ruzados. 

errible  earth- 

d  the  greater 

thirty  '.hou- 
isutned  what* 
e  overflowing 
I  of  these  ca- 
the  kingdom, 
ofthisdistres- 
to  overwhelm 
ic  inhabitants 

commotions 
t  for  depriving 
tting  them  out 
hearing  con  • 

King's  person 
nother  pretext 
?oing  bv  night 
sins,  who  mis- 
him,  by  which 
:  nobles  in  the 
!  d'Aveiro,  the 
d'Atougia,  Sec, 
king's  life,  who 
heir  innocence 

,  and  publicly 
They  were 
c  peace ;  theii 
slonging  to  the 
s  of  the  king 
nd  transported 
I.  The  Portu 
3  order,  if  pre- 
means,  sooner 
savour  to  have 
ed  in  this  at- 
t  on  foot  with 
!  Society  was 
he  parliament 
XV.  declared. 


KRIOD  viit.     A.  D.  1713—1789. 


M6 


that  the  Society  should  no  longer  oxist  within  tha  kingdom. 
The  Court  of  Madrid,  where  ihoy  hnd  two  powiTful  iMicmie;! 
in  the  ministry,  Counts  d'Arnnda  and  de  Ciimpoimiiics,  tom- 
miindcd  all  the  Jesuits  to  depart  from  llio  territory  nml  jurisdic- 
tion of  Spain  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  declared  their  ;,'()0(l.s  con- 
fiscated. They  wore  likewise  expelled  from  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  ;  and  the  order  was  at  length  entirely  suppressed,  by  a 
brief  of  Pope  Clement  XIV.  (July  21,  1773.)' 

The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapello  hnd  by  no  means  restored  a 
good  understanding  between  France  niul  England.  A  jealous 
rivalry  divided  the  two  nations,  which  served  to  nourish  and 
multiply  subjects  of  discord  between  them.  Besides,  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  French  in  repairing  their  marine,  which  had  Ijcen 
destroyed  in  the  last  war,  was  viewed  with  jealousy  by  Great 
Britain,  then  aspiring  to  the  absolute  command  of  the  sea,  and 
conscious  that  France  alone  was  able  to  counteract  her  ambi- 
tious projects.  Several  matters  of  drsnute,  which  the  peace  of 
Aix-la-Cnapelle  had  left  undecided,  still  subsisted  betweeen  the 
two  nations,  relative  to  their  possessions  in  America.  The  prin- 
cipal of  these,  regarded  the  boundaries  of  Nova  Scolia  and  Cana* 
da,  and  the  claims  to  the  neutral  islands.  Nova  Scotia  had  been 
ceded  to  England,  by  the  twelfth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
according  to  its  ancient  limits.  These  limits  the  French  had 
circumscribed  within  the  bounds  of  the  peninsula  which  forms 
that  province  ;  while  the  English  insisted  on  extending  them  to 
the  southern  bank  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  of  which  the  ex- 
clusive navigation  belonged  to  the  French. 

The  limits  of  Canada  Were  not  better  defined  than  those  of 
Nova  Scotia.  The  French,  with  the  view  of  opening  a  com- 
munication between  Canada  and  Louisiana,  had  constructed  se- 
veral forts  along  the  river  Ohio,  on  the  confines  of  the  English 
colonies  in  America.  This  was  opposed  by  England,  who  was 
afraid  that  these  establishments  would  endanger  the  safety  of 
her  colonies,  especially  that  of  Virginia.  The  neutral  islands, 
namely  the  Caribees,  which  comprehended  St.  Lucia,  Domini- 
ca, St.  Vincent,  and  Tobago,  still  remained  in  a  contested  state, 
according  to  the  ninth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The  French,  hov^ever,  alleged  certain  acts  of  possession,  by 
which  they  claimed  the  property  of  thete  islands,  as  well  as  of 
the  Caicos  and  Turkish  islands.  Commissiorjers  were  appoint- 
ed on  both  sides  to  bring  these  disputes  to  an  amicable  termi- 
nation. A  conference  was  opened  at  Paris,  which  began  aboat 
the  end  of  September  1750,  and  continued  for  several  years  ; 
but  as  neither  party  was  disposed  to  act  with  sincerity,  these 
conferences  ended  in  nothing.     The  English,  who  saw  that  the 


1^  CIIMTRR  IX. 

Frf  ncli  only  sonj^ht  to  p;nin  time  for  augmenting  their  marine 
hasten»<(l  the  riiptiiro  by  committing:  nets  of  hostility  in  AmRrica. 
The  first  breach  of  the  peace  wiin  committed  on  the  banks  of 
the  Oliii),  where  the  French,  to  avenj^e  the  murder  of  one  of  their 
orticers,  seized  on  Fort  Nece^Mity,  belonging  to  the  English 
(July  1761.)  The  English,  on  their  side,  captured  two  French 
vessels  oir  the  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  which  had  refused  to 
siilute  the  English  flag.  They  even  attacked  all  the  French 
merchantmen  which  they  met,  and  captured  about  three  hun- 
dred of  them.  Thus,  a  long  and  bloodjr  war  was  waged  for  the 
deserts  and  uncultivated  wilds  of  America,  which  extended  its 
ravages  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  involving  more  especially 
the  countries  of  Europe. 

England,  according  to  a   well  known  political    stratagem, 
sought  to  occupy  the  French  arms  on  the  Continent ;  in  order 
to  prevent  the  increase  of  her  maritime  strength.     France,  in- 
stead of  avoiding  that  snare,  and  confining  herself  solely  to 
naval  operations,  committed  the  mistake  of  falling  in  with  the 
views  of  the  British  minister.     While  repelling  the  hostilities 
of  England  by  sea,  she  adopted  nt  the  same  time  measures  for 
invading  the  Electorate  of  Hanover.     The  Court  of  London, 
wishing  to   guard   against   this   danger,  bcgpn  by  forming  a 
closer  alliance  with  Russia  (Sept.  30,  1755  ;)  thev  demanded  of 
the  Empress  those  supplies  which  they  thought  they  might 
claim  in  virtue  of  former  treaties  ;  and  on  the  refusal  of  that 
princess,  who  was  afraid  to  disoblige  France,  and  to  find  her- 
self attacked  by  Prussia,  they  applied  to  this  latter  power,  with 
which  they  concluded  a  treaty  at  Westminster  (Jan.  16, 1766;) 
the  chief  object  of  which  was  to  prevent  foreign  troops  from 
entering  into  the  Empire  during  the  war  between  France  and 
England.     To  this  treaty  France  opposed  the  alliance  which 
she  had  concluded  with  Austria  at  Versailles,  by  which  the  two 
powers  guaranteed  their  respective  possessions  in  Europe,  and 
promised  each  other  a  mutual  supply  of  twenty-four  thousand 
men  in  case  of  attack.     The  differences  then  subsisting  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  were  not  reckoned  among  the  Casta 
Federis. 

[The  alliance  of  1756  has  given  rise  to  differeiit  opinions 
among  statesmen  ;  the  greater  part  have  condemned  it.  Its  ob- 
ject was,  on  the  part  of  France,  to  guard  herself  against  all  at- 
tacks on  the  Continent,  that  she  might  direct  her  whole  force 
against  her  maritime  rival ;  but  experience  proved,  that  without 
attaining  this  object,  she  was  henceforth  obliged  to  take  part  in 
all  the  disputes  of  the  Continent,  however  foreign  they  might 
be  to  her  own  policy.     It  was  even  contrary  to  her  interesU  lo 


Mnaawainisaci**" 


their  rrtarinw 

y  in  America. 

the  hanl<R  of 

f  one  of  their 

the  English 

d  two  French 

ad  refused  to 

the  French 

t  three  hun- 

waged  for  the 

I  extended  its 

ore  especially 

il  stratagem, 
lent ;  in  order 
France,  in- 
rself  solely  to 
J  in  with  the 
the  hostilities 
measures  for 
rt  of  London, 
by  forming  a 
Y  demanded  of 
It  they  might 
refusal  of  that 
id  to  find  her- 
er  power,  with 
an.  16,1766;) 
n  troops  from 
n  France  and 
lUiance  which 
which  the  two 
1  Europe,  and 
■four  thousand 
isting  between 
ong  the  Cana 

erent  opinions 
led  it.  Its  ob- 
against  all  at- 
sr  whole  force 
1,  that  without 
to  take  part  in 
fn  they  might 
er  interesta  to 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  V.  1713 — 1789. 


867 


have  Austria  extricated  from  the  rmbarrnssmonts  which  the  op- 
position of  I'russia  hud  (U'casiDiicil  Ih.t.  If  llint  project  had  »uc- 
rt'CcU'd,  Austria  would  have  hcfotne  tlio  propnruU'nitiiig  power 
in  Gfrninriy,  to  a  degree  which  would  Imvo  coiiipulU'd  the  I*  renrh 
to  turn  their  arms  against  her.] 

Whilo  the  French  were  still  hesitating  as  to  the  part  wiiich 
they  ought  to  take  relative  to  the  F'lectoruie  of  Hanover,  the 
King  of  Prussia  invaded  Saxony  (Aug.  1756.)  On  taking  this 
step,  he  published  a  manifesto,  the  object  of  which  was  to  prove 
by  the  despatches  of  the  three  Courts  of  Vienno,  Dresden,  uiul 
Petersburg,  that  they  had  concerted  a  plan  among  them  for  at- 
tacking him  ;  and  that  coiimion  prudence  required  him  to  pre- 
vent it.  He  declared  at  the  same  time,  that  his  entrance  into 
Saxony  had  no  other  aim  than  that  of  opening  a  communication 
with  Bohemia ;  and  that  he  would  only  retain  that  country  as  a 
depot  until  the  conclusion  of  the  peace.  This  invasion,  however, 
stirred  up  a  powerful  league  against  Prussia  (1757.)  Besides 
France  and  the  Empress,  it  was  joined  by  the  Germanic  body, 
Russia  and  Sweden.  France,  wliich  had  at  first  restricted  her- 
.self  to  furnishing  the  Empress  with  the  supplies  stipulated  by 
the  alliance,  agreed,  by  a  subsequent  treaty,  to  despatch  an  army 
of  more  than  100,000  men  into  Germany,  against  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  his  ally  the  King  of  England ;  and,  moreover,  to 
pay  to  that  Princess  an  annual  subsidy  of  twelve  millions  of 
florins. 

In  this  war  the  French  arms  were  attended  at  first  with  the 
most  brilliant  success.  They  conquered  the  island  of  Minorca, 
and  seized  the  Electorate  of  Hesse,  and  the  whole  States  of 
Brunswick  and  Hanover ;  but  fortune  soon  turned  her  back  on 
them,  when  they  experienced  nothing  but  defeats  and  disasters. " 
The  extraordinary  eflTorts  which  they  were  making  on  the  Con- 
tinent iifiturnlly  tended  to  relax  their  maritime  operations,  and 
thus  afforded  England  the  means  of  invading  their  possessions 
in  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  years  1757  and  1761,  Chan- 
dernagore,  Pondicherry,  and  Mahe,  in  the  East  Indies,  fell  into 
ihe  hands  of  the  English ,  and  in  1758,  they  seized  on  all  the 
French  settlements  on  the  river  Senegal  and  tne  coasts  of  Africa. 
The  Islands  of  Cape  Breton  and  St.  John  in  America ;  the  forts 
and  settlements  on  the  Ohio ;  Quebec  (where  General  Wolfe 
fell.)  and  the  whole  of  Canada,  were  all  conquered  in  like  man- 
ner, between  the  years  1756  and  1760.  Finally,  the  Islands  of 
Guadaloupe,  Managalante,  Dominica,  Martinique,  Grenada,  St. 
Vincent,  St.  Lucia,  and  Tobago,  were  also  taken  from  France. 

The  King  of  Prussia,  though  overwhelmed  by  the  number  of 
his  enemias,  and  finding  no  great  assistance  from  his  alliance 


•  M 


^i   '    >■■ 


.^w 


T: 


li^'^ 


jlflk^t'tmint  I'm  <r''-i<i"*i*  J 


368 


CHAPTER  IX. 


il 

';  1 


xvith  Enciand,  nevertheless  did  not  lose  courage.     He  distin-     , 
^^  shed  Eself  by  the  number  of  victories  which  he  gamed     ^ 
^vTr  U.e  power    leagiied  against  him,  during  the  campaign    of     j 
r  Seven  Years' War."     This  war  was  already  far  advanced 
vhenX  Dale  de  Choiseul,  who  was  then  at  the  head  of  the     , 
French  ministry,  observing  the  great  superiority  of  the  Englsh     , 
r rencn  minikin ,         ,     °f  j    famous  Family  Compact,  which 
i-e  ^e^STd  wUh  thfcou  t  of  Sadrid,  and  Jhich  was  conclu- 
d  af  ParMlugust  15,  1761.)     The  object  of  this  treaty  was 
.„on;  .  ,,  nUlance  and  a  perpetual  union  among  the  differ- 
™.'bn,Sc.;"  ftX.^  „r  Ubon.  tor  .he  purpose  of  «.«»■ 

•"S"S  "ofVp'S 'is  c';rUde?nt"l»-n.  ,0  iota  in 
the  war  S  suCisted  tewecn  France  and  England  ,  bm  .he 

published  by  the  two  allied  courts,  -jJ^^J;  ^f^i^E 
irnnns  should  enter  Portugal  to  secure  the  ports  ot  that  kinguom 

the  ^P^"'"f'  """y,  ^i^^gjda  was  the  only  conquest  which  the 

I?    ,  nf  r„ba  in  America;  as  a  so  Manilla  and  the  Philip 
•        ;«  the  Indian  0™  a^fThe  war  thus  became  m  ,re  general. 
Sn"d  se  n  eS  ^"0  Snie  a  new  vigour,  when  an  unloreseen 
:;e"chTnged  entirely  the  face  of  affairs,  and  disposed  the  beL 

,    '^^SXXpress  of  Russia,  ^.ed  abjij  this  t^^^ 

SdmadeTprussia  and  Pomerania  d  n.ng  the  war.    Pete, 


e.    He  disliiv 
ich  he  gained 
campaigns  of     ' 
far  advanced, 
le  head  of  the 
of  the  English     , 
'!ovipact,  which     i 
ch  was  conclu-     I 
this  treaty  was 
ong  the  differ-     i 
irpose  of  coun- 

ment  to  join  in 
igland;  but  the 
n  demanded  of 
Compact,  gave 
courts.     Spain     | 
accede  to  their     ' 
ain  alleged  the 
ition,  and  which 
A  declaration, 
hat  the  Spanish 
»f  that  kingdom, 
receive  them  as 
id  him  under  the 
Igland  (May  18, 
ps,  was  then  sent 
ch  troops  joined 
gainst  that  king- 
quest  which  the 
on  the  contrary, 
Sfreat  part  of  the 
°and  the  Philip 
me  m  )re  general, 
en  an  unforeseen 
disposed  the  bel- 

,  this  time;  and 
he  throne.  Peter, 
isia,  took  an  early 
A  suspension  of 
lich  was  foUowrd 
rg  (May  5, 1762.) 
quests  which  she 
the  WOT.     Petet 


PERIOD  vin.     A.  D.  1713—1789. 


369 


renounced  the  alliances  which  he  had  formerly  contracted 
agamst  the  King  of  Prussia;  while  he,  in  his  turn,  refused  to 
form  alliances  or  engagements  contrary  to  the  interests  of  Rus- 
sia, or  to  the  hereditary  possessions  of  Peter  in  Germany.  But 
the  new  Emperor  was  not  content  with  testifying  this  mark  of 
affection  for  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  agreed  to  send  a  body  of 
troops  into  Silesia  to  his  assistance.  A  revolution,  however, 
happened  in  Russia,  which  occasioned  new  changes.  Peter  III. 
was  dethroned  (July  9,)  after  a  reign  of  six  months.  The  Em- 
)iress  Catherine  H.,  his  widow,  on  ascending  the  throne,  pre- 
served the  treaty  of  peace  with  the  King  of  Prussia ;  but  she 
recalled  her  troops  from  Silesia,  and  declared  that  she  would 
maintain  neutrality  between  the  King  and  the  Empress. 

Sweden,  who  had  experienced  nothing  but  defeats  in  course 
of  that  war,  followed  the  example  of  Russia.  She  agreed  to  a 
suspension  of  arms  with  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  soon  after  con- 
cluded a  treaty  of  peace  with  him  at  Hamburg  (May  22,  1762.) 
These  two  treaties  paved  the  way  for  a  general  peace,  the  pre- 
liminaries of  which  were  signed  at  Fountainblean,  between 
France,  England,  S[fein  and  Portugal.  The  definitive  peace 
was  concluded  at  Paris  (Feb.  10,  1763.)  This  treaty  was  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  Hubertsburg,  which  reconciled  Prussia  with 
the  Empress  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony. 

By  this  latter  treaty,  the  Empress  surrendered  to  the  King  of 
Prussia  the  province  of  Glatz,  as  also  the  fortresses  of  Wesel 
and  Gueldres.  The  Elector  of  Saxony  again  took  possession 
of  those  States  which  the  King  of  Prussia  had  taken  from  him ; 
and  the  treaties  of  Breslau,  Berlin  and  Dresden,  were  renewed. 
Thus,  afler  seven  campaigns,  as  sangiunary  as  they  were  ex- 
pensive, the  peace  of  Hubertsburg  restored  the  affairs  of  Ger- 
many to  the  same  state  in  which  they  had  been  before  the  war. 

France,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  ceded  to  England  Canada  and 
the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  with  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Gulf 
and  River  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  boundaries  between  the  two 
nations  in  North  America  were  fixed  by  a  line  drawn  along  the 
middle  of  the  Mississippi,  from  its  source  to  its  mouth.  All  on 
the  left  or  eastern  bank  of  that  riv«>r  was  given  up  to  England, 
except  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  which  was  reserved  to  France ; 
as  was  also  the  liberty  of  the  fisheries  on  a  part  of  the  coasts  of 
Newfoundland,  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  islands  of 
St.  Peter  and  Miquelon  were  given  them  as  a  shelter  for  their 
fishermen,  but  without  permission  to  raise  fortifications.  The 
islands  of  Martinico.  '^raudalonpe,  Mariagalante,  Desirada,  and 
St.  Lncia,  were  sunundered  to  France;  while  Grenada,  the 
Grenadines,  St.  Vincent,  IX>minica,  and  Tobaffo,  were  ceded  to 

34 


^   i\ 


I     l:-| 


m 


--'  .1.  iww^- 


370 


CHAPTER  IX. 


f; 


Enffland  The  latter  power  retained  her  conquei.t8  on  the  Sen- 
fX^d  reitowd  to  Fmnce  the  island  of  Gorea  on  the  coast  of 
^Ska  France  was  put  in  possession  of  the  forts  and  tactones 
wh"ch  belong  to  her  in  the  East  Indies,  on  the  coasts  of  Coro- 
mandel  OriL,  Malabar,  and  Bengal   under  the  restriction  of 

in  Gemany  TZ>  the  island  of  Minorca.  England  gaveup 
o  herTSeisle  on  the  coast  of  Brittany ;  while  Dunkirk  was 
kept  n  the  ame  condition  as  had  been  ietennined  by  the  peace 
Kix-la-Chapelle.  The  island  of  Cuba  with  the  Havana  was 
It'edto^he'Kingof  Spain,  -^o,  on  h.s  part  ceded  to  E^^^^^^ 
io«,l  FlnTirfa  with  Fort  Augustine  and  the  Bay  oi  rensacom. 
rt  S  of  Portugal  was  restored  to  the  same  state  in  which 
Kbfen  before  Se  war.  The  colony  of  St.  Sacrament  in 
AmerkaTwhich  the  Spaniards  had  conquered,  was  given  back 

^  S"  peace  of  Paris,  of  which  we  have  just  now  spoken,  was 
theera  of  England's  greatest  prosperity.  Her  commerce  and 
Lavi^tion  eSded  over  all  parts  of  tlte  globe,  and  were  sup- 
3bv  a  naval  force,  so  much  vhe  more  imposmg,  as  it  was 
TTonger  counterbalanced  by  the  maritime  power  of  France 
which  had  been  almost  annihilated  in  the  Preceding  war.  The 
Jnmense  territories  which  that  peace  had  secured  her,  both  in 
AfricTand  America,  opened  new  channels  for  her  industry, 
^nd  whTt  deSrves  es^cially  to  be  remarked,  is,  that  she  ac- 
quired at  the  same  ti^e  vast  and  important  possessions  m  the 

ThSpire  of  the  Great  Mogul  in  India  had  fallen  into  decay 
»bout  thebSginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.     The  viceroys 
and  ieuv  governor!  of  the  Empire,  called  SoubaAs  ani  Nabobs 
Sd  Omfindependent,  and  usurped  the  prerogatives  o  royalt,' 
Ke  d^Sricts  u'nder  their  authority;  7'g^..f,f^fj^;^P^: 
-or.  reduced  almost  to  the  single  city  of  Delhi,  his  capital,  pre 
;^rVed  nothing  but  the  shadow  of  sovereign  power,  by  means  of 
Srinvesituri  which  he  granted  to  these  ambmous  princes 
and  The  coinage  that  was  struck  in  his  name.     Whenever  any 
5?fferences  aroS  among  these  princes,  they  usually  had  recourse 
fo  the  Euroian  nations,  who  had  settlements  in  W.a,  and  had 
erected  forS^Uh  the  consent  of  the  Great  Mogul,  where  thev 
E  an  imed  force  for  the  protection  of  their  commerce.     If 
the  Frenc"Took  the  part  of  one  nabob,  it  was  sufficient  to  induce 
the  English  to  espouse  the  quarrel  of  his  adversary ;  and  wh^e 
Se  two  nations  were  mutually  cult  vatmg  peace  •«  Europe, 
,  -hey  were  offn  at  the  same  time  making  war  m  India,  by  fur- 


!    t, 


bts  on  the  Sen-    1 1 
m  the  coast  of    j 
,8  and  factories 
coasts  of  Coro- 
restriction  ol 

she  had  made 
ngland  gave  up     , 

Dunkirk  was     ' 

ed  by  the  peace     \ 

le  Havana,  was     | 

ceded  to  Eng-     ; 

r  of  Pensacola. 

state  in  which 

Sacrament  in 
was  given  back 

ow  spoken,  was 
commerce  and 
;,  and  were  sup- 
losing,  as  it  was 
3wer  of  France, 
iding  war.  The 
ired  her,  both  in 
)r  her  industry, 
1,  is,  that  she  ac- 
ossessions  in  the 

fallen  into  decay 
I.     The  viceroys 
bahs  and  Nabobt 
gatives  of  royalty 
he  Mogul  Empe- 
i,  his  capital,  pre- 
wer,  by  means  of 
mbitious  princes, 
Whenever  any 
lally  had  recourse 
in  India,  and  had 
[ogul,  where  thev 
lir  commerce.     If 
jfficient  to  induce 
srsarj' ;  and  while 
jeace  in  Europe, 
r  in  India,  by  fur- 


PERioD  vm.    A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


371 


nishing  supplies  to  their  respective  allies.  Success  was  for  i 
long  time  equal  on  both  sides ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  war  of 
1765,  and  by  the  victories  and  conquests  of  the  famous  Lord 
Clive,  that  England  obtained  a  decided  ascendency  over  the 
French  in  that  quarter  of  the  world. 

Sourajah  Dowlah,  the  Soubah  of  Bengal,  instigated,  as  is  sup- 
posed, by  the  French,  had  taken  possession  of  Calcutta  (1756,) 
the  principal  settlement  of  the  English  on  the  Ganges.  His 
cruel  treatment  of  the  English  garrison,  which  he  had  made 
prisoners  of  war,  excited  the  resentment  of  that  nation.  To 
avenge  this  outrage.  Colonel  Clive,  supported  by  Admiral  Wat- 
son, retook  Calcutta  (Jan.  1757 ;)  and  after  havmg  dispossessed 
the  French  of  Chandernagore,  their  principal  establishment  on 
the  Ganges,  he  vanquished  the  Soubah  in  several  actions,  de- 
posed him,  and  put  in  his  place  Jaffier  Ali  Khan,  his  general 
and  prime  minister,  w^ho  was  entirely  devoted  to  England. 

With  this  era  commences  the  foundation  of  the  British  Empire 
in  India.  It  happened  a  short  time  after,  that  the  Mogul  Empe- 
ror, Shah  Allum,  being  driven  from  his  capital  by  the  Patans, 
an  Indian  tribe,  solicited  the  protection  of  the  English,  who 
availed  themselves  of  this  occasion,  as  well  as  of  the  death  of 
Jaffier  Ali,  which  happened  at  this  time,  to  get  themselves  vested 
by  treaty  (1765,)  and  by  means  of  an  Imperial  charter,  in  the 
sovereignty  of  all  Bengal.  In  virtue  of  this  title,  which  legiti- 
mated their  power  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  they  seized  on  the 
public  revenues  of  the  kingdoms  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa ; 
with  the  reservation  of  an  annual  tribute,  which  they  promised 
to  pay  to  the  Mogul  Emperor,  and  certain  pensions  which  they 
assigned  to  the  Soubahs,  whose  phantom  power  they  disposed 
of  at  their  pleasure.  The  dominion  of  the  English  in  India,  was 
increased  still  more  by  subsequent  conquests ;  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  was  the  powerful  state  of  Mysore,  which  they 
utterly  overthrew,  after  a  series  of  wars  which  they  carried  on 
with  Hyder  Ali,  and  his  successor  Tippoo  Saib.* 

[The  death  of  Ferdinand  VI.,  King  of  Spain,  was  an  event  of 
some  importance.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Don  Carlos, 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  eldest  son  of  Philip  V.  by  his 
^second  marriage,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  III.  Under 
this  prince  the  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century  penetrated 
into  Spain,  where  it  displayed  an  energy,  and  gave  rise  to  con 
sequences,  which  had  not  yet  attended  it  in  France.  It  occa- 
sioned the  downfall  of  the  Jesuits,  which  was  accompanied  by 
deedd  repugnant  to  justice  and  humanity.  The  ministers  and 
counsellors  of  that  monarch,  the  Counts  Arranda,  Florida  Blanca, 
and  Campomanes,  introduced  into  the  internal  administration 


«^  i 


372 


CHAPTER  «• 


!"'■ 


I 


of  Spain,  especially  its  finances  and  tactics,  an  order  ana  rc^ni- 
larit?  which  Imd  b^en  long  unknown  in  that  country.  Ajrr.cul- 
ture  commerce,  and  industry  were  ^''^£'"".'"8  J° '^^J^'' '^[^"l" 
their  langour,  when  the  American  war  again  threw  them  mto 
a  state  of  fatal  depression.]  _         ,    i      .u  i 

Before  quitting  Naples  to  take  possession  of  the  throne  of 
Spafn,  Don  Carlos,  who,  as  King  of  the  Two  S.c.hes,  had  the 
title  of  Charles  VII.,  published  a  fundamental  law,  bearmg,  that 
agreeably  to  former  treaties  which  did  not  admit  the  union  of 
theltalian  States  with  the  Spanish  monarchy,  he  transferred 
the  k  ngdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  his  third  son  Don  Ferdinand  j 
as  hi   eldest  son,  Don  Philip,  was  incanable  of  reigning,  and  his 
second,  Don  Carlos,  was  destined  for  tlie  throne  of  Spain.     He 
mrusted  the  administration  to  a  regency,  during  the  nonage  of 
he  young  prince,  whose  maiority  was  fixed  at  the  age  of  seven- 
een^    B?  Ihis  law  he  rcgufated  the  order  of  succession  which 
was  to  TaL  place  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  S.ci  les,  and  which 
wa   the  same  as  that  which  Philip  V.  had  established  m  Spam 
at  the  Cortes  of  1713.     After  the  descendants  male  and  female 
of  his  own  body,  Charles  substituted  his  brothers  Don  Phihp, 
Duke  of  Parma,  and  Don  Louis  ;  adding,  that  the  k/ngdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  should  never  in  any  case  be  united  with  the 
Spanirh  monarchy.     This  regulation  of  the  new  King  of  Spain 
accorded  perfectly' with  the  terms  of  the  seventh  article  of  the 
treaty  of  Vienna  (1738,)  which  secured  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  to  that  prince  and  his  descendants,  male  and  female  , 
and  Sing  these,  to  his  younger  brothers  and  their  descendants, 

"^  The  King  of  Sardinia  continued,  however,  to  enforce  his  right 
of  reversion  to  that  part  of  Placentia,  which  the  fourth  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  had  secured  to  him,  in  case  Don 
Carlo   shVuld  remove  frl  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  SicrUes  t„ 
the  crown  of  Spain.  The  Court  of  Prance,  wishing  to  etam  that 
possession  for  6on  Philip,  and  to  prevent  the  tranquillity  o^^^^^^ 
from  beinc  disturbed  by  the  pretensions  of  the  King  of  »ardinia, 
enLed  foFocure  tlL  prince  an  equivalent  with  which  he 
:a  have  'reason  to  be  satisfied.     This  enu.vaknt  way^^^^^^^ 
flune  10  1763)  by  a  convention  concluded  at  Pans,  Between 
France,  Spain,  L  J  the  King  of  Sardinia.     The  latter  consened 
To  Sic7his  right  of  reverSon  in  the  two  cases  sjjeci  ed  in  Ae 
seventh  article  of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ;  viz.  (1.)  tau 
rthemSe  descendants  of  Don  Philip ;  (2.)  Should  that  pnnce, 
or  one  of  his  descendants,  be  called  either  to  the  throne  of  Spa  n 
ox  "o  that  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ;  and  should  one  or  other  of  '.he.e 
tii  caLeV  happn  in  the  meantime,  the  drowns  of  France  and 


■  ,  I  .iii>uijMi»r«niMWI 


mtmut 


)rdcr  aiiQ  rcjn'* 
ntry.  Agricul- 
to  recover  from 
rew  them  into 

the  throne  of 
Sicilies,  had  the 
AV,  bearing,  that 
it  the  union  of 
,  he  transferred 
)on  Ferdinand ; 
eigning,  and  his 

of  Spain.  He 
g  the  nonage  of 
he  age  of  scven- 
uccession  which 

ilies,  and  which 
)lished  in  Spain 
nale  and  female 
lers  Don  Philip, 
.  the  kingdom  of 
united  with  the 
w  King  of  Spain 
th  article  of  the 
gdom  of  the  Two 
ale  and  female ; 
heir  descendants, 

enforce  his  right 
e  fourth  article  o( 
lim,  in  case  Don 
e  Two  Sicilies  to 
ling  to  retain  that 
mquillity  of  Ita.lj 
King  of  Sardinia, 
It  with  which  he 
valent  was  settled 
.t  Paris,  between 
e  latter  consented 
Bs  specified  in  the 
;;  viz.  (1.)  Fail- 
hould  that  prince, 
le  throne  of  Spain 
e  or  other  of  these 
ns  of  France  and 


PPRIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


373 


Spain  engaged  that  the  King  of  Sardinia  should  enjoy  the  same 
airiount  of  annual  revenue,  which  might  accrue  to  him  (after 
deducting  the  expenses  of  administration,)  from  that  part  of  Pla* 
centia  on  the  Nura,  should  he  overcome  into  actual  possession. 
Foi  this  purpose,  France  undertook,  by  a  special  agreement, 
yvhich  was  signed  at  Paris  the  same  day  with  the  preceding,  to 
pay  the  King  of  Sardinia,  by  twelve  instalments,  the  sum  ni 
eight  millions  two  hundred  livres ;  on  condition  of  reverting  to 
France,  should  one  or  other  of  these  alternatives  happen. 

The  sudden  aggrandizement  of  Russia,  since  the  time  of  Peter 
the  Great,  had  changed  the  political  system  of  the  North.  That 
power  had  raised  herself  to  the  first  rank.  She  dictated  the  law 
to  Poland  and  Sweden,  her  ancient  rivals ;  disposed  of  the 
throne  of  Poland  on  every  change  of  reign ;  and  at  the  same 
time  decided  the  fate  of  Courland.  That  dutchy,  which  had 
long  been  possessed  by  the  family  of  Kettler  who  held  it  as  a 
fief  of  the  crown  of  Poland,  had  become  vacant  on  the  death  of  the 
Duke  Ferdinand,  the  last  malo  descendant  of  that  House.  Ann, 
Empress  of  Russia,  being  then  only  Dutchess  of  Courland,  had  a 
favourite,  named  Ernest  John  Biron,  a  man  raised  by  fortune, 
whose  grandfather  had  been  groom  to  James  III.,  Duke  of  Cour- 
land. When  that  princess  mounted  the  throne  of  Russia,  she 
raised  Biron  to  the  rank  of  Count,  and  to  the  office  of  Great 
Chamberlain  and  Prime  Minister.  The  haughty  favourite  as- 
sumed the  name  and  arms  of  the  family  of  Biron,  in  France ; 
and  prevailed  with  the  Empress  to  grant  him  the  dutchy  of 
Courland.  At  the  death  of  the  last  Duke,  he  even  succeeded  in 
getting  himself  elected  by  the  States  of  that  country  (1737;) 
with  the  aid  of  a  body  of  Russian  troops,  which  the  Empress 
had  sent  to  Mittau,  to  support  his  election.  He  was  invested 
in  the  dutchy  by  the  Republic  of  Poland,  to  be  possessed  by  him- 
self and  his  heirs-male  ;  but  he  did  not  long  enjoy  this  new  dig- 
nity. He  was  deprived  of  it  on  the  death  of  the  Empress  (1740;; 
and  banished  to  Siberia  by  the  Grand  Dutchess  Ann,  mother  of 
the  young  Emperor.  This  princess  caused  a  new  election  to 
be  made  by  the  nobility  of  Courland.  The  dutchy  was  then 
conferred  on  Louis  Ernest,  Prince  of  Brunswick,  who  was  to 
marry  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great.  But  the  young 
Emperor,  Iwan,  having  been  dethroned  immediately  after,  the 
Prince  of  Brunswick  never  obtained  possession  of  the  dutchy. 
The  Empress  Elizabeth  having  decla'-ed  to  the  Republic  of 
Poland  that  the  Duke  de  Biron  should  never  be  liberated  from 
his  exile,  Augustus  III.,  King  of  Poland,  declared  the  dutchy  of 
Courland  vacant.  He  then  pre /ailed  on  the  States  ct  that  coun- 
try to  elect  his  own  son,  Prince  Charles,  whom  he  solemnly 
invested  in  the  dutchy  (17/)9.) 


H? 


^iUS 


J  n 


"■"'^:r 


rp 


374 


CHAPTBR   IX. 


\ 


A  new  change  happened  at  the  death  of  the  Empress  Elua- 
beth,  in  1762.  Peter  III.,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  ol  Rus- 
s-a,  recalled  the  Duke  de  Biron  from  his  exile.  The  Empress. 
Catherine  II.,  who  succeeded  her  husband  that  same  year,  weiii 
even  farther  than  this;  she  demanded  the  restoration  of  de 
Biron  to  the  dutchy  of  Courland,  and  obliged  Prince  Charles  of 
Saxony  to  give  it  up  to  him  (1769.)  The  Duke  de  Biron  then 
resigned  the  dutchy  to  his  son  Peter,  who,  after  a  reign  of  twen- 
tv-five  years,  surrendered  it  to  the  Empress  ;  the  btates  ol 
Courland  and  Semigallia  made  a  formal  submission  to  Russia 

(March  28, 1795.)  ,„       ,  .  ^ 

The  dethronement  of  Peter  III.,  which  we  have  just  men- 
tioned, was  an  event  very  favourable  to  Denmark,  as  it  relieved 
that  kingdom  from  a  ruinous  war  with  which  it  was  threatened 
on  the  part  of  the  Emperor.  Peter  III.  was  the  head  of  the 
House  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  whom  Denmark  had  deprived  ol 
their  possessions  in  Sleswick,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  dis- 
asters  that  befell  Sweden,  which  had  protected  that  family 
against  the  Danish  kings.  The  Dukes  of  Holstein-Gottorp  ex- 
claimed against  that  usurpation  ;  to  which  the  Court  of  Denmark 
had  nothing  to  oppose,  except  their  right  of  conquest,  and  the 
guarantee  which  the  Kings  of  France  and  England,  as  media- 
tors in  the  treaty  of  Stockholm,  had  given  to  Denmark  with 
respect  to  Sleswick.  r  u      •       v  „ 

Peter  III.  was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne  of  Russia,  virhen 
he  began  to  concert  means  for  recovering  his  ancient  patrimo- 
nial domains,  and  avenging  the  wrongs  which  the  Dukes  of 
Holstein-Gottorp,  his  ancestors,  had  received  at  the  hands  ol 
Denmark.  Being  determined  to  make  war  against  that  power, 
he  attached  the  King  of  Prussia  to  his  cause,  and  marched  a 
Russian  army  of  60,000  men  towards  the  frontiers  of  Denmark 
Six  thousand  Prussians  were  to  join  this  army,  which  wassup- 
potlcd  by  a  Russian  fleet  to  be  stationed  on  the  coasts  of  Po- 
merania.  The  King  of  Denmark  made  every  effort  to  repel  the 
invasion  with  which  he  was  threatened.  He  set  on  foot  an  army 
of  70,000  men,  the  command  of  which  he  intrusted  to  M.  de 
St.  Germain,  a  distinguished  French  officer. 

The  Danish  army  advanced  towards  Mecklenburg,  and  esta- 
blished their  head-quarters  in  the  town  of  that  name,  one 
league  from  Wismar.  The  Danish  fleet,  consisting  of  twenty 
sail  of  the  line  and  el-^en  frigates,  appeared  at  the  same  time 
off  Rostock.  The  flames  of  war  were  about  to  kindle  in  the 
North,  and  Peter  III.  was  on  the  point  of  joining  his  army  in 
person  at  Mecklenburg,  when  he  was  dethroned,  after  a  short 
'     feign  of  six  months  (July  9.  1762.>     The-  Empress  Catherine 


mpress  Ehu- 

throne  oi  Rus> 

The  EmprciiB, 

line  year,  wetii 

storation  of  Jc 

■ince  Charles  of 

de  Biron  then 

reign  of  twen- 

;  the  States  uf 

ision  to  Russia 

have  just  men- 
k,  as  It  relieved 
was  threatened 
he  head  of  the 
lad  deprived  of 
tage  of  the  dis- 
ted  that  family 
tein-Gottorp  ex- 
)urt  of  Denmark 
nquest,  and  the 
^land,  as  media- 
Denmark  with 


of  Russia,  when 
incient  patrimo- 
h  the  Dukes  of 
at  the  hands  of 
linst  that  power, 
and  marched  a 
ers  of  Denmark 
,  which  was  sup- 
le  coasts  of  Po- 
sfTort  to  repel  the 
:  on  foot  an  army 
trusted  to  M.  de 

nburg,  and  esta- 
that  name,  one 
i  sting  of  twenty 
L  the  same  time 
to  kindle  in  the 
ling  his  army  in 
ed,  after  a  short 
iprcss  Catherine 


i>RRI0D  vui.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


375 


il.,  who  succeeded  him,  did  not  think  fit  to  espouse  the  quarrel 
of  her  husband.  She  immediately  recalled  the  Russian  army 
from  Mecklenburg;  and  being  desirous  of  establishing  the  tran- 
quillity of  the  North  on  a  solid  basis,  and  confirming  a  good  un- 
derstanding between  the  two  principal  branches  of  the  House 
of  Holstein,  she  agreed,  by  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  King 
of  Denmark  (1765,)  to  terminate  all  these  differences  by  a 
provisional  arrangement,  which  was  not  to  take  effect  until  the 
majority  of  the  Grand  Duke  Paul,  the  son  of  Peter  III. 

This  accommodation  between  the  two  Courts  was  signed  at 
Copenhagen  (April  22,  1762.)  The  Empress,  in  the  name  of 
her  son,  gave  up  her  claim  to  the  ducal  part  of  Sleswick,  oc- 
cupied by  the  King  of  Denmark.  She  ceded,  moreover,  to 
that  sovereign  a  portion  of  Holstein,  possessed  by  the  family  of 
Gottorp,  in  exchange  for  the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and  Del- 
menhorst.  It  was  agreed,  that  these  counties  should  be  erect- 
ed into  dutchies,  and  that  the  ancient  suffrage  of  Holstsin-Got- 
torp,  at  the  Imperial  Diet,  should  be  transferred  to  them.  This 
provisional  treaty  was  ratified  when  the  Grand  Duke  came  of 
age ;  and  the  transference  of  the  ceded  territories  took  place  in 
1773.  At  the  same  time  that  prince  declared,  that  he  designed 
the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and  Delmenhorst  to  form  an  esta- 
blishment for  a  youngei  branch  of  his  family,  that  of  Eutin ; 
to  which  the  contracting  powers  also  secured  the  bishopric  of 
Lubec,  to  be  held  in  perpetual  possession.  The  bishop  of  Lubec, 
the  head  of  the  younger  branch  of  the  Gottorp  family,  was  that 
same  year  put  in  possession  of  the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and 
Delmenhorst ;  and  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  erected  these  coun- 
ties into  a  dutchy  and  fiet  male  of  the  Empire,  under  the  title 
of  the  Dutchy  of  Holstein-Oldenburg. 

Here  it  will  be  necessary  to  advert  to  the  revolutions  that  took 
place  in  the  Island  of  Corsica,  which,  after  a  long  series  of  troubles 
and  distractions,  passed  from  the  dominion  of  Genoa  to  that  of 
France.  The  oppressions  which  the  Corsicans  had  suffered 
under  the  government  of  the  Genoese,  who  treated  ihem  with 
extreme  rigour,  had  rendered  their  yoke  odious  and  insupporta- 
ble. They  rose  several  times  in  reoellion  against  the  Republi- 
cans ;  but  from  the  want  of  union  among  themselves,  they  failed 
in  the  different  attempts  which  they  made  for  effecting  their 
liberty  and  independence. 

One  of  the  last  insurrections  of  the  Corsicans  was  that  of 
1729.  They  chose  for  their  leader  Andrew  Geccaldi  of  a  noble 
family  in  the  Island,  and  Luigi  Giafferi,  a  man  of  courage  and 
an  enthusiast  for  lilierty.  The  Genoese,  after  trying  in  vam  to 
subdue  the  insurgents,  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  pro* 


'  li 


'■:  i''M 


<r4 


'(.!♦' 


376 


CHAPTER  IX. 


tection  of  foreigners.  They  applied  to  the  Emperor  Charleb 
VI.,  who  sent  ihem  severul  detachments  of  troops  under  tne 
command  of  General  Wnchtendonk,  and  Prince  Frederic  Louis 
of  Wurtemljerg.  The  Corsicans,  too  feeble  to  oppose  an  enemy 
so  superior  in  strength,  were  glad  to  lay  down  tneir  arms.  But 
the  war  about  the  Polish  Succession  having  obliged  the  Empe- 
ror to  withdraw  his  troops,  the  Islanders  raised  a  new  insurrec- 
tion. A  general  assembly  was  then  convened,  which  declared 
Corsica  to  be  a  free  and  independent  republic  (1734.)  GiafTeri 
was  re-elected  General,  and  had  for  his  colleague  Hyacinthus 
Paoli,  father  to  the  famous  general  of  that  name.  Thus  the  Ge- 
noese, after  lavishing  much  expense  on  auxiliary  troops,  had  the 
mortification  to  find  themselves  still  in  the  same  condition  in 
which  they  were,  before  receiving  the  Imperial  succours.  They 
then  took  into  their  pay  bodies  of  Swiss  and  Grison  troops ;  and 
even  enlisted  outlaws  and  vagabonds,  and  placed  them  in  their 
ranks  to  oppose  the  Corsicans. 

It  happened,  during  these  transactions,  that  an  adventurer  ap- 
peared in  Corsica,  the  celebrated  Theodore  Baron  Neuhof.  He 
was  descended  of  a  noble  family  in  the  county  of  Mark,  in  West- 
phalia ;  and  having  procured  arms  and  ammunition  at  Tunis, 
he  repaired  to  Corsica  (1736,)  where  he  was  determined  to  try 
his  fortune.  His  engaging  manners,  added  to  the  prospects 
which  he  held  out  of  a  powerful  foreign  assistance,  induced  the 
Corsicans  to  confer  on  him  the  royal  dignity.  He  was  proclaim- 
ed King  of  Corsica,  and  immediately  assumed  the  external 
badge?  of  royalty.  He  appointed  guards  and  officers  of  state, 
coined  money  in  his  own  name,  and  created  an  order  of  knight- 
hood, called  the  Redemption.  Taking  advantage  of  the  enthu- 
siasm with  which  he  had  inspired  the  Corsicans,  he  boldly  made 
war  on  the  Genoese,  and  laid  several  of  their  places  under 
blockade.  But  his  money  being  exhausted,  and  the  people  be- 
ginning to  cool  in  their  attachment  towards  him,  he  took  the 
determination  of  applying  for  assistance  to  foreigners.  He  em- 
barked for  Holland,  where  he  found  means  to  engage  a  society 
of  merchants,  by  the  allurements  of  a  lucrative  commerce  with 
Corsica,  to  furnish  him  with  artillery,  ammunition,  and  other 
Bupplies,  with  which  he  returned  to  the  Island. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  Genoese,  threatened  with 
lotting  for  ever  their  sovereignty  over  Corsica,  entered  into  an 
awriciation  with  the  Court  of  Versailles.  This  Court,  fearing 
thai  England  would  take  advantage  of  these  disturbances  to  get 
poHacssion  of  the  Island,  concerted  measures  with  the  Court  of 
Vienna,  Jor  obliging  the  Corsicans  to  return  to  t)ieir  allegiance 
to  the  Genoese.    For  this  purpose,  a  plan  of  pacification  was 


L 


!iMil'fiil.iil«»)iliMT*«i!i«>»iiiiii]'!,.ii'liri"lilill»» 


PBRIOD  VIII.      A.  D.   1713—1789. 


MM 


ot  Charkb 
under  tne 
leric  Louis 
an  enemy 
irms.  Biit 
the  Empe- 
V  insurrec- 
h  declared 
I  Giaflferi 
iyacinthus 
us  the  Ge- 
ps,  had  the 
ondition  in 
irs.  They 
roops ;  and 
m  in  their 

enturer  ap- 
euhof.  He 
k,  in  West- 
\n  at  Tunis, 
lined  to  try 
0  prospects 
nduced  the 
LS  proclaim- 
le  external 
irs  of  State, 
r  of  knight- 
'  the  enthu- 
x)ldly  made 
aces  under 
!  people  be- 
lie took  the 
s.  He  em- 
1^  a  society 
merce  with 
,  and  other 

tened  with 
ired  into  an 
urt,  fearing 
inces  to  get 
le  Court  of 
'  allegiance 
[ication  was 


dmwn  up  at  Versailles,  and  Count  lie  Boissieux  wus  charged  to 
carry  it  into  execution.  This  General  liiiulcd  in  the  Island 
(1738,)  (It  the  head  ol'  a  body  of  French  auxiliaries  ;  and  his  ar- 
rival determined  King  Theodore  to  abandon  Corsica,  and  seek 
his  safety  in  flight.  He  retired  to  London,  where  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  debt.  After  a  long  captivity  he  was  set  at  liberty, 
and  died  in  a  state  of  misery  (1756.)  boissieux  harassed  the 
Corsicans  exceedingly,  but  he  failed  in  his  efforts  to  reduce  them 
lO  submission.  His  successor,  the  Marquis  de  Maillebois,  was 
more  fortunate ;  he  took  his  measures  with  such  precision  uud 
vigour,  that  he  obliged  the  Islanders  to  lay  down  their  arms,  and 
receive  the  law  from  the  conqueror.  Their  Generals,  Giaflcri 
and  Paoli,  retired  to  Naples. 

The  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  having  obliged  the 
French  Court  to  recall  their  troops  from  Corsica,  that  island  be- 
came the  scene  of  new  disturbances.  Gaflbrio  and  Matra  then 
took  upon  them  the  functions  of  generalship,  and  the  direction 
of  affairs.  They  had  a  colleague  and  coadjutor  in  the  person 
of  Count  Rivarola,  a  native  of  Corsica,  who,  with  the  assistance 
of  some  English  vessels  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Genoese 
from  Bastia  and  San  Fiorenzo.  The  Corsicans  might  have 
pushed  their  advantages  muth  farther,  if  they  could  have  sub- 
dued their  own  feuds  and  private  animosities,  and  employed 
themselves  solely  in  promoting  the  public  interest ;  but  their 
internal  divisions  retarded  their  success,  and  allowed  their  ene- 
mies to  recover  the  places  they  had  conquered.  Rivarola  and 
Matra  having  resigned  the  command,  the  sole  charge  devolved 
on  Gafforio,  who  was  a  man  of  rare  merit  and  of  tried  valour. 
He  was  beginning  to  civilize  his  countrymen,  and  to  give  some 
stability  to  the  government  of  the  island,  when  he  was  assassi- 
nated, as  is  s';pposed,  by  the  emissaries  of  the  Genoese  (1753.) 
His  death  plinged  Corsica  once  more  into  the  state  of  disordei 
and  anarchy  from  which  he  had  laboured  to  deliver  it. 

At  length  appeared  the  celebrated  Pascal  Paoli,  whom  his 
aged  father  had  brought  from  Naples  to  Corsica.  Being  elected 
General-in-chief  by  his  countrymen  ( 1756,)  he  inspired  them 
with  fresh  couroge ;  and  while  he  carried  on  the  war  with  suc- 
cess against  the  Genoese,  he  made  efforts  to  reform  abuses  in  the 
State,  and  to  encourage  agriculture,  letters  and  arts.  Nothing 
was  wanting  to  accomplish  this  object,  and  to  confirm  the  liberty 
and  independence  of  his  country,  but  the  expulsion  of  the  Geno- 
ese from  the  maritime  towns  of  Bastia,  San  Fiorenzo,  Calvi,  Al- 
gagliola  and  Ajaccio ;  the  only  places  which  still  remained  in 
their  power.  In  this  he  would  probably  have  succeeded,  had  he 
not  met  with  new  interruptions  from  France,  who  had  underta- 


I  I. 


,!Sil* 


M-- 


378 


CnAPTBR  IX. 


I 


!l 


ken,  by  the  several  treaties  which  she  had  concluded  with  ihs 
Genoese  in  the  years  1752,  1765, 1756  and  1764,  to  defend  their 
ports  and  fortifications  in  that  island. 

Tlie  original  intention  of  the  French,  in  taking  possession  of 
these  places,  was  not  to  carry  on  hostilities  with  }  aoli  and  the 
natives,  but  simply  to  retain  them  for  u  limited  time,  in  discharge 
of  a  debt  which  the  French  government  had  contracted  with  the 
Kejablic  of  Genoa.  The  Genoese  had  flattered  themselves, 
that  if  exonerated  from  the  duty  of  guarding  the  fortified  places, 
they  would  be  able,  with  their  own  forces,  to  reconquer  all  the 
rest  of  the  island ;  but  it  was  not  long  before  they  found  them- 
selves deceived  in  their  expectations.  The  Corsicans  drove  the 
Genoese  from  the  island  of  Capraja  (1767.)  They  even  took 
possession  of  Ajaccio,  and  some  other  parts  which  the  French 
had  thought  fit  to  abandon.  At  the  same  time  the  shipping  of 
the  Corsicans  made  incessant  incursions  on  the  Genoese,  and 
annoyed  their  commerce. 

The  Senate  of  Genoa,  convinced  at  last  that  it  was  impossible 
for  them  to  subdue  the  island,  and  seeing  the  time  approach 
when  the  French  troops  were  to  take  their  departure,  took  the 
resolution  of  surrendering  their  rights  over  Corsica  to  the  crown 
of  France,  by  a  treaty  which  was  signed  at  Versailles  (May  15, 
1768.)     The  King  promised  to  restore  the  island  of  Capraja  to 
to  the  Republic.     He  guaranteed  to  them  all  their  possessions 
on  terra  firma;   and  engaged  to  pay  them  annually  for  ten 
years,  the  sum  of  200,000  livres.     The  Genoese  reserved  to 
themselves  the  right  of  reclaiming  the  sovereignty  of  Corsica, 
on  reimbursing  the  King  for  the  expenses  of  the  expedition  he 
was  about  to  undertake,  as  well  as  for  the  maintenance  of  his 
troops.     This  treaty  occasioned  strong  remonstrances  on  the  part 
of  the  Corsicans,  who  prepared  themselves  for  a  vigorous  de- 
fence.    The  first  campaign  turned  to  their  advantage.     It  cost 
France  several  thousand  men,  and  about  thirty  millions  of  livres. 
The  Duke  de  Choiseul,  far  from  being  discouraged  bythese  dis- 
asters, transported  a  strong  force  into  the  island.     He  put  the 
Count  de  Vaux  in  the  place  of  the  Marquis  de  Chauvelin,  who, 
by  the  skilful  dispositions  which  he  made,  found  himself  master 
t<f  all  Corsica,  in  less  than  two  months.     The  Islanders  not  hav- 
ing received  from  England  the  supplies  which  they  had  request- 
ed, the  prospect  of  which  had  kept  up  their  courage,  considered 
it  rash  and  hopeless  to  make  Itmger  resistance.     The  different 
provinces,  in  their  turn,  gave  in  their  submission ;  and  the  prin- 
cipal leaders  of  the  Corsicans  dispersed  themselves  among  the 
neighbouring  States.     Pascal  Paoli  look  refuge  in  England. 
The  throne  of  Poland  having  become  vacant  by  the  death  ol 


"-■  rt%.iitj*M»t^^jiatf?ig?jg^iiB 


■lu'^tuiitwiiriiMii 


idcd  with  ihtt 

0  defend  their 

possession  uf 
)  aoli  and  the 
B,  in  discharge 
acted  with  the 
themselves, 
ortified  places, 
onquer  all  the 
y  found  them- 
cans  drove  the 
hey  even  took 
ch  the  French 
he  shipping  of 

Genoese,  and 

was  impossible 
time  approach 
irture,  took  the 
ica  to  the  crown 
;ailles  (May  15, 

1  of  Capraja  to 
leir  possessions 
nnually  for  ten 
Bse  reserved  to 
rnty  of  Corsica, 
e  expedition  he 
itenance  of  his 
inces  on  the  part 
•  a  vigorous  de- 
antage.  It  cost 
lillions  of  livres. 
red  by  these  dis- 
id.  He  put  the 
Dhauvelin,  who, 
1  himself  master 
ilanders  not  hav- 
liey  had  request- 
rage,  considered 
.  The  different 
a ;  and  the  prin- 
elves  among  thp 

in  England. 
t  by  the  death  oi 


P^ 


nnu  0  VIII.    A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


379 


Augustus  III.  (Oct.  6,  1763,)  the  Empress  Catherine  II.  des- 
iiiicd  that  crown  for  Stanislaus  Poniatow:«ki,  a  Polixh  nobleman, 
who  hud  gained  her  favour  when  he  resided  at  St.  Petersburgh 
as  plenipotciitiarv  of  Poland.    That  princess  having  gained  over 
the  Court  of  Berlin  to  her  interests,  sent  several  dc^tachnicnts  of 
trnops  into  Poland  ;  and  in  this  manner  succeeded  in  tarrying 
the  election  of  her  favourite,  who  was  proclaimed  King  at  the 
Diet  of  Warsaw  (Sept.  7,  1764.)     It  was  at  this  diet  of  election 
that  the  Empress  formally  interceded   with  the   Republic  in 
favour  of  the  Dimdents  (oi  dissenters)  of  Poland  and  Lithuania, 
with  the  view  of  having  them  reinstated  in  those  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical rights,  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  the  in- 
tolerance of  the  Catholics.     The  name  of  Dissidents  was  then 
given  in  Poland  to  the  Greek  non-conformists  and  to  the  Pro- 
testants, both  Lutherans  and  Calvinists.     That  kingdom,  as  well 
as  Lithuania,  had  contained  from  the  earliest  ages  a  vast  num- 
ber of  Greeks,  who  persisted  in  their  schism,  in  spite  of  the 
efforts  which  were  incessantly  made  by  the  Polish  clergy  for 
bringing  them  back  to  the  pale  of  the  Romish  church.     The 
Protestant  doctrines  had  been  introduced  into  Poland,  and  had 
made  considerable  progress  in  course  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury ;  more  especially  under  the  reign  of  Sigismund  Augustus. 
The  nobles  who  were  attached  to  that  form  of  worship,  had  ob- 
trined,  at  the  Diet  of  Wilna  (1663,)  the  right  of  enjoying,  along 
with  the  Greeks,  all  the  prerogatives  of  their  rank,  and  of  being 
admitted  without  distinction,  both  to  the  assemblies  of  the  Diet, 
and  the  oflices  and  dignities  of  the  Republic.     Moreover,  their 
religious  and  political  liberties  had  been  guaranteed  in  the  most 
solemn  manner,  not  only  by  treaties  of  alliance,  and  the  Pacta 
Cmiventa  of  the  kings,  but  also  by  the  laws  and  constitution  of 
their  kingdom.     The  Catholics  having  afterwards  become  the 
stronger  party,  their  zeal,  animated  by  their  clergy  and  the  Jesuits, 
led  them  to  persecute  those  whom  they  regarded  as  heretics. 
They  had  in  various  ways  circumscribed  their  religious  liberties, 
especially  at  the  Diet  of  1717 ;  and  in  those  of  1733  and  1736, 
they  went  so  far  as  to  exclude  them  from  the  diets  and  tribunals, 
and  in  general  from  all  places  of  tntst ;  only  preserving  the  peace 
with  them  according  to  the  ancient  laws  of  the  Republic. 

The  Dissidents  availed  themselves  of  the  influence  which 
the  Empress  of  Russia  had  secured  in  the  affairs  of  Poland,  to 
obtain  by  her  means  the  redress  of  their  grievances.  That  prin- 
cess interposed  more  especially  in  favour  of  the  Greeks,  accord- 
ing to  the  ninth  article  of  the  peace  of  Moscow  between  Russia 
and  Poland  (1686 ;)  while  the  Courts  of  Berlin,  Stockholm 
London,  and  Copenhagen,  as  guarantees  of  the  peace  of  Oliva 


(' 


■ 


380 


cnAPTER  II. 


urcfcl  the  c^'-ond  nrticle  of  tlmt  treaty  in  support  of  the  I  ro- 
icMant  (li^8c^t.'rs.  Fur  from  yiol<linK  t"  "»  intercession  .n 
novverfnl,  thf  Di.-t  of  Wnrcaw.  in.ilitrulc.l  by  l ho  rlorgy  nnd  the 
Court  of  KoMK-,  ill  :ho  venr  1706  i-onlirrned  nil  the  former  hiWH 
riLminsi  the  I'mieMiuits  Whicli  the  foreign  courts  had  desireil  to 
bo  iiUored  tiud  lunondcd.  They  n.er.-ly  introduced  some  few 
ino<liru-utioti.s  in  the  law  of  1717,  relative  to  the  exercise  of  their 

worship.  .     „  ,.  o    n  .     u 

This  pullifttivc!  did  not  satisfy  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg, 
which  persisted  in  doumnding  an  entire  eciunhty  of  rights  in 
"ftvour  of  those  under  its  protection.     The  Dissidents  had  the 
couracre  to  resist,  and  entered  into  a  confederucv  at  the  assem- 
blies which  were  held  at  Sluckz(1707)  ond  Thorn.     Such  ol 
the  Catholic  nobility  as  were  discontented  with  the  government, 
allied  themselves  with  the  Dissidents,  and  formed  several  dis- 
tinct confederacies,  which  afterwerds  combined  into  a  general 
confederation  under  Marshal   Prince  Radzivii.     An  extraordi- 
nary Diet  was  then  assembled  at  Warsaw.     Their  deliberations, 
which  began  October  5,  17«7,  were  very  tumuUuous.    Without 
being  intimidated    bv   the  presence  of  a   Russian    army,  the 
Bishop  of  Cracow  and  his  adherents  gave  way  to  the  full  torrent 
of  their  zeal,  in  the  discourses  which  they  pronounced  before 
the  Diet.     The  Empress  caused  them  to  be  arrested  and  con- 
ducted into  the  interior  of  Russia,  whence  they  were  not  per- 
mitted to  return  till  after  an  exile  of  several  years.  1  hey  agreed 
at  length,  at  that  Diet,  to  appoint  a  committee,  composed  of  the 
different  orders  of  the  Republic,  to  regulate  all  matters  regard- 
ing the  Dissidents,  in  concert  with  the  ministers  of  the  protect- 
ing courts.     A  separate  act  was  drawn  up  (February  24, 1768) 
in  the  form  of  a  convention  between  Russia  and  Poland. 

By  that  act,  the  Dissidents  were  reinstated  in  all  their  former 
rights.     The  regulations  which  had  been  passed  to  their  pre- 
judice in  the  years  1717,  1733,  1736,  and  1766,  were  annulled ; 
and  a  superior  court,  composed  equally   of  both  parties,  was 
granted  to  them,  for  terminating  all  disputes  which  might  arise 
between  persons  of  different  religions.     This  act  was  confirmed 
by  the  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  concluded  at  Warsaw  be- 
tween Russia  and  Poland  (Feb.  24,  1768,)  by  which  these  two 
powers  guaranteed  to  each  other  the  whole  of  their  possessions 
in  Europe.  The  Empress  of  Russia  guaranteed,  more  especially, 
the  liberty,  constitution,  and  indivisibility  of  the  Polish  Republic. 
The  act  we  have  just  now  mentioned,  as  well  as  another 
which  modified  what  were  called  the  cardinal  or  fundamental 
aws  of  the  Republic,  having  displeased  a  great  majority  of  the 
Poles,  thev  used  every  effort  t.»  have  these. acts  recalled.     The 


.'fgtta.iuiLmtmmim 


riRioD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789 


881 


»rt  of  the  Pro- 

nlprtes«ion  so 
Inr^jy  and  ihe 

w  Cormpr  Iuwh 
met  desired  to 
ed  some  few 

uercise  of  llieir 

St.  Petersburg. 

ty  of  rights  ii) 

idents  had  the 

y  at  the  assein- 

lorn.     Such  ol 

10  governmont, 

ed  several  dis- 

into  a  general 

An  extraordi- 

ir  deliberations, 

uous.    Without 

(inn   army,  the 

)  the  full  torrent 

jnounccd  before 

rested  and  con- 

y  were  not  per- 

rs.  They  agreed 

composed  of  the 

matters  regard- 

8  of  the  protect- 

»ruary  24, 1768) 

1  Poland. 

all  their  former 

!ed  to  their  pre- 

were  annulled ; 

)th  parties,  was 

lich  might  arise 

t  was  confirmed 

at  Warsaw  be- 

vhich  these  two 

fieir  possessions 

more  especially. 

Polish  Republic. 

tvell  as  another 

or  fundamental 

majority  of  the 

recalled.     The 


D»fi  of  Xf^  was  no  nooncr  tcrminntod,  than  they  formed  thom- 
»eff^s  into  a  ('(infedoracy  at  Bar  in  Podoliii,  for  the  defence  of 
tht'ir  roliir?""  and  liberties.  By  degrees,  the^f  extended  to 
S'-vcriil  Fnlai/niiM's,  and  were  at  leiiirlh  conibiniMl  into  a  general 
confi'deration,  under  (li'"  Marsha!  Count  De  I'lic  The  flnnchirds 
of  llicse  confederates  bore  rijir'-''rituti()ri.s  of  ilic  Virj/in  Mary 
and  the  Infant  Jesus.  Like  the  (,'riisnilers  of  the  iniddic  iiges, 
they  wore  embrnidpred  crosses  on  their  giirrnent.",  with  tin-  tuntio 
Citnqucr  or  Die.  The  Russians  dr-sintrht'd  troops  to  disper.^e 
the  I'onfederates  as  fast  as  they  .'oriibiried  :  but  at  length,  with 
the  assistance  of  France,  and  M.  De  Vergeiines,  the  French 
Ambassador  at  the  Porte,  they  Micceeded  in  stirring  u|)  the 
Turks  against  the  Russians.  The  war  between  these  two  Em- 
pires broke  out  towords  the  end  of  1768,  which  proved  disas* 
•rous  for  the  Turks,  and  suppressed  olso  the  confederates  in 
Poland.  The  manifesto  of  the  Grand  Signior  against  Russia 
was  published  October  30th,  and  his  declaration  of  war  Decern* 
ber  4th,  1768. 

The  Empress  despatched  several  annios  against  the  Turks, 
and  attacked  them  at  once  from  the  banks  of  the  Dniester  fo 
Mount  Caucasus.  Prince  Alexander  Galitzin,  who  commanded 
the  principal  army,  was  to  cover  Poland,  and  penetrate  into 
Moldavia.  He  passed  the  Dniester  different  times,  but  was  al- 
ways repulsed  by  the  Turks,  who  were  not  more  fortunate  in 
their  attempts  to  force  the  passage  of  that  river.  On  their  lost 
attempt  (September  1769,)  twelve  thousand  men  had  succeeded 
in  crossing  it,  when  there  happened  a  sudden  flood  which  broke 
down  the  bridge,  and  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  Turks.  This  body 
was  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Russians,  when  a  panic  seized  the  Ot- 
toman army,  who  abandoned  their  camp  and  the  fortress  of 
Choczim.  The  Russians  took  possession  of  both  without  cost- 
ing them  a  single  drop  of  bloofl,  and  soon  after  penetrated  into 
the  interior  of  Moldavia  and  W^nllachia. 

The  campaign  of  1770  was  most  splendid  for  the  Russians. 
General  Romanzow,  who  succeeded  Prince  Galitzin  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  Moldavia,  gained  two  brilliant  victories 
over  the  Turks  near  the  Pruth  (July  18,)  and  the  Kukuli 
(August  1,)  which  made  him  master  of  the  Danube,  and  the 
towns  of  Ismael,  Kilia,  and  Akcrman,  situated  in  Bessarabia, 
near  the  mouth  of  that  river.  Another  Russian  army,  under 
the  command  of  General  Count  Panin,  attacked  the  fortress  of 
Bender,  defended  by  a  strong  Turkish  garrison.  It  was  carried 
by  assault  (Sept.  26,)  and  the  greater  part  of  the  garrison  put  to 
the  sword. 

The  Empress  did  not  confine  herself  to  repulsini^:  the  Turks 


II 


N' 


i'^i^Vi  t 


-J 


38-2 


CHAPTER  IX. 


on  the  banks  of  the  Dniester  and  the  Danube,  and  harassing 
their  commerce  in  the  Black  Sea.     She  formed  the  bo  d  pro- 
ject of  attacking  them  at  the  same  time  m  the  islands  of  the  Ar- 
ch.pelago,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Greece  and  the  Morea^    A  Rus- 
sian fleet,  under  the  command  of  Alexis  Orloff  and  Admira. 
SniritofT,  sailed  from  the  Baltic,  and  passed  the  ^orthern  feeas 
and  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  on  their  way  to  the  Archipelago. 
Beinsr  joined  by  the  squadron  of  Rear- Admiral  Elphinstone,  they 
foupht  an  obstinate  battle  with  the  fleet  of  the  CapUan  Pacha 
(July  5,  1770,)  between  Scio  and  Anatolia.     The  ships  of  the 
two  commanders,  Spiritoflf  and  the  Capitan  Pacha,  having  met 
in  the  engagement,  one  of  them  caught  fiie,  when  both  were 
blown  into  the  air.     Darkness  separated  the  combatants ;  but  the 
Turks  having  imprudently  retired  to  the  narrow  bay  of  Lhisme, 
th^  Russians  pursued  them,  and  burnt  their  whole  fleet  during 
the  ni"-ht.     This  disaster  threw  the  city  of  Constantinople  into 
great  consternation  ;  and  the  bad  slate  of  defence  in  which  the 
Dardanelles  were,  gave  them  reason  to  fear,  that  if  the  Rus- 
sians had  known  to  take  advantage  of  this  panic,  it  would  have 
been  easy  for  them  to  have  carried  the  Turkish  capital.     Rear- 
\dmiral  Elphinstone,  who  commanded  one  of  the  Russian  squad- 
rons, had  suggested  that  advice ;    but  the  Russian  Admirals 
did  not  think  proper  to  follow  it.  .        . 

The  war  on  the  Danube  was  continued  next  yeor,  though 
feebly  ;  but  the  second  Russian  army,  under  the  command  ot 
Prince  Dolgoruki,  succeeded  in  forcing  the  lines  at  Perekop,  de- 
fended by  an  army  of  60,000  Turks  and  Tartars,  commanded 
by  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea  in  person.  Dolgoruki,  after  hav- 
ing surmounted  the  formidable  barrier,  made  himself  master  of 
the  Crimea,  as  also  of  the  Island  of  Taman  ;  and  received  from 
the  Empress,  as  the  reward  of  his  exploits,  the  surname  of 
Krimski.  An  act  was  signed  by  certain  pretended  deputies 
from  the  Tartars,  by  which  that  nation  renounced  the  dominion 
of  the  Ottomans,  and  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of 

Russia  (1772.)  ,     ,.,   .         .  .    v.  u      . 

These  conquests,  however  splendid  they  might  be,  could  not 
t  fail  to  exhaust  Russia.  Obliged  frequently  to  recruit  her  ar- 
mies, which  were  constantly  thinned  by  battles,  fatigues,  and 
diseases,  she  soon  saw  the  necessity  of  making  peace.  The 
plague,  that  terrible  ally  of  the  Ottomans,  passed  from  the  army 
into  the  interior  of  the  Empire,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Mos- 
cow, where  it  cut  ofT  nearly  100,000  men  in  the  course  of  a 
single  year  (1771.)  What  added  still  more  to  the  embanass- 
ments  of  Catherine  II.  was,  that  the  Court  of  Vienna,  which, 
in  coniunction  with  that  of  B<>rlin.  had  undertaken  to  mediate 


-tmmmimmm 


PERIOD  VJII.      A.  D.  1713— 17S9. 


383 


and  harassing 
I  the  bold  pro- 
ands  of  the  Ar- 
lorea.  A  Rus- 
ff  and  Admira: 

Northern  Seas 
le  Archipelago.     , 
Iphinstone,  they 

Capitan  Pacha  , 
'he  ships  of  the 
ha,  having  met 
when  both  were 
ibatants ;  but  the 
'  bay  of  Chism^, 
lole  fleet  during 
istantinople  into 
ice  in  which  the 
that  if  the  Rus- 
ic,  it  would  have 

capital.  Rear- 
3  Russian  squad- 
issian  Admirals 

;xt  year,  though 
the  command  of 
IS  at  Perekop,  de- 
;ars,  commanded 
oruki,  after  hav- 
limself  master  of 
ind  received  from 
the  surname  of 
etended  deputies 
ced  the  dominion 
the  protection  of 

ght  be,  could  not 

0  recruit  her  ar- 
:les,  fatigues,  and 
ing  peace.  The 
ed  from  the  army 
d  as  far  as  Mca- 

1  the  course  of  « 
to  the  embarrass- 
)f  Vienna,  which, 
rtaken  to  mediate 


lietween  Russia  and  the  Porte,  rejected  with  disdam  the  condi- 
tions of  peace  proposed  by  the  Empress.  Moreover,  they 
strongly  opposed  the  independence  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
us  well  as  of  the  Tartars  ;  and  would  not  even  permit  that  the 
Russians  should  transfer  the  seat  uf  war  to  the  right  br  nk  of 
the  Danube. 

The  Court  of  Vienna  went  even  farther :  it  threatened  to 
make  common  cause  with  tlie  Turks,  to  compel  the  Empress  to 
restore  all  her  conquests,  and  to  place  matters  between  the  Rus- 
sians and  the  Turks  on  the  footing  of  the  treaty  of  Belgrade. 
An  agreement  to  this  effect  was  negotiated  with  the  Porte,  and 
signed  at  Constantinople  ('uly  6,  1771.)  This  convention, 
however,  was  not  ratified,  the  Court  of  Vienna  having  changed 
its  mind  on  account  of  the  famous  dismemberment  of  Poland, 
concerted  between  it  and  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  St.  Peters- 
burg. The  Empress  then  consented  to  restore  to  the  Turks 
the  provinces  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  on  the  conclusion  of 
the  peace  ;  and  the  Court  of  Vienna  again  engaged  to  exert  its 
friendly  interference  in  negotiating  peace  betv/een  Russia  and 
the  Porte. 

In  consequence  of  these  events,  the  year  1772  was  passed 
entirely  in  negotiations.     A  suspension  of  arms  was  agreed  to 
between  the  two  belligerent  powers.     A  Congress  wos  opened  at 
Foczani  in  Moldavia,  under  the  mediation  of  the  Courts  of  Ber- 
lin and  St.  Petersburg.   This  Congress  was  followed  by  another, 
which  was  held  at  Bucharest  in  Wallachia.     Both  of  these 
meetings  proved  ineffectual,  the  Turks  having  considered  the 
conditions  proposed  by  Russia  as  inadmissible  ;  and  what  dis- 
pleased them  still  more  was,  the  article  relative  to  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  Tartars  in  the  Crimea.     This  they  rejected  as  con- 
trary to  the  principles  of  their  religion,  and  as  tending  to  esta- 
blish a  rivalry  between  the  two  Caliphs.      They   succeeded, 
however,  in  settling  the    nature  of  the  religious  dependence 
under  which  the  Khans  of  the  Crimea  were  to  remain  with  re« 
gard  to  the  Porte ;  but  they  could  not  possibly  agree  as  to  the 
surrender  of  the  ports  of  Jenikaleh  and  Kerch  ;  nor  as  to  the 
unrestrained  liberty  of  navigation  in  the  Turkish  seas,  which 
the  Russians  demanded.     After  these  conferences  had  been  re* 
peatedly  broken  off,  hostilities  commenced  anew  (1773.)     The 
Russians  twice  attempted  to  establish  themselves  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  but  without  being  able  to  accomplish  it ; 
they  even  lost  a  great  number  of  men  in  the  difierent  actions 
which  they  fought  with  the  Turks. 

The  last  campaign,  that  of  177  \,  was  at  length  decisive. 
Abdul  Hammed,  who  had  just  succeeded  his  brother  Mustaph* 


<l  i 


|:.f 


L 


384 


CHAFTER  IX. 


in    on  the  Ihu.ne  of  Constantinople,  being  eager  to  raise  tne 
glory  of  the  Ottoman  arms,  made  extraordmary  preparations 
for  this  campaign.      His  troops,  reckoned  about  300,000  men, 
ureaily  surpassed  the  Russians  in  point  of  number ;  but  they 
were  not  equal  in  point  of  di..ipline  an.l  military  skill.     About 
the    en<l   of  June,  Marshal   Komanzow   passed   the   Uanube, 
xvitbout  meeting  any  obstacle  from  the  Ottoman  army.     That 
(ieneral  took  advantage  of  a  mistake  which  the  Grand  Vizier 
had  committed,  in  pitching  his  camp  near  Sc-humla  at  too  great 
a  distance  from  his  detachments,  and  cut  otThis  communication 
with  these  troops,  and  even  with  his  military  stores.     Ihe  de- 
feat of  28,000  Turks,  who  vere  bringing  a  convoy  of  four  or 
five  thousand  wagons   to  the    army,   by  General  Kamenski, 
struck  terror  into  the  camp  of  the  Grand  Vizier,  who,  seeing  his 
army  on  the  point  of  disbanding,  agreed  to  treat  with  Marshal 
Romanzow  on  such  terms  as  that  general  thought  fit  to  prescribe. 
Peace  was  signed  in  the  Russian  camp  at  Kamargi,  four  le^es 
from  Silistria.    Bv  that  treaty,  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea,  Boud- 
ziac,  and  Cuban,  w'ere  declared  entirely  independent  ofthe  forte, 
to  be  governed  henceforth  by  their  own  sovereign.    Russia  ob- 
Uiincd  for  her  merchant  vessels  free  and  unrestrained  naviga- 
tion in  all  the  Turkish  seas.     She  restored  to  the  Turks  Bes- 
sarabia, Moldavia,  and  Wallachia  ;  as  well  as  the  islands  m  the 
\rchipelaffo  which  were  still   in  her  possession.     But  she  re- 
served the  city  and  territory  of  AzofT,  the  two  Kabartas,  the  for- 
tresses of  Jenikaleh  and  Kerch  in  the  Crimea,  and  the  tvastle  ol 
Kinburn,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  opposite  Oczakoff,  with 
the  neck  of  laud  between  the  Bog  and  the  Dnieper,  on  which 
the  Empress  afterwards  built  a  new  city,  called  Cherson,  to  serve 
as  an  entrepSt  for  her  commerce  with  the  Levant      The  foun- 
dation of  this  city  was  laid  by  General  Hannibal  (Uct.   Itf, 
1778.)  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  fifteen  versts   from 
the  confluence  of  the  Inguletz  with  that  river. 

The  House  of  Austria  also  reaped  advantages  from  that  war, 
bv  the  occupation  of  Bukowina,  which  she  obtained  from  Kus- 
sia.  who  halconquered  it  from  the  Turks.  This  part  of  Mol- 
davia, comprehending  the  districts  of  Suczawa  and  Czernowitz, 
was  claimed  by  the  Court  of  Vienna  as  one  of  its  ancient  ter- 
ritories in  Transylvania,  which  has  been  usurped  by  the  princes 
of  Moldavia.  The  Por'e  who  was  indebted  to  Austria  lor 
the  restitution  of  this  laiter  province,  had  no  alternative  but  to 
abandon  the  districts  claimed  by  Austria.  Pnnce  Ghikas  o! 
Moldavia,  having  opposed  the  cession  of  these  proTinces,  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  the  Porte  ;  and  Bu't";^!"" '*«^«''"S!?: 
ed  to  Austria   by  subsequent  conventions,  (1776,  ana  im,] 


mmmm 


er  to  raise  tne 
y  preparations 
300,000  men, 
iber;  but  they 
'  skill.     About 
the   Danube, 
1  army.     That 
I  Grand  Vizier 
la  at  too  great 
communication 
)res.     The  de- 
ivoy  of  four  or 
iral  Kamenaki, 
ivho,  seeing  his 
with  Marshal 
fit  to  prescribe, 
•gi,  four  leagues 
Crimea,  Boud- 
■nt  of  the  Porte, 
n.    Russia  ob- 
trained  naviga- 
the  Turks  Bes- 
ie  islands  in  the 
1.     But  she  re- 
abartas,  the  for- 
nd  the  Castle  of 
Oczakoff,  with 
ieper,  on  which 
Jherson,  to  serve 
int.     The  foun- 
nibal  (Oct.   19, 
>en  versts   from 

8  from  that  war, 
[lined  from  Rus- 
his  part  of  Mol- 
ind  Czemowitz, 
'  its  ancient  ter- 
id  by  the  princes 
I  to  Austria  for 
Itemative  but  to 
rince  Ghikas  of 
B  proTinces,  was 
ina  was  confirm- 
776,  and  1777,) 


Earthtiuake  at  Lwbon.    P.  3U4. 


Engagement  of  the  Rusiiian  and  Turkish  Fleets  off  Scio, 
1770.     P.  :tS'2. 


■^ 

t 


*i  ! 


I-, 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


385 


which  at  the  same  time  regulated  the  limits  between  the  two 
States.  The  peace  of  Kainargi,  though  glorious  for  Kussia, 
proved  most  calamitous  for  the  Ottoman  Porte.  By  establishing 
the  independence  of  the  Tartars,  it  lost  the  Turks  one  ot 
their  principal  bulwarks  against  Russia ;  and  they  were  indig- 
nant at  seeing  the  Russians  established  on  the  Black  Sea,  and 
permitted  unrestrained  navigation  in  all  the  Turkish  seas. 
Henceforth  they  had  reason  to  tremble  for  the  safety  of  their 
capital,  which  might  be  assailed  with  impunity,  and  its  supplies 
intercepted,  on  the  least  disturbance  that  might  arise  between  the 
two  Empires. 

The  many  disasters  which  the  Turks  had  experienced  in  the 
war  we  have  now  mentioned,  had  a  direct  influence  on  the  fate 
of  Poland,  which  ended  in  the  dismemberment  of  that  kingdom. 
This  event,  which  had  been  predicted  by  John  Casimir  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  brought  about  by  the  mediation  of  the 
Courts  of  Berlin  and  Vienna  for  the  restoration  of  peace  between 
Russia  and  Turkey.  The  conditions  of  that  treaty,  which  were 
dictated  by  the  Empress  Catherine  II.,  having  displeased  the 
Court  of  Vienna,  which  had  moreover  displayed  hostile  inten- 
tions against  Russia,  by  despatching  troops  into  Hungary,  and 
taking  possession  of  a  part  of  Poland,  which  Austria  claimed  as 
anciently  belonging  to  Hungary,  the  Empress  took  this  occasion 
of  observing  to  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  who  then  sojourned  at 
her  Court,  that  if  Austria  seemed  inclined  to  dismember  Poknd, 
the  other  neighbouring  powers  were  entitled  to  do  the  same. 
This  overture  was  comrrunicated  by  Prince  Henry  to  his  brother 
the  King  of  Prussia,  who  resolved  to  act  on  this  nevy  idea.  He 
foresaw  it  would  be  a  proper  means  for  indemnifying  Russia, 
contenting  Austria,  and  augmenting  his  own  territories,  by 
establishing  a  communication  between  the  kingdom  of  Prussia, 
and  his  dutchy  of  Brandenburg.  These  considerations  induced 
him  to  set  on  foot  a  negotiation  with  the  courts  of  Vienna  and 
St.  Petersburg.  He  gave  the  former  to  understand,  that  if  war 
should  break  out  between  Austria  and  Russia,  he  could  not  but 
take  part  in  it  as  the  ally  of  the  latter  power ;  while  he  repre- 
sented to  the  Empress  of  Russia,  that  if  she  would  consent  to 
restore  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  the  Turks,  and  indemnify  her- 
self by  a  part  of  Poland,  she  would  aroid  a  new  war,  and  facili- 
tate an  accommodation  with  the  Porte.  In  this  manner  did  he 
succeed,  after  a  long  and  difficult  negotiation,  in  recommending 
to  the  two  Imperial  courts,  a  project  which  was  to  give  Europe 
the  example  of  a  kingdom  dismembered  on  mere  reasons  of  con- 
venience. A  preliminary  agreement  was  drawn  up,  in  which 
the  equality  of  the  respective  portions  of  the  three  courtu  waa 


■'I' 


* 


386 


CHAPTBR   IX. 


ra:»St»s  ioSr:^r„,nf  s:i::.» 

"„4  oV=.  r?«n»r.  for  oUaining  a  final  «™S™';„'t'J  ! 

the  three  Courts,  were  P'^^^?"^''^  "\^^"  f^;  ^s  and  districts 
establishing  the  l^f'^'X^^t.-oPo  ad  m^  his  ministry,  in 

manded.     A  y*^^'^"'^"   ^.     g^^^te  and  the  Equestrian  order, 
Tlf  of  Ve  kinin  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria.     One  very 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


387 


A  negctiatioii 
r  reculaling  the 
le  Empress  and 
the  divisions  to 

d  at  St.  Peters- 
(Aug.  5,  1772.) 

which  were  to 
I'cly,  were  there 
r.  They  agreed 
?mber  following, 
genient  with  the 

the  same  treaty 
urks,  in  order  to 
lid  the  Porte.  In 

letters-patent  of 
r,  ill   September 

ies  and  districts 
id  memorials  for 
cr  the  countries 
il  his  ministry,  in 
'  the  powers  that 
•  alternative  left, 

three  courts  de- 
^ar-saw,  appointed 
Equestrian  order, 
iree  powers,  as  to 
iiich  the  provinces 
I  them  on  the  part 
iigned  at  Warsaw, 
the  Diet  of  Poland, 
■eaty  with  the  Re- 
Sips,  which  Sigis- 

Polaiid  in  1412 ; 
ow,  part  of  Sando- 
jcutia,  and  part  of     j 
were  again  incor-     , 
een  dismembered ;     | . 
r  Slate,  under  the     j ' 
meria.     One  very 

was,  the  rich  salt 
r,  which  furnished 

ivonia,  the  greater     j 
linatc  of  Msci?law,     , 


and  the  two  extremities  of  the  Palatinate  of  Minsk."  These 
vhe  Empress  formed  into  two  grand  governments,  those  of  Polotsk 
and  Mochilew.  The  King  of  Prussia  had  the  states  of  Great 
Poland,  situated  beyond  the  Netze,  as  well  as  the  whole  of 
Polish  Prussia,  except  the  cities  of  Dantzic  and  Thorn,  which 
were  reserved  to  Poland."  That  republic,  in  virtue  of  a  treaty 
with  the  King  of  Prussia,  renounced  also  her  rights  of  domaine, 
and  tiic  reversion  which  the  treaties  of  Welau  and  Bidgost  had 
secured  to  her  with  regard  to  Electoral  Prussia,  as  well  as  the 
districts  of  Lauenburg,  Butow,  and  Draheim.  The  portion  of 
the  King  of  Prussia  was  so  much  the  more  important  in  a  poli- 
tical point  of  view,  as  it  united  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  with  his 
possessions  in  Germany  ;  and,  by  giving  him  the  command  of 
the  Vistula,  it  made  him  master  of  the  commerce  of  Poland ; 
especially  of  the  corn-trade,  so  valuable  to  the  rest  of  Europe. 

The  three  courts,  in  thus  dismembering  Poland,  renounced, 
in  the  most  formal  manner,  all  farther  pretensions  on  the  re- 
public ;  and,  lastly,  to  consummate  their  work,  they  passed  an 
act  at  Warsaw,  by  which  they  sanctioned  the  liberum  veto,  and 
the  unanimity  in  their  decisions  formerly  used  at  the  Diet  in 
state  matters;  the  crown  was  declared  elective,  and  foreign 
princes  were  to  be  excluded.  The  prerogative  of  the  King,  al- 
ready very  limited,  was  circumscribed  still  more  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  permanent  council ;  and  it  was  statuted,  that  no  one 
could  ever  change  this  constitution,  of  which  the  three  powers 
had  become  the  guarantees. 

[This  partition  of  Poland  must  be  regarded  as  the  harbinger  of 
the  total  overthrow  of  the  political  system  which  for  three  hun- 
dred years  had  prevailed  in  Europe.  After  so  many  alliances 
had  been  formed,  and  so  many  wars  undertaken,  to  preserve  the 
weaker  states  against  the  ambition  of  the  greater,  we  here  find 
three  powers  of  the  first  rank  combining  to  dismember  a  stat? 
which  had  never  given  them  the  slightest  umbrage.  The  bar 
riers  between  legitimate  right  and  arbitrary  power  were  thus 
overthrown,  and  henceforth  the  destiny  of  inferior  states  was  no 
longer  secure.  The  system  of  political  equilibrium  became  the 
jest  of  innovators,  and  many  well  disposed  men  began  to  regard 
It  as  a  chimera.  Though  the  chief  blame  of  this  transaction 
must  fall  on  the  courts  of  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  and  Vienna, 
those  of  London  and  Paris  were  accomplices  to  the  crime,  by 
allowing  this  spoliation  to  be  consummated  without  any  mark  of 
their  reprobation.] 

In  Sweden,  the  aristocratic  system  had  prevailed  since  the 
changes  which  had  been  introduced  into  the  form  of  government 
by  the  revolution  of  1720.     The  chief  power  resided  in  the  body 


n 


*'  i\ 


/':J^''> 


'tr 


If  ^he  Senate,  and  the  royal  J-^-i^^-^jKi.^ojS 
shadow.  The  same  Action.,  to  H"^""^ '  ^J  ,  ^y^^^^,,  ,ho  stale, 
we  have  spoken  above,  contmued  o  n^  talc  a  ^^  ^^^.^^^^^^ 

The  Hat«  were  of  "P'"!""' ;'^,'  Vj^Jl  a,  d  Finland,  it  was  ne- 

and  to  recover  the  P'^.'"'',?,^.'^ ^  C c'^  ""'^  '^'  ''"""'  • 
cessary  to  cultivate  f"«"JJ  P  ^^^J^  „7"   ^tpture  with  Russia, 
order  to  secure  'I'^'Xr  ha..d    nailinel  that  Sweden  ex- 
The  Bonnets,  on  the  other  ™.  '  ;„  „o  under- 

hausted  by.  the  P-ced-g  war  •  -^M  to  u  g  8  ^^        .^^^  . 

taki..g  against  R"««'«;^/ '  P^jew  £"  to  maintain  peacfand 
they  had  no  other  object  m  view  than  ji,,,„eti„n.  These 
good  understanding  ^^''J «'"  "^^^'J"' ^  „,quiFed  a  new  impot- 
fwo  factions,  instigated  by  ^orc^guJM,  g  ^^^  ^^^  p^^^^ 
tance  ^v^en  the  war  broke  oub,en^       ,^^^^  ^^^^^ 

It  was  in  the  Diet  of  ^^^^^^  '^ jyrnriving  the  members  of  the 
possession  of  the  f  y""""""!' f  J„  Jov  Sts.    There  was  some      ! 
Sppo^i'"  P^^^y  °f  T"  r"T  ^co  W.C  ce  of  her  connexions 

reason  to  believe  that  F™"^^^' '"  ^-^J^^";  '      Sweden  against    ' 
with  the  Porte,  had  used  every  eflyt  to  st^rP  ^^^^^ 

I     Ru-ia.  and  that  the  J--  "J;^^^^^^^^^^^  , 

Constantinople  to  Stockholm,  na  ^^^^  ^^^j,j  „„j 

Russia  had  then  to  make  ^'''l^XZ\l\n  peace  with  Swe- 
influence  of  the  Bonnets,  m  °™f '"'"";;, ^^d  by  the  Court  of 
den.  In  these  endeavours  .^^Hrto Tupport  tie  interests  of 
tetArof  r  o^to-lit^^o  thwart  France  in  her  po- 

"'^;S  of  Adolphus  Jr^^^^S^,  ^hS 
n^eantime.  opened  a  -^^^^^^^ ^Sol  of  his  son  and  suc- 
was  summoned  «"  f^""^  ^Q  1771?  This  young  prince  at 
cesser  Gustavus  HI.  (^f-  12.  J'?  ;  J^J'^  ^^  fo  e^onciliate 
first  interposed  ^tween  the  twopart.es,  wim  ^^^  ^^^^-^ 

them;  but  ^vith  so  httle  ^^'^^'^^'^'^^i'^^^^ 
animosity,  until  the  B«""«»;;^j^nrtreTta^  exp"l«io"  of  the 
England,  went  ««J^' f  ^^^^^^bu"  from  all  other  places  and 
Hats,  not  only  from  the  f."^'^""* 

dignities  in  the  kingdom.    I^'^^'^;;"'"!"  dv  was  in  the  time  of 
an?  circumscribed  as  the  royal  Ppr'f^^X.ions  to  be  imposed 
Adolphus  Frederic,  they  de^"'!^.^  "^^^J^"^^^^^^^^      with  Russia 
:     on  hiS  successor.     The  "«a.ies  that  ^^^^^^ 
and  England,  were  evidently  the  resuu  01         > 

that  faction  who  had  now  ^^^^^I'^^^^Zl  the  necessity  of 
In  this  state  of  affairs,  the  youi^gK.K  ^^^ 


J. 


Mjiwigijjijuuj-im- — 


I 
Iced  .0  a  mere 
nncts,  of  which 
jwiract  the  slate. 
Lry  of  Sweden, 
hiiid,  it  was  ne- 
|il  the  Porte,  in 
e  with  Riisnia. 
int  Sweden,  ex- 
re  in  no  tinder- 
.  of  pacification, 
ntnin  peace  and 
.notion.     These 
ed  a  new  impor- 
atid  the  Porte, 
nd  means  to  get 
members  of  the 
There  was  some 
if  her  connexions 
I  Sweden  against 
who  passed  from 
object  than   this, 
ise  the  credit  and 
peace  with  Swe- 
l  by  the  Court  of 
rt  the  interests  of 
France  in  her  po- 

happencd  in  the 
1  the  Diet,  which 
f  his  son  and  suc- 
I  young  prince  al 

I  view  to  conciliate 
ler  increased  their 
rtcd  by  Russia  and 
al  expulsion  of  the 

II  other  places  and 
n  became  extreme ; 

was  in  the  time  of 
nions  to  be  imposed 
tjected  with  Russia 
system  adopted  by 
government, 
iw  the  necessity  of 
Iministraiion.  His 
li  popular  manners. 


TEKIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


889 


had  gained  liiin  a  niuiiber  of  partisans.  He  possessed  in  an 
einiiiftit  ikjjfrce  the  art  of  dissimulation;  and  while  he  was 
Miaiiiii;,'  every  arriitigcinpnl  for  a  revolution,  and  concertiug  rnea- 
suri's  ill  xccrel  with  the  French  ainba.ssador,  he  seemed  to  have 
iiotliiii'T  so  iniu-h  at  heart  as  to  convince  the  world  of  his  sincere 
attachment  to  the  established  constitution.  It  is  alleged,  that  he 
had  .sent  emissaries  over  the  whole  kingdom  to  stir  up  the  people 
against  their  governors ;  and  that  he  might  have  some  pretext 
for  calling  out  his  troops,  he  induced  Captain  Hellichius,  the 
commandant  of  Christianstadt  in  Blekingen,  to  raise  the  standard 
of  revolt  against  the  states  who  still  continued  their  sittings  at 
Stu<'kholtn. 

That  officer,  known  afterwards  by  the  name  of  Gvstafsckeld, 
or  the  S/iield  of  Guslar  us,  published  at  first  a  kind  of  manifesto, 
in  which  he  reproached  the  States  for  their  misconduct ;  which 
he  showed  to  have  been  diametrically  opposite  to  the  public  in- 
terest and  the  laws  of  the  kingdom.  Prince  Charles,  the  King's 
brother,  who  was  at  that  time  al  Landscrona  in  Schonen,  being 
informed  of  the  proceedings  of  the  commandant  of  Christianstadt, 
immediately  assembled  the  troops  in  the  provinces,  and  marched 
to  that  place,  with  the  intention,  as  is  said,  of  stifling  the  revolt 
in  its  birth.  The  news  of  this  insurrection  spread  consternation 
in  the  capital.  The  Stales  were  suspicious  of  the  King,  and  took 
measures  to  prevent  the  ambitious  designs  which  they  supposed 
him  to  entertain.  Hellichius  was  proclaimed  a  rebel  by  the 
Senate,  and  guilty  of  high  treason.  They  advised  the  King  not 
to  quit  Stockholm,  the  command  of  which  was  intrusted  to  a 
senator,  the  Count  of  Kalling,  with  the  most  ample  powers.  At 
length  the  regiment  of  Upland,  whose  officers  were  devoted  to 
the  Senate,  were  ordered  to  the  capital,  with  the  intention,  as  is 
supposed,  of  arresting  the  King.  That  prince  then  saw  that  he 
had  no  longer  time  to  delay,  and  that  he  must  finish  the  execu- 
tion of  the  plan  which  he  had  proposed. 

On  the  morning  of  the  19th  of  August,  the  King  presented 
himself  to  the  troops  who  mounted  guard  at  the  palace ;  and 
having  assembled  the  officers,  he  detailed  to  them  the  unfortu- 
nate state  of  the  kingdom,  as  being  the  consequence  of  those 
dissensions  which  had  distracted  the  Diet  for  more  than  fourteen 
months.  He  pointed  out  to  them  the  necessity  of  abolishing  that 
haughty  aristocracy  who  had  ruined  the  state,  and  to  restore  the 
constitution  to  what  it  was  before  the  revolution  of  1680 ;  ex- 
pressing at  the  same  lime  his  decided  aversion  for  absolute  and 
despotic  power.  Being  assured  of  the  fidtiity  of  the  guards, 
who  were  eager  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  him,  he  ordered 
a  demchment  to  surround  the  Council  Chamber  where  the  Se- 


'4' 


.  i 


'Jl' 


390 


CHAmR  IX. 


natora  were  aasembled,  and  put  the  leaders  of  the  ruhng  party 
under  arrest.     The  artillery  and  other  regiments  of  guards  hav- 
ing also  acknowledged  his  authority,  their  example  was  soor, 
followed  by' all  the  colleges  (or  public  offices,)  both  civil  ano 
military.     The  arrest  against  Hellichius  was  revoked,  and  the 
regiment  of  Upland  received  orders  to  march  back.     These  mea- 
sures and  some  others  were  executed  with  so  much  skill  and 
punctuality,  that  the  public  tranquillity  was  never  disturbed ; 
and  by  five  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  the  same  day,  the  revolu- 
tion seemed  to  be  accomplished  without  shedding  a  single  drop 
of  blood.     Next  day,  the  magistrates  of  the  city  took  the  oath  to 
the  King,  and  the  assembly  of  the  States  was  summoned  to  meet 
on  the  21st.     On  that  day  the  King  caused  the  palace  to  be  sur- 
rounded  by  troops,  and  cannons  to  be  pointed  into  the  court  op- 
posite the  Chambt-r  of  the  States.     Seated  on  his  throne,  and 
surrounded  by  hi.  guards,  the  King  opened  the  assembly  by  an 
energetic  discou'-si;-  which  he  addressed  to  the  members,  in  which 
he  painted,  in  lively  colours,  the  deplorable  state  of  the  kingdom, 
and  the  indispen-suble  necessity  of  applying  some  prompt  remedy. 
The  new  form  of  government  which  he  had  prepared  was  read 
by  his  orders,  and  adopted  without  opposition  by  the  whole  four 
orders  of  the  kingdom.     The  king  then  drew  a  psalm-book  from 
his  pocket,  and  taking  off  his  crown,  began  to  sing  Te  Dettm,  in 
which  he  was  joined  by  the  whole  assembly.     Mat'ers  passed 
in  the  interior  of  the  provinces  with  as  little  tumult  and  opposi- 
tion as  in  the  capital  and  principal  cities.     The  King's  brothers 
iSLcived,  in  his  name,  the  oath  of  fidelity  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
habitants and  the  military. 

In  virtue  of  this  new  form  of  government,  all  the  fundamen- 
tal laws  introduced  since  1680  were  cancelled  and  abolished. 
The   succession   to  the  throne  was  restricted  to  males  only. 
The  lineal  order,  and  the  right  of  primogeniture,  as  settled  by 
the  convention  of  1743,  and  by  the  decree  of  the  Diet  of  1760, 
were  confirmed.     The  King  was  to  govern  alone,  according  to 
the  laws ;  and  the  Senate  were  to  be  considered  as  his  counsel- 
lors.    All  the  senators  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  King,  and 
matters  were  no  longer  to  be  decided  by  a  plurality  of  votes. 
The  senators  were  simply  to  give  their  advice,  and  the  decision 
belonged  to  the  King.     Courts  of  justice,  however,  were  ex- 
cepted.    The  chief  command  of  all  the  forces  in  the  kingdom, 
both  by  sea  and  land,  and  the  supreme  direction  of  the  Exche- 
quer, were  conferred  on  the  King.    On  the  report  of  the  senate, 
he  filled  up  all  the  high  offices  in  the  state,  both  military,  civil, 
and  ecclesiastical.     He  alone  had  the  right  of  pardoning,  and 
of  summoning  the  States,  who  could  ne*er  assemble  on  tlieir 


le  ruling  party 

of  guards  hav- 

inplc  was  soon 

both  civil  and 

voked,  and  the 

.     These  inea- 

much  skill  and 

ever  disturbed; 

lay,  the  revolu- 

g  a  single  drop 

took  the  oath  to 

ninoned  to  meet 

palace  to  be  sur- 

ito  the  court  op- 

his  throne,  and 

assembly  by  an 

imbers,  in  which 

of  the  kingdom, 

prompt  remedy. 

spared  was  read 

the  whole  four 

psalm-book  from 

ling  Tt  Detim,  in 

Mai'ers  passed 

mult  and  opposi- 

?  King's  brothers 

le  part  of  the  in- 

.11  the  fundamen- 
d  and  abolished. 
I  to  males  only, 
re,  as  settled  by 
he  Diet  of  1760, 
ine,  according  to 
d  as  his  counsel- 
by  the  King,  and 
ilurality  of  votes, 
and  the  decision 
wever,  were  ex- 
I  in  the  kingdom, 
on  of  the  Exche- 
)ort  of  the  senate, 
>th  military,  civil, 
f  pardoning,  and 
assemble  on  tlieir 


rBRioo  VIII.    A.  D.  1713 — 1780.  iH 

own  authority,  except  in  a  case  where  the  throne  became  VMallli 
by  tJK?  total  oxlitiotion  of  the  royal  family  in  the  male  line.  The 
dunitioii  of  the  Diets  was  lixcd  for  three  muiiths,  and  the  King 
had  the  nrivilege  of  dissolving  them  at  the  end  of  that  time. 
He  could  make  no  new  laws,  nor  interpret  the  old  ones,  nor  im- 
pose subsidies  or  assessments,  nor  declare  war,  without  the  ad- 
vice nnd  consent  of  the  States.  lie  was  allowed,  however,  to 
levy  an  extraordinary  tax,  in  cases  where  the  kingdom  might 
hi  attacked  by  sudden  invasion  ;  but  on  the  termination  of  the 
war,  the  .States  were  to  be  assembled,  and  the  new  tax  discon* 
tinned.  All  negotiations  for  peace,  truces,  and  alliances,  whe- 
ther offensive  or  defensive,  were  reserved  to  the  King,  by  whom 
they  were  to  be  referred  to  the  Senate.  If,  in  these  cases,  th« 
unanimous  voice  of  the  Senate  was  opposed  to  that  of  the 
King,  it  became  his  duty  to  acquiesce  in  iheir  opinion.  Every 
Swedish  citizen  was  to  be  judged  by  his  natural  judge.  The 
King  could  attaint  neither  the  life,  honour,  nor  fortune  of  any 
citizen,  otherwise  than  by  the  legal  forms.  All  extraordinary 
commissions  or  tribunals  were  to  be  suppressed,  as  tending  to 
establish  tyranny  and  despotism. 

The  revolution  of  Stockholm,  of  which  we  have  just  now 
spoken,  had  nothing  in  common  with  that  which  happened  at  Co- 
penhagen the  same  yeor ;  and  which,  without  in  any  way  af- 
fecting the  constitution  of  the  kingdom,  merely  transferred  the 
reins  of  government  from  the  hands  of  the  reigning  Queen  to 
those  of  the  Queen-dowager."- 

In  a  remote  corner  of  Europe,  there  existed  an  association  of 
warriors,  of  a  kind  quite  peculiar,  namely,  that  of  the  Zaparog 
Cossacs  ;  so  called  because  they  dwelt  near  the  cataracts  of  the 
Dnieper,  where  they  served  as  a  military  frontier,  first  to  the 
Poles,  and  afterwards  to  the  Russians.  The  chief  residence  of 
these  Cossacs  was  called  Setscha.  It  contained  a  considerable 
mass  of  houses,  scattered  and  badly  constructed,  and  had  a 
small  fort  occupied  by  a  Russian  garrison.  The  position  of 
Setscha  had  not  always  l)e(.ii  the  same  ;  but  it  was  ultimately 
fixed  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Borysthenes,  opposite  Kame- 
noi-Saton,  an  ancient  fortress  of  the  Russians,  and  was  called 
New  Setscha.  These  Cossacs,  known  in  Poland  by  the  name 
of  Haydamacs,  and  formidable  by  their  incursions  and  their  de- 
vastations, had  adopted  a  republican  form  of  government.  Their 
capital  was  divided  into  thirty  Kurenes,  or  quarters.  Every 
Cossac  belonged  to  one  of  these  Kurenes.  There  he  lodged 
when  he  stayed  at  Setscha,  and  was  obliged  to  conform  to  its 
laws.  All  those  who  belonged  to  the  same  Kurene,  formed  as  it 
were  one  and  the  same  family.     Like  the  ancient  Spartans 


I 


I'V 


!'■.  t 


I 


309 


OHAFTBS  n. 


thev  were  nourished  with  the  same  food,  and  ate  a*,  the  mam 
tabfo.  The  overseer  of  ench  Meparate  Kurene  v  as  called  Ata- 
man, and  the  chief  of  all  the  Kurenes  Koichewoi- Ataman.  All 
the  chiefs,  without  distinction,  were  elected  by  common  consent ; 
the  Ataman  by  his  own  Kurene,  and  the  Koschewoi  l>y  the 
whole  Kurenes  united.  They  were  deposed  whenever  they  be- 
came unpopular.  The  assemblies  of  Setscha  were  either  ordi- 
nary or  extraordinary.  In  that  which  was  repularly  held  every 
year  on  the  1st  of  January,  they  made  a  formal  division  of  the 
fields,  rivers,  and  lakes,  among  the  Kurenes.  They  mad«»  use 
of  lots  in  order  to  avoid  disputes  ;  and  they  renewed  them  every 
year,  that  a  favourable  chance  might  be  given  to  all  the  Kurenes 
in  succession.  At  th«t  assembly  they  elected  new  chiefs,  if  they 
happened  to  be  discontented  with  the  old  ones.  As  for  the  ex- 
traordinary assemblies,  they  were  held  when  it  was  in  agitation 
to  undertaKe  a  campaign,  or  to  make  an  excursion  ;  and  gene 
rally  on  all  occasioms  when  the  common  interest  seemed  to  re- 
quire it.  They  had  a  judge  and  some  other  officers  in  Setscha. 
The  judge  never  pronounced  sentence  except  in  affairs  of  little 
importance.  Those  which  appeared  more  weighty  required  the 
intervention  of  all  the  chiefs.  They  would  suffer  no  woman  to 
remain  in  Setscha.  Those  who  were  inclined  to  marry  were 
obliged  to  remove  elsewhere.  To  keep  up  their  numbers  the 
Zaparogs  received  deserters  and  fugitives  from  all  nations. 
They  were  particularly  careful  to  recruit  their  ranks  with  young 
boys,  whom  tbey  kidnapped  in  their  excursions  ;  and  brought 
them  up  according  to  their  customs  and  manner  of  living. 

The  treaty  of  Andrussov  between  Russia  and  Poland  had 
left  these  Cfossacs  under  the  common  protection  of  those  two 
States.  They  preferred  that  of  Russia,  and  were  continued 
under  the  dominion  of  that  power  by  the  peace  of  Moscow. 
Being  afterwards  implicpted  in  the  revolt  of  Mazeppa,  they  put 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  af- 
ter the  battle  of  Pultowa,  and  transferred  their  capital  of  Setscha 
to  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  nearer  its  mouth.  Being 
discontented  under  the  Tartars,  who  repressed  their  incursions, 
and  often  imposed  exactions  on  Setscha,  they  took  the  resolution 
of  putting  themselves  once  more  under  the  dominion  of  Rus- 
sia (1733.)  The  Empress  Anne  confirmed  them  in  their  pri- 
vileges, and  furnished  money  to  assist  them  in  rebuilding  their 
capital  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Dnieper. 

As  they  continued,  however,  to  commit  robbery  and  plunder 
on  the  frontiers  without  intermission,  and  having  neither  friends 
nor  allies,  Catherine  II.  resolved  to  annihilate  this  fantastic  as- 
sociation.    Besides  their  depredDtions,  the  Zaparogs  were  ac- 


te  a',  the  nailM 

an  called   Ate 

Ataman.    Ali 

mmon  conjicnl , 

schewoi  Ivy  the 

icnever  they  be- 

ere  either  ordi- 

Inrly  held  every 

division  of  the 

They  mad*  uie 

wed  them  every 

all  the  Kurenes 

!wchief»,  if  they 

As  for  the  ex- 

wn.s  in  asitation 

^ion  ;  and  gene 

si  seemed  to  re- 

iccrs  in  Setscha. 

n  nflairs  of  little 

hty  required  the 

flfer  no  woman  to 

1  to  marry  were 

eir  numbers  the 

■om   all   nations. 

ranks  with  young 

IS  ;  and  brought 

er  of  living. 

and  Poland  had 

ion  of  those  two 

were  continued 

Mice  of  Moscow. 

[azeppa,  they  put 

of  the  Crimea  af- 

:apital  of  Setschn 

i  mouth.     Being 

their  incursions, 

)ok  the  resolution 

ominion  of  Rus- 

em  in  their  pri- 

rebuilding  their 

bery  and  phmder 
ig  neither  friends 
this  fantastic  as- 
iparogs  were  ac-  <^ 


PBIIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


VM 


filled  of  having  usurped  pufsessinn  (»f  several  roiiiitrios  between 
the  DriijMier  nnd  the  Hi>j>';  ns  well  iin  of  Mvcrnl  distrutN  which 
\\vtk  lit  nil  tiincM  lH>li)iiiri>(l  lo  tlu>  ('(i.sMU'N  of  th(>  Don.  What 
mop'  pitrticuliiriy  cxiifncratt'd  the  KinprcsM  a>,'niiiMt  thoni,  wns, 
ilint  iK'iiig  so  olwtitmtcly  ultiirlicd  to  tlicir  nhsunl  form  of  tjo- 
vornmfut,  they  onpofc.l  every  schiMiie  of  reform,  the  ohjuf.  of 
whii  li  was  to  muke  them  live  in  re',Milnr  nociety,  nnd  in  the 
boii'ls  of  mntrinutny  ;  or  l«)  induce  ihf  ni  to  form  themselves  into 
regiments,  after  the  manner  of  the  other  Cossncs.  They  had 
also  refused  to  send  their  deputies  to  Moscow,  at  the  time  when 
Catherine  had  sent  for  them  from  all  partis  of  the  Empire,  for 
the  formation  of  a  new  code  of  laws  ;  and  there  was  some  rea- 
son  to  fear  they  might  attempt  to  revolt,  on  "ccount  of  the 
changes  which  the  Empress  proposed  to  make  n  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  government.  These  nnd  other  considerations  in* 
duced  that  princess  to  despatch  a  body  of  troops  against  Setscha 
(1775.)  The  Zaparogs,  attacked  unawares,  and  inclosed  on  all 
hands,  saw  themselves  without  the  means  of  making  the  least 
resistance.  Their  capital  was  destroyed,  and  their  whole  tiibo 
dispersed.  Those  who  were  not  inclined  to  embrace  another 
kind  of  life,  were  sent  back  to  their  native  towns  and  their  re» 
spective  countries. 

The  succession  of  Bavaria  reverted  of  right  to  the  Elector 
Palatine,  Charles  Theoaore,as  head  of  the  eider  branch  of  Wit- 
telsbach.  That  prince  had  on  his  side,  the  Feudal  Law  of  Ger- 
many, the  Golden  Bull,  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  and  family 
compacts  frequently  renewed  between  the  two  branches  of  that 
house  ;  all  Europe  was  persuaded  that,  should  the  case  so  turn 
out,  the  rights  of  the  Elector  Palatine  would  be  beyond  all  con- 
troversy. Meantim»',  the  Elector  Maximilian  had  scarcely 
closed  his  eyes,  when  several  pretenders  appeared  on  the  field,  to 
dispute  the  succession  as  his  presumptive  heirs.  The  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  claimed  all  the  fiefs  of  tne  Empire,  which  his  pre- 
decessors had  conferred  on  the  house  of  Bavaria,  without  ex- 
pressly including  the  princes  of  the  Palatine  branch  in  these 
investitures.  The  Empress,  Maria  Theresa,  besides  the  fiefs  of 
the  Upper  Palatinate  holding  of  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  demand- 
ed all  the  countries  and  districfi  of  Lower  and  Upper  Bavaria, 
as  well  as  of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  which  had  been  possessed  by 
the  Princes  of  Bavaria-Straubingen,  who  had  become  extinct  in 
1425.  She  also  alleged  a  pretended  investiture,  which  the  Em- 
peror Sigismund  had  granted,  in  1426,  to  his  son-in-law  Duke 
Albert  of  Austria.  The  Electress-Dowager  of  Saxony,  sister  to 
the  last  Elector  of  Bavaria,  thought  herself  entitled  to  claim  the 
allodial  succession,  which  she  made  out  to  be  very  extensive 


Mi 


; 


394 


CHAPTER  IX. 


Lastly,  the  Dukes  of  Mecklenburg  brought  forward  an  ancient 
deed  of  reversion,  which  their  ancestors  had  obtained  from  the 
Emperors,  over  the  landgraviate  of  Leuchtenberg.  • 

Before  these  different  claims  could  be  made  known,  the  Aus- 
trian troops  had  entered  Bavaria,  immediately  after  the  death  of 
the  late  Elector,  and  taken  possession  of  all  the  countries  and 
districts  claimed  by  the  Emperor  and  the  Empress-Queen.  The 
Elector  Palatine,  intimidated  by  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna,  ac- 
knowledged the  lawfulness  of  all  the  claims  of  that  court,  by  a 
convention  which  was  signed  at  Vienna  (Jan.  3, 1778,)  but  which 
the  Duke  of  Deux-Ponts,  his  successor  and  heir  presumptive, 
refused  to  ratify.  That  prince  was  supported  in  his  opposition 
by  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  treated  the  pretensions  of  Austria 
as  chimerical,  and  as  being  incompatible  with  the  security  of  the 
constitution  of  the  Germanic  body.  The  King  interposed  in  this 
affair,  as  being  a  guarantee  for  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  and  h 
friend  and  ally  of  the  parties  concerned,  who  all  claimed  his  pro- 
tection. He  demanded  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  that  they  should 
withdraw  their  troops  from  Bavaria,  and  restore  to  the  Elector 
the  territories  of  which  they  had  deprived  hiin.  A  negotiation 
on  this  subject  was  opened  between  the  two  courts,  and  numerous 
controversial  writings  were  published ;  but  the  proposals  of  the 
King  of  Prussia  not  proving  agreeable  to  the  court  of  Vienna, 
the  conferences  were  broken  off  about  the  end  of  June  1778,  and 
both  parties  began  to  make  preparations  for  war.  ^ 

It  was  about  the  beginning  of  July  when  the  King  of  Prussia 
entered  Bohemia,  through  the  county  of  Glatz,  and  pitched  his 
camp  between  Jaromitz  and  Konigratz,  opposite  that  of  the  Em- 
peror and  Marshal  Daun,  from  which  he  was  only  separated  by 
the  Elbe.     Another  army,  composed  of  Prussians  and  Saxons, 
and  commanded  by  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  penetrated  into 
Bohemia  through  Lusatia  ;  but  they  were  stopped  in  their  march 
by  Marshal  Laudohn,  who  had  taken  up  a  very  advantageous 
position,  and  defeated  all  the  measures  of  the  Prince  of  Prussia. 
At  length  a  third  Prussian  army  marched  into  Austria  and  Sile- 
sia, and  occupied  the  greater  part  of  that  province.     Europe  had 
never  seen  armies  more  numerous  and  better  disciplined,  and 
commanded  by  such  experienced  generals,  approach  each  other 
so  nearly  without  some  memorable  action  taking  place.    The 
Emperor  and  his  generals  had  the  good  sense  to  act  on  the  de- 
fensive ;  while  the  efforts  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  to  bring  him  to 
a  general  engagement,  proved  altogether  unavailing.      This 
prince,  who  had  lost  a  great  many  rnen  by  sickness  and  deser- 
tion, was  compelled  to  evacuate  Bohemia  about  the  end  of  Oc- 
tober, and  his  example  was  soon  followed  by  his  brother  Prince 


1 


rBRioD  vui.    A.  D.  1713—1789. 


895 


ward  an  ancient 
itained  from  the 

■g- 

cnown,  the  Aus- 

'ter  the  death  of 

le  countries  and 

ess-Queen.  The 

of  Vienna,   ac- 

that  court,  by  a 

1778.)  but  which 

eir  presumptive, 

in  his  opposition 

isions  of  Austria 

le  security  of  the 

nterposed  in  this 

^oKtphalia,  and  n 

claimed  his  pro- 

,  that  they  should 

ire  to  the  Elector 

.     A  negotiation 

ts,  and  numerous 

proposals  of  the 

court  of  Vienna, 

if  June  1778,  and 

ir. 

i  King  of  Prussia 

:,  and  pitched  his 

e  that  of  the  Em- 

jnly  separated  by 

ians  and  Saxons, 

,  penetrated  into 

led  in  their  march 

ery  advantageous 

Prince  of  Prussia. 

Austria  and  Sile- 

ice.     Europe  had 

'  disciplined,  and 

)roach  each  other 

:ing  place.    The 

to  act  on  the  de- 

a,  to  bring  him  to 

lavailing.      This 

:kness  and  deser* 

It  the  end  of  Oc- 

is  brother  Prince 


Henry.  At  th"!  beginning  of  this  first  campaign,  the  Empress- 
Queen  being  desirous  of  peace,  had  sent  Baron  Thugut  to  the 
King  of  Prussia,  to  offer  him  new  proposals.  A  conference  was 
agreed  to  take  place  at  the  convent  of  Braunau  (Aug.  1778,) 
which  had  no  better  success  than  the  preceding,  on  account  of 
the  belligerous  disposition  of  the  Emperor,  who  was  for  continu- 
ing the  war.  At  length  the  return  of  peace  was  brought  about 
by  the  powerful  intervention  of  the  courts  of  Versailles  and  St. 
Petersburg. 

France,  who  was  obliged,  by  the  terms  of  her  alliance  with 
Austria,  to  furnish  supplies  for  the  Empress-Queen,  could  not  in 
the  present  case  reconcile  this  engagement  with  the  interests  of 
her  crown,  nor  with  the  obligations  which  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia had  imposed  upon  her,  with  respect  to  the  Germanic  body. 
Besides,  the  war  which  had  broken  out  between  her  and  England, 
on  account  of  her  alliance  with  the  United  States  of  America, 
made  her  anxious  for  the  restoration  of  peace  on  the  Continent, 
for  avoiding  every  thing  which  might  occasion  a  diversion  of  her 
maritime  forces.  The  Empress  of  Russia,  who  thought  her 
glory  interested,  could  not  remain  a  quiet  spectator  of  a  struggle 
which,  if  prolonged,  might  set  all  Europe  in  a  flame.  She  de- 
clared  to  the  Court  of  Vienna,  that  in  consequence  of  the  ties  of 
friendship  and  alliance  which  subsisted  between  her  and  the 
Court  of  Berlin,  she  would  find  herself  called  on  to  join  her 
troops  to  those  of  Prussia,  if  the  war  was  to  be  continued.  But, 
before  coming  to  that  extremity,  she  would  interpose  her  good 
offices,  conjointly  with  France,  to  bring  existing  differences  to  an 
amicable  conclusion. 

The  mediation  of  these  two  courts  having  been  accepted  by 
the  belligerent  powers,  a  congress  was  summoned  at  Teschen,  in 
Silesia,  which  was  opened  in  the  month  of  March  1779.  The 
Empress  of  Russia,  to  give  the  greater  weight  to  her  interfer- 
ence, despatched  a  body  of  troops  to  the  frontiers,  destined  to  act 
as  auxiliaries  under  the  King  of  Prussia,  in  case  the  war  should 
happen  to  be  renewed.  Prince  Repnin,  who  commanded  that 
body,  appeared,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  capacity  of  ambassador- 
extraordinary  at  the  Congress.  France  sent,  on  her  part.  Baron 
de  Breteuil,  her  ambassador  at  the  Court  of  Vienna.  All  things 
being  already  prepared,  and  the  principal  difficulties  removed, 
the  peace  was  concluded  in  less  than  two  months.  By  this  treaty, 
the  convention  of  the  3d  of  January,  made  between  the  Court 
of  Vienna  and  the  Elector  Palatine,  was  annulled.  Austria  wa."? 
required  to  give  up  all  her  possessions  in  Bavaria,  except  the 
places  and  districts  situated  between  the  Danube,  the  Inn,  and 
the  Salza,  which  were  ceded  to  her  as  all  she  could  claim  of  ti»e 


^^  M 


It: 


396 


CRAPTBS  nc 


roccession  of  Bavaria,  which  she  had  renounced  in  4e  most  for- 
mal  manner.     The  fiefs  of  the  Empire,  which  had  been  confer,    j 
red  on  the  House  of  Bavaria,  were  secured  by  that  treaty  to  the     . 
Elector  Palatine  and  his  whole  family ;  as  well  as  those  situated 
in  the  Upper  Palatinate,  and  holding  of  the  Crown  of  Bohemia.       j 

The  Elector  Palatine  engaged  to  pay  the  Elector  of  baxony, 
for  his  allodial  rights,  the  sum  of  six  millions  of  florins,  money 
of  the  Empire  ;  while  the  Empress-Queen  gave  up  to  the  said 
prince  the  rights  which  the  crown  of  Bohemia  had  over  certain 
ieiffniories  lying  within  Saxony,  and  possessed  by  the  Counts  o 
ScCurg.  The  Palatine  branch  of  Birkenfeldt,  whose  right  ot 
succession  to  the  Palatine  estates  had  been  disputed,  on  the 
Itiound  of  their  being  the  issue  of  an  unequal  marriage,  were 
now  declared  capable  of  succeeding  to  all  the  estates  and  pos- 
sessions  of  the  House  of  Wittlesbach,  as  comp'ehended  in  the 
family  compacts  of  that  house. 

The  existing  treaties  between  the  Court  of  Vienna  and  he 
King  of  Prussia,  and  also  those  of  Westphalia,  Breslau,  Berlin, 
and  Dresden,  were  renewed  and  confirmed;  and  a  formal  ac- 
knowledgment made  to  the  royal  line  of  Prussia,  of  their  right 
to  unite  the  margraviatcs  of  Baireuth  and  Anspach,  failing  the 
piesent  possessors,  to  the  hereditary  succession  of  the  Electorate 
of  Brandenburg;  which  right  the  House  of  Austria  had  called 
in  question  during  the  dispute  which  we  have  already  mention- 
ed.    As  for  the  House  of  Mecklenburg,  they  granted  to  it  the 
Diivilese  of  the  non  appellando,m  virtue  of  which,  no  one  could 
carrv  an  appeal  from  the  tribunals  of  that  country  to  the  sove- 
reien  courts  of  the  Empire.     The  two  mediating  powers  under- 
took to  guarantee  this  treaty.    Thus  the  war  for  the  succession 
of  Bavaria  was  checked  at  its  commencement.    The  following 
peculiarities  are  worthy  of  remark,  viz.  that  the  Palatine  famiW, 
who  were  the  party  chiefly  interested,  took  no  share  in  it ;  while 
Bavaria,  the  sole  cause  of  the  war,  was  no  way  engaged  in  it , 
and  the  Elector  Palatine,  who  had  even  refused  the  assistance 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  was,  nevertheless,  the  party  chiefly  ben- 
efited  by  the  peace,  by  means  of  the  protection  of  that  prince. 

The  House  of  Austria  having  failed,  as  we  have  ]ust  seen,  m 
her  project  of  conquering  Bavaria,  tried,  in  the  next  piace,  to 
get  possession  of  that  country  by  way  of  exchange  for  the  IN  e- 
Qierlands.  The  Elector  Palatine  appeared  willing  to  meet  the 
views  of  the  Court  of  Vienna ;  but  it  was  not  so  with  the  Uuko 
of  Deux-Ponts,  who  haughtily  opposed  the  exchange;  while  the 
King  of  Prussia,  who  supported  it,  was  obliged  to  acknowledge 
that  such  an  exchange  was  inadmissible,  and  in  opposition  both 
to  former  treaties,  and  to  the  best  interesi8>of  theGermamc  body 


in  the  most  for- 

ad  been  confer* 

hat  treaty  to  the 

as  those  situated 

wn  of  Bohemia. 

lector  of  Saxony, 

f  florins,  money 

e  up  to  the  said 

had  over  certain 

by  the  Counts  of 

dt,  whose  right  of 

disputed,  on  the 

I  marriage,  were 

!  estates  and  pos- 

pi^ehended  in  the 

'  Vienna  and  the 
,  Breslau,  Berlii\ 
and  a  formal  ac- 
isia,  of  their  right 
ispach,  failing  the 
1  of  the  Electorate 
\ustria  had  called 
!  already  mention- 
granted  to  it  the 
hich,  no  one  could 
untry  to  the  sove- 
ing  powers  under- 
for  the  succession 
I.  The  following 
le  Palatine  famiW, 
share  in  it ;  while 
ay  engaged  in  it , 
sed  the  assistance 
party  chiefly  ben* 
1  of  that  prince, 
have  just  seen,  in 
the  next  place,  to 
liange  for  the  N«« 
rilling  to  meet  the 
so  with  the  Duko 
:hange ;  while  the 
sd  to  acknowledge 
in  opposition  both 
le  Germanic  body 


1 1 
I 

ii 


PKRiOD  Vtll.     A.  0.  1713 — 17S9. 


90T 


The  Court  of  Vienna  then  abandoned  this  project,  at  least  in 
uppenrancc ;  but  the  alarm  which  it  had  caiisecf  throughout  the 
Empire,  gave  rise  to  an  association,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Germanic  Confederation.  It  was  concluded  at  Berlin  (July 
23,  1785,)  between  the'  three  Electors  of  Saxony,  Brandenburg, 
and  Brunswick-Luneburg ;  besides  several  provinces  of  the  Im- 
periol  State  who  adhered  to  it.  This  association,  purely  de- 
fensive, had  no  other  object  than  the  preservation  of  the  Ger- 
manic System,  with  the  rights  ond  possessions  of  all  its  members. 

The  Revolution  in  North  America,  deserves  to  be  placed 
among  the  number  of  those  great  events  which  belong  to  the 
general  history  of  Europe;  Besides  the  sanguinary  war  which 
it  kindled  between  France  and  England,  and  in  which  Spain 
and  Holland  were  also  implicated,  it  may  be  regarded  as  the 
harbinger  of  those  revolutions  which  took  place  soon  after  in 
several  of  the  Continental  Slates  of  Europe.  The  English 
colonies  in  North  America  were  no  otherwise  connected  with 
the  mother  country,  than  by  a  government  purely  civil,  by  a 
similarity  of  manners,  and  by  customs,  which  long  usage  had 
rendered  sacred.  They  were  divided  into  provinces,  each  ot 
which  had  its  particular  constitution  more  or  less  analogous  to 
that  of  England,  but  imperfectly  united  with  the  mother  coun- 
try, because  the  inhabitants  of  these  provinces  were  not  repre- 
sented in  the  national  Parliament.  If  they  had  been  so,  Great 
Britain  would  certainly  never  have  enjoyed  that  monopoly  which 
she  had  reserved  to  herself,  agreeably  to  the  colonial  system  of 
all  modem  nations.  The  exclusive  privilege  of  sending  her 
commodities  to  the  Americans,  by  lettering  their  industry,  alien- 
ated their  affections  from  England,  and  made  them  naturally  de- 
sirous of  shaking  off  her  yoke  ;  and  this  propensity  could  not 
fail  to  increase,  in  proportioti  as  these  colonies  increased  in 
strength,  population,  and  wealth. 

One  consideration,  however,  likely  to  secure  their  allegiance, 
was  the  protection  which  England  granted  them  against  their 

Eowerful  neighbours  the  French  in  Canada,  the  Spaniards  in 
'lorida,  and  the  Barbarians  in  the  West.  The  Canadians,  es- 
Ecially,  proved  daring  and  troublesome  neighbours  to  New  Eng- 
id,  which  rendered  the  assistance  and  protection  of  the  mother 
country  indispensable.  The  aspect  of  affairs  changed  at  the 
thne  of  the  peace  of  Paris  (1763.)  England,  by  getting  pos- 
session of  Canada  and  Florida,  broke  the  main  tie  Avhich  at- 
tached the  colonies  to  her  government.  Delivered  then  from 
the  terror  of  the  French,  and  having  no  more  need  of  foreign 
succour  to  protect  them  from  their  attacks,  the  Americans  began 
to  concert  measures  for  extricating  themselves  from  the  domin- 
ion of  Britain. 


i 


5b 


r«1 


.'.< 


re 


398 


cnAFTBii  a. 


Tlic  first  disturbances  that  broke  out  were  occasioned  by  the 
altomnts  which   the   Briish   Parliament  had  made  to  unpose 
mc's  on  the  Americans.     The  national  debt  of  England  having 
h^c  eased  considerablv  during  the  precedmg  war.  the  Parha- 
ment  thought  they  had  a  right  to  oblige  the  colonjes  to  furnish 
Se  r  Juota  for  the'  liquidation  of  that  debt,  -h.ch  had  been^on. 
tracto(  ,  in  part,  for  the  interests  of  America.     The  Parliament 
passed  an  act,  according  to  which  all  contracts  ,n  the  American 
colonies  were  to  be  drawn  upon  stamped  paper  ;  and  the  tax  on 
Ihe  stamp  was  regulated  according  to  the  different  objects  of  the 
conirac"     When^his  act  had  passed  into  a  law,  and  was  about 
to  bo  carried  into  effect  in  America,  it  caused  a  general  maur- 
rection.     The  people  committed  all  sorts  of  excesses  and  abuses 
n.a  n"  the  Ki Jg's'  officers.     The  Courts  of  Justice  were  shut 
un  and  the  colonies  began  to  form  associations  among  them- 
K       They  diJp"ted"the  right  of  the  British  Parliament  to 
impose  taxes  on  them  ;  alleging  that  they  were  "ot  represented 
there,  and  that  it  was  the  constitutional  privilege  of  every  Eng- 
Uian,  not  to  be  taxed  except  by  means  of  his  own  represen- 
atives.    The  colonies  having  thus  attacked  the  sovereignty  and 
oTislative  power  of  the  Parliament,  laid  an  interdict  on  all 
'•ommerce  with  the  mother  country,  and  forbade  the  purchase 
of  commodities  imported  from  Great  Britain. 

The  Parliament  rescinded  the  Stamp  act  They  publ  shed, 
however,  a  declaratory  act  which  set  forth  that  the  colonies 
were  subordinate  to,  and  dependent  on,  the  Crown  and  Parha- 
ment  of  Great  Britain,  in  whom  resided  full  power  and  au- 
thority to  make  laws  and  statutes  binding  on  the  colonies,  mall 
nossible  cases.  The  provincial  assemblies  of  the  colonists  were 
Snioined,  by  that  act,  to  receive  into  their  towns  whatever  num- 
ber of  British  troops  the  mother  country  might  think  proper  to 
send,  and  to  furnish  them  with  wood  and  beer.  Far  from  al- 
laying these  disturbances,  this  new  act  tended,  on  the  contrary, 
^exasperate  them  still  more.  The  Americans  considered  i  as 
;  tyrannical,  and  as  having  no  other  design  than  to  des^^roy  the 
I     foundation  of  their  liberty,  and  to  establish  an  absolute  and 

I  '^^fhefiS' ministry  made  still  farther  conce.ssions.  They 
I     abandoned  altogether  the  idea  of  a  tax  to  be  levied  m  the  m- 

?e^or  of  the  country,  and  limited  themselves  entirely  to  taxes 
I     or  duties  on  importe'd  goods.     The  Stamp  act  was  replaced  by 

another  (1767,)  which  imposed  certain  duties  on  lea,  paper, 

fead  and  paint-colours,  &c.  &c.  exported  from  England  mto  the 
olonie":  'This  act  was  no  better  received  than  its  predecessor. 

The  Assembly  of  Massachusetts,  which  was  formed  at  Boston, 


!! 


J 


~l  I 


:casioned  by  the 
nadc  to  impose 
England  having 
war,  the  Parlia- 
onies  to  furnish 
had  been  con- 

The  Parliament 
in  the  American 

;  and  the  tax  on 
int  objects  of  the 
r,  and  was  about 
a  general  insur- 
esses  and  abuses 
ustice  were  shut 
ns  among  them- 
h  Parliament  to 
e  not  represented 
ge  of  every  Eng- 
is  own  represen- 

sovereignty  and 

interdict  on  all 
,de  the  purchase 

They  published, 
that  the  colonies 
rown  and  Parlia- 
II  power  and  au- 
Lhe  colonies,  in  all 
the  colonists  were 
ns  whatever  num- 
it  think  proper  to 
sr.  Far  from  al- 
1,  on  the  contrary, 
IS  considered  it  as 
in  to  destroy  the 

an  absolute  and 

ncessions.  They 
levied  in  the  in- 

entirely  to  taxes 
;  was  replaced  by 
ies  on  tea,  paper, 

England  into  the 
%n  its  predecessor, 
formed  at  Boston, 


rEBIOD  Till.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


890 


addressed  circular  letters  to  all  the  colonies,  cxhortmg  them  to 
act  in  concert  for  the  support  of  their  rights  against  the  mother 
country.  The  resolutions  which  some  of  the  colonies  had  al- 
ready adopted,  of  prohibiting  thn  use  of  commodities  manufac- 
tured in  Great  Britain,  became  common  to  all  the  colonies ;  and 
the  American  merchants  in  general,  countermanded  the  goods 
which  they  had  ordered  from  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
The  spirit  of  revolt  thus  extending  wider  and  wider,  the  British 
government  determined  to  employ  troops  for  the  restoration  of 
order  and  tranquillity  in  the  colonies,  and  making  them  respect 
the  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain  (1769.) 

Affairs  were  in  this  situation  when  Lord  North,  who  had  been 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  admiriistration,  succeeded  in  calming 
the  minds  of  the  colonists,  by  passing  an  act  which  abolished 
the  obnoxious  ta.xes,  with  the  single  exception  of  that  on  tea. 
The  view  of  the  minister  in  retaining  this  tax,  was  not  of  reap- 
ing any  advantage  from  it;  but  he  hoped  by  this  trifling  duty 
to  accustom  the  colonies  to  support  greater  taxes.  The  Ameri- 
cans were  very  sensible  of  this ;  however,  as  they  imported  very 
little  tea  from  England,  and  as  the  Dutch  furnished  them  with 
this  article  by  way  of  contraband,  they  showed  no  symptoms  of 
resentment  until  the  year  1773.  At  that  time,  the  Parliament 
having  given  permission  to  the  East  India  Company  to  export 
tea  to  America,  of  which  they  had  large  supplies  in  their  ware- 
houses, the  Americans,  indignant  to  see  this  Company  made  the 
organ  of  a  law  which  was  odious  to  them,  resolved  to  oppose  the 
landing  of  these  tea  cargoes.  Three  of  the  Company's  vessels, 
freighted  with  this  article,  having  arrived  at  Boston,  and  prepa- 
ring to  unload,  the  inhabitants  boarded  them  during  the  night 
of  the  21st  of  December,  and  threw  all  the  chests  into  the  sea, 
to  the  number  of  342.  In  the  other  provinces,  they  only  sent 
back  the  ships  loaded  with  this  obnoxious  commodity. 

On  the  news  of  this  outrage,  the  British  Parliament  thought 
it  necessary  to  adopt  rigorous  measures.  Three  acts  were  passed 
in  succession  (1774,)  the  first  to  lay  the  port  of  Boston  under  in- 
terdict ;  the  second  to  abolish  the  constitution  and  democratic 
government  of  Massachusetts,  and  substitute  a  royal  govern- 
ment ;  and  the  third  to  authori:  ^  the  colonial  governors  to  trans- 
port to  England  the  Americans  who  were  accused  of  rebellion, 
to  be  tried  at  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  General  Gage  was  sent 
to  Uo.^ton  with  a  body  of  troops  and  several  vessels  to  carry  these 
coercive  measures  into  effect.  By  thus  adopting  decisive  mea- 
sures, the  British  Parliament  in  vain  flattered  themselves,  that 
they  could  reduce,  by  force,  a  continent  so  vast,  ond  so  remote 
from  the  mother  country,  as  that  of  America.     Supposi.ig  even 


II  \i 


:.~J 


400 


CHAPTER   IX' 


flmt  ll.ev  could  have  suwceded,  the  spirit  and  nature  of  the 

A  general  Congress,  composed  of  the  rePJ«H«nta  •>««  of  aU^he 
clonics  was  opened  at  Philadelphia  (Sept.  0-/77^.)     iney 
del  ed  the  acu  of  the  British  Krliament  aga.nst  Massachu. 
sous    u   be  unjust,  oppressive,  and  unconst.tut.onal.      They 
ate;d  never  more  to  nn port  articles  of  cornmerce  from  G  eat 
bS.     and   0  preset  un  address  to  the  King,  and  a  petition 
?o"hrHouse  of  5on..nons.  for  the  -dress  c^ those  gr.va^^^^^^^^^^ 
which  the  colonies  had  to  complam.     Th  s  latter  step  naving 
nrodtld  no  effect,  and  the  Parliament  havmg  «t.l  Frs.^ted  m     i 
fheir  rigorous  measures,  hostilities  commenced  in  the  month  o 
Am  1  1775.     The  American  Congress  then  conferred  the  com- 
mS  of  their  army  on  George  Washington,  a  rich  planter  m     | 
T^Lll  who  had  Acquired  considerable  military  reputation  by 
hisCc^ss  in  opposing  the  French  in  Canada ;  and  at  the  same 
til  to  ra  se"  hSnediate  supplies  of  which  the  colon.es  stood 
n  iieed  the  Congress  agreed  to  issue  paper  money,  sufficient  to 
ITtt  Avoidable  expenses  of  the  war.     A  declaration,  pub- 
j    Ushed  in  "he  month  of  July,  1775,  explained  the  reasons  which 
I    had  compelled  the  Americans  to  take  up  arms ;  and  announced 
Er  mention  not  to  separate  from  Great  Britain,  nor  adop    a 
pLro7absolu"te  independence      B"t  as  the  BrU.sh  Minis^^^^^ 
i     hid  made  extraordinary  efibrls  for  '^e  campaign  of  1776  and 
1     aken  a  body  of  German  troops  mlo  their  pay.  the  Americans 
'     .houL'ht  proper  to  break  off  all  alliance  with  England  that  they 
tight  have  Recourse  in  their  turn  to  the  protection  o  foreigners, 
^hp  indenendence  of  the  Colonies  was  thereiore  formally  de- 
clal^>aTAct^Cong^ess(July4,1776,)     They  f- drew 
'     up  articles  of  confederation  and  perpetual  union  among  tjie  States 
' '     of  America,  to  the  number  of  thirteen  provinces,  under  the  title 
ot^rUnied  States  of  Amrica.       In  virtue  of  this  union,  each 
of  th  •  Slates  remained  master  of  its  own  egislative  and  inter- 
„a  adm  nistration.  while  the  Congress,  which  was  co^PO^ea  o^ 
i  1     deouties  from  all  the  colonies,  had  the  power  of  regulating  all 
'     poEa  affairs ;  that  is  to  say,  every  thing  concerning  war  or 
Seacf,  alliances,  money  matl.^rs.  weights  and  measures,  posts, 
§^     'as  well  as  the  settlement  of  any  differences  wh.ch  migh 
aSse  between  two  or  more  of  the  confederate  States.     The  first 
:  i     ?a  oumble  action  for  the  Americans  in  their  ^ar  agun^t  Eng- 
■  I      «nd  wa^  that  at  Trenton  on  the  Delaware,  (Dec  25,  177r>,) 
'      wjie  Geneml  Washington  surprised  a  My  of  Hessians  and 


1  niture  of  the     i  i 
i  them  to  main- 
wever,  far  from     i  I 
ed  the  cause  of     | 
nishment.  i  I 

tatives  of  all  the 
,  1774.)    They 
aiiist  Massachu- 
utional.      They 
erce  from  Great 
g,  and  a  petition 
3se  grievances  o( 
itter  step  having 
still  persisted  in 
in  the  month  of 
nferred  the  corn- 
1  rich  planter  in 
jry  reputation  by 

and  at  the  same 
ihe  colonies  stood 
jney,  sufficient  to 
declaration,  pub- 
he  reasons  which 
;  and  announced 
itain,  nor  adopt  a 
!  British  Ministry 
lign  of  1776,  and 
y,  the  Americans 
fngland,  that  they 
tion  of  foreigners, 
efore  formally  de- 

They  then  drew 
I  among  the  States 
;es,  under  the  title 
of  this  union,  each 
;;islative  and  inter- 
1  was  composed  ol 
r  of  regulating  all 
:oncerning  war  or 
d  measures,  posts, 
ences  which  might 

States.  The  first 
f  war  agi.inst  Eng- 
3,  (Dec.  25,  1776.) 
y  of  Hessians  and 


I  41 '■ 


tn 


■i; 


Dentructioii  of  the  Bastile  ut  TarU  by  the  People.    P.  433. 


Lxccutioii  of  Louis  XVI   "C  VrMu-i-..    P.  429. 


Ill 


J 


tl 


f 


u|)le.    P.  433. 


PKRioD  nu.    it  D.  1713 — 1789.  401 

English,  and  made  thorn  prisoners.  But  the  event  which  in 
some  degree  set  the  seal  to  the  independence  of  America,  waa 
iliL'  important  check  which  General  Burgoyne  met  with  near 
tSnratogn.  Having  advanced  from  Canada  to  support  the  opera- 
tions of  General  Howe,  who  was  marching  on  Philadelphia,  he 
was  compelled  by  the  American  troops  under  General  Gates  to 
Iny  down  his  arms,  by  a  capitulation  which  was  signed  in  the 
camp  .It  Saratoga  (Oct.  16,  1777.)  The  news  of  this  disaster 
was  nu  sooner  received  in  Europe,  than  France,  who,  during 
ihe  time  that  England  was  occupied  with  the  disturbances  in 
America,  had  put  her  marine  on  a  respectable  footing,  took  the 
resolution  of  acknowledging  the  New  Kepublic,and  entered  into 
d  formal  alliance  with  it.  Treaties  of  friendship,  alliance,  and 
commerce,  were  concluded  at  Paris  between  them  and  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  America  (Feb.  6,  1778.)  France  demanded  as  a 
primary  condition,  that  the  United  States  should  not  lay  down 
their  arms,  until  England  bad  acknowledged  their  independence. 
I'he  notification  which  the  Court  of  France  made  to  that  of  Lon- 
don of  this  treaty  with  the  United  States,  became  the  signal  of 
war  between  these  two  nations. 

This  war  which  France  had  undertaken  against  England  for 
the  free  navigation  of  the  seas,  was  the  first  which  did  not  in- 
volve the  continent  of  Europe,  as  it  was  confined  entirely  to 
maritime  operations.  The  European  powers,  far  from  thwart- 
ing France  in  this  enterprise,  applauded  her  success;  and  while 
Great  Britain  depended  on  her  own  stren^h,  and  had  not  a  sin- 
gle ally  on  the  Continent,  France  contrived  to  interest  Spain 
and  Holland  in  her  cause. 

Spain,  after  having  for  some  time  held  the  rank  of  a  media- 
ting power,  entered  into  the  war  in  fulfihnent  of  those  engage- 
ments which  she  had  contracted,  by  the  Family  Compact ;  and 
as  respected  Holland,  England  had  determined  to  break  with 
her.  The  British  ministry  were  oflended  at  that  Republic,  which, 
instead  of  granting  England  the  supplies  that  she  was  entitled 
to  claim  in  virtue  of  former  treaties,  had  lent  itself  an  accomplice 
to  the  interests  of  her  enemies.  The  Dutch,  on  their  side,  com- 
plained of  the  multiplied  vexations  with  which  they  were  inces- 
santly harassed  by  the  British  privateers.  They  had  sought 
to  protect  themselves  against  these,  under  the  shield  of  that 
armed  neutrality  which  tne  Empress  of  Russia  had  just  negoti- 
ated for  protecting  the  commerce  of  neutral  States ;  and  it  was 
in  order  to  prevent  their  accession  to  that  neutrality,  that  Eng* 
land  made  such  haste  to  declare  Mrar  against  the  Republic  (Dec. 
20,  1780.) 

Without  entering  here  into  the  details  of  that  war,  the  prin* 

26 


4i 


;1 


p.  420. 


.:■<• 


402 


OHAPTSK  II. 


cipal  scene  of  which  was  in  America,  though  it  extended  to 
Africa  and  the  Indies,  we  shall  cnn^ne  ourselves  to  a  few  g^n- 
era)  observations. 

When  hostilities  commenced  between  Franco  nnd  England, 
the  latter  had  a  very  great  superiority  in  maritime  strength.  She 
had  armies  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  globe.  The  number  of 
her  vessels  was  prodigious.  Her  arsenals  were  overloaded  with 
stores.  Her  doclc-yards  were  in  the  greatest  activity  ;  but  after 
France  and  Spain  had  united  their  naval  force,  it  was  no  longer 
possible  for  Great  Britain,  obliged  as  she  was  to  divide  her 
strength,  to  defend  her  distant  possessions  against  the  numerous 
attacks  of  the  French  and  their  allies.  Not  fewer  than  twenty- 
one  engagements  took  place  between  the  belligerent  powers ;  m 
all  of  which  England,  from  the  experience  of  her  Admirals,  and 
the  ability  of  her  naval  officers,  did  not  lose  a  single  shin  of  the 
line.  The  first  naval  action  was  fought  near  Ushant  (July  27, 
1778,)  between  D'Orvilliers  and  Admiral  Keppel.  This  action, 
the  glory  of  which  was  claimed  equally  by  both  nations,  was  as 
indecisive  as  most  of  those  which  followed  it.  The  only  decisive 
actior,  properly  speaking,  was  that  which  Admiral  Rodney  fought 
with  Count  de  Urasse  (April  12,  1782,)  between  the  isfands  of 
Dominica  and  Saintes.  The  English  Admiral  having  broken 
the  French  line,  succeeded  in  taking  five  ships  of  the  line,  inclu- 
ding the  Admiral's,  and  had  the  honour  to  carry  him  prisoner 
to  London. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  the  English  stripped  the  French 
of  their  possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  such  as  Pondicherry, 
Chandemagore,  and  Mahe.  They  took  from  them  the  islands 
of  St.  Peter  and  Miquelon,  as  well  as  that  of  St.  Lucia,  and 
Gorea  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  The  French  afterwards  repaid 
themselves  for  these  losses,  by  conquering  the  islands  of  Domin- 
ica, St.  Vincent,  Grenada,  Tobago,  St.  Christophers,  Nevis  and 
Monteserrat.  All  the  forts  and  establishments  of  the  English 
on  the  Senegal  in  Africa,  as  well  as  Gondelore  in  the  East  In- 
dies, fell  into  their  possession. 

The  Spaniards  made  themselves  masters  of  the  fort:t  which 
the  English  occupied  on  the  Mississippi.  They  took  fort  Mo- 
bile or  Conde,  in  ancient  French  Louisiana,  and  subdued  the 
whole  of  Western  Floridii,  with  the  town  of  Pensacola.  In 
Europe  they  recovered,  with  the  assistance  of  the  French,  the 
island  of  Minorca,  with  port  Mahon  and  fort  St.  Philip;  but  the 
combined  forces  of  the  two  nations  failed  in  their  enterprise 
against  Gibraltar.  This  place,  which  was  bravely  defended  by 
General  Elliot,  was  twice  relieved  with  supplies  by  the  English 
fleet — first  by  Admiral  Rodney  (1780,)  an4  afterwards  by  Lord 


T 


1 


rU 


1  it  extended  lo 
res  to  a  few  g^n- 

CR  nnd  England. 

me  strength.  She 

The  number  of 

overloaded  with 

livity ;  but  ofker 

it  was  no  longer 

tras  to  divide  her 

inst  the  numerous 

wer  than  twenty- 
rerent  powers ;  in 
her  Admirals,  and 

single  shin  of  the 

Ushant  (July  27, 
pel.  This  action, 
>th  nations,  was  as 

The  only  decisive 
iral  Rodney  fought 
'een  the  islands  of 
ral  having  broken 
s  of  the  line,  inclu- 
carry  him  prisoner 

tripped  the  French 
:h  as  Pondicherry, 
n  them  the  islands 
of  St.  Lucia,  and 
I  afterwards  repaid 
;  islands  of  Domin- 
jtophcrs,  Nevis  and 
ents  of  the  English 
ore  in  the  East  In- 

of  the  fortJi  which 
rhey  took  fort  Mo- 
a,  and  subdued  the 

of  Pensacola.     In 

of  the  French,  the 
St.  Philip ;  but  the 

in  their  enterprise 
>ravely  defended  by 
(lies  by  the  English 
afterwards  by  Lord 


rsRioD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


4n 


Howe  (1788.)  The  flnnting  batteries  invented  by  M.  D'Ar^oii, 
whirii  wf'ri"  directed  ngniuNt  the  garrison,  were  destroyed  by  thn 
red-hot  bullets  whirh  tli(«  English  commander  showered  upon 
them  in  i,'rp<it  profusion,  it  was  i-hiefly  this  olistinnte  determi- 
nation (»f  the  bpniiiards  to  rerover  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  iliat  for 
a  long  time  deprived  France  and  Spain  of  the  advantages  which 
ought  to  have  accrued  to  them  from  the  combination  of  their 
naval  strength  against  Great  Britain.  As  fur  the  Dutch,  they 
experienced  heavy  lossi^s  in  this  war ;  their  islands  of  St.  Eu- 
statia,  Suba,  and  St.  Martin  in  the  Antilles,  were  sei/cd  by  the 
English,  who  carried  olF  immense  booty.  Besides  their  esta- 
blishments of  Deinarara  and  Essequibo  in  Guiana,  those  which 
they  had  on  the  Malabar  nnd  Coromandel  coasts,  especially  Ne- 
gapatani  and  Trincomalee,  on  the  coasts  of  Ceylon,  were  reduced 
in  succession.  The  French  succeed(!d,  however,  in  reconquer- 
ing the  Dutch  Antilles,  atirl  the  fortress  of  Trincomalee. 

In  North  America,  the  success  of  the  war  was  for  a  long  time 
equally  balanced  between  the  English  nnd  the  Americans.  At 
length  Lord  Cornwallis,  nfterhavingconquered  the  two  Cnrolinas, 
advanced  into  Virginia.  He  took  York  Town  and  Gloucester  ; 
but  having  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  that  province.  Generals 
Washington,  Rochainltaud,  nnd  La  Fayette,  turned  their  forces 
against  him,  and  were  supporred  in  this  attack  by  a  French  fleet, 
which  the  Count  de  Grasse  had  brought  to  tneir  aid.  Lord 
Cornwallis,  surrounded  on  all  sides,  and  shut  up  in  York  Town, 
was  obliged  to  capitulate  (Oct.  19,  1781,)  and  surrendered  him- 
self and  nis  whole  army  prisoners  of  war.  This  event  decided 
the  fate  of  America.  The  news  of  it  no  sooner  arrived  in 
England,  than  a  change  took  place  in  the  British  ministry. 
Lord  North  and  his  colleagues  resigned,  and  were  replaced 
by  the  members  of  the  opposite  party.  The  new  ministrv 
attempted  to  negotiate  a  special  peace,  either  with  the  Ameri- 
cans or  with  the  Dutch  ;  but  their  eflTorts  having  proved  unsuc- 
cessful, they  adopted  the  alternative  of  recognising  the  inde- 
pendence of  America,  and  then  entered  into  a  negotiation  with 
France.  A  conference  was  opened  at  Paris,  under  the  media- 
tion of  Joseph  II.  and  the  Empress  of  Russia.  It  continued  from 
the  month  of  October  1782,  till  September  1783,  when  definitive 
treaties  of  peace  were  signed  at  Paris  and  Versailles  between 
Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  the  United  States  of  America. 
The  conclusion  of  the  treaty  between  England  and  Holland  did 
not  take  place  till  the  20th  May  1784. 

In  virtue  of  these  treaties,  the  independence  of  the  Thirteen 
United  States  of  America  was  acknowledged  by  England  ;  and 
the  boundaries  of  the  respective  possessions  of  the  two  powers 


i 


w 


;HI 


cnAPrm  ix. 


wfre  regulated  over  the  whole  extent  of  North  America.  A 
territory  of  vant  extern  \vu«  nssignctl  to  the  Unitml  States,  who 
also  obtained  tht*  right  of  fishinjf  on  ihc  hanks  of  Newfoundland, 
and  in  all  othor  piacp^  when-  (ishinflf  had  till  then  hc'ri  practised. 

The  French  fisheries  at  Newfoundland,  were  settled  in  a  man- 
ner more  ndvantaiifeous  than  hy  the  former  treaties.  The  Inlands 
of  St.  Peter  and  Mimiolon  were  ceded  with  full  priviioffos  to 
France.  In  the  Antilles,  France  retained  St.  Lucia  and  Toha- 
go,  restoring  to  England  <irenada  and  the  Grenadines,  St.  Vin- 
cent, Dominica,  St.  Chri?<topher,  Nevis,  and  Montserrat.  In 
Africa,  the  fort-s  and  settlements  on  the  Senegal  remained  in 
the  possession  of  France,  and  the  island  of  Goreii  was  restored 
to  her.  In  the  East  Indies,  all  the  French  settlements  such  at 
Chandernagore,  Pondicherry,  and  Mahe,  were  restored,  and  Eng- 
land engaged  to  make  some  additions  to  Pondicherry.  The 
clauses  in  the  former  treaties  relative  to  Dunkirk  were  abolished. 
The  island  of  Minorca  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  whole  of 
Florida  in  America,  were  ceded  to  Spain,  who  restored  to  Eng- 
land the  islands  of  Providence  anti  Bahama ;  and  moreover 
granted  the  English  the  liberty  of  cutting  logwood  or  dyewood 
in  certain  places  on  the  Bay  of  Honduras.  Finally,  Holland 
ceded  Negapatam  to  England,  and  granted  to  British  subjects  a 
free  trade  in  the  Indian  Seas,  where  the  Dutch  had  till  that  time 
maintained  an  exclusive  commerce  and  navigation. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  treaties  of  Paris  and  Versailles, 
which  terminated  the  American  war.  France  thereby  main- 
tained the  balance  of  maritime  power  against  England,  whose 
vast  naval  superiority  had  alarmed  all  the  commercial  States  of 
Europe.  [It  is  true  that  this  advantage  was  of  short  duration, 
as  the  English  recovered  their  superiority,  and  during  the  French 
Revolution,  carried  it  to  a  pitch  which  it  had  never  before  reach- 
ed ;  besides,  their  commerce  suffered  no  check  by  the  loss  of 
their  extensive  colonies.  The  growing  industry  of  the  new  Re- 
public had  more  need  than  ever  to  be  supported  by  all  the  capi- 
tal and  credit  which  the  merchants  could  find  in  the  mother 
country.]  France  acquired  the  glory  of  having  contributed,  by 
her  efforts,  to  establish  the  new  Republic  of  the  United  States, 
which,  by  the  vust  extent  of  its  territory,  the  progressive  increase 
of  its  population,  its  industry,  and  its  commerce,  must  exercise, 
in  course  of  time,  a  prodigious  influence  on  the  destinies  o^^ 
Europe. 

One  memorable  event,  which  has  some  reference  to  the  Amer- 
ican war,  was  the  confederacy  of  the  Northern  powers,  under  the 
title  of  the  Artned  Neutrality.  That  war,  which  was  purely 
maritime,  having  given  an  astonishing  hiacrity  to  the  commerce 


irth  America.     A 

nitinl  States,  who 

ofNowfomullnnd, 

n  l)C''ti  prnrtised. 

'  si'ttlcil  in  II  man- 

rn.     Tho  Ifllnnds 

full  privilocjos  to 

.  Lnriii  and  Tobft" 

enadinos,  St.  Vin- 

I    Montserrat.     In 

legal  remained  in 

orcii  was  restored 

ettloments  such  a» 

restored,  and  Eng» 

•ondicherrv.     The 

irk  wore  abolished. 

1,  and  the  whole  of 

10  restored  to  Eng- 

na ;  and  moreover 

(gwood  or  dyewood 

Finally,  Holland 

;o  British  subjects  a 

ch  had  till  that  time 

gation. 

iris  and  Versailles, 
ance  thereby  main- 
ist  England,  whose 
omniercial  States  of 
is  of  short  duration, 
id  during  the  French 
never  before  reach- 
!heck  by  the  loss  of 
istry  of  the  new  Re- 
)rted  by  all  the  capi- 
find  in  the  mother 
ving  contributed,  by 
f  the  United  States, 
progressive  increase 
lerce,  must  exercise, 
on  the  destinies  of 

iference  to  the  Amer- 
sm  powers,  under  the 
,  which  was  purely 
rity  to  the  commerce 


L 


rsRioi*  VIII,     A.  D.  1713 — 1789. 


«05 


of  the  North,  by  the  demand  which  the  belligerent  powers  made 
for  wood  fur  ship  building  and  naval  stores  of  nil  kinds,  Engiund, 
ill  order  to  prevent  the  French  and  Spaniards  from  procuring 
these  commodities  in  tho  North,  took  advantage  of  her  innri'wne 
superiority,  by  seizing,  without  distinction,  nil  merchant  vessels 
under  a  neutral  flag  ;  and  confiscnting  nil  articles  found  on 
board,  belonging  to  the  subjects  of  hostile  countries.  Tlie  Em- 
press of  RuHMiii,  wishing  to  put  a  stop  to  these  depredations,  re- 
solved to  protect  by  force  of  nrins,  the  commercial  interests  of  her 
subjects.  By  a  manifesto  which  she  addressed  to  France  and 
England  (February  1780,)  she  informed  these  powers,  that  it 
was  her  intention  to  maintain  free  intercourse  for  all  effects 
which  might  belong  to  the  subjects  of  those  nations  at  war ;  ex- 
cepting only  genuine  warlike  stores,  such  as  powder,  balls,  and 
cannon,  and  in  general,  whntever  might  be  reputed  contraband 
goods;  in  virtue  of  the  10th  and  11th  articles  of  her  commercial 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  (1766.)  She  did  not  rest  satisfied 
with  making  this  declaration  herself.  She  engaged  Sweden 
and  Denmark  to  publish  similar  ones  ;  and  entered  into  a  con- 
tract with  those  powers,  for  tho  purpose  of  protecting  the  navi- 
gation of  their  subjects  by  means  of  convoys,  and  for  rendering 
each  other  mutual  assistance  in  case  of  any  insult  offered  to 
their  merchantmen.  The  Court  of  Copenhagen  declared  more 
especially  (Aug.  10,  1780,)  that  the  Baltic,  by  its  local  situation, 
being  a  shut  sea,  no  ships  of  war  belonging  to  the  belligerents 
could  be  admitted  there,  or  allowed  to  commit  hostilities  against 
any  one  whomsoever.  Several  of  the  Continental  powers,  such 
as  the  King  of  Pruosia,  the  Einperor  Joseph  II.,  the  Queen  ot 
Portugal,  and  the  King  of  the  Tvvo  Sicilies,  joined  the  Armed 
Neutrality,  on  the  principles  established  in  the  declaration  of 
the  Empress  of  Russia.  France  and  Spain  applauded  these 
measures,  and  the  principles  which  the  Empress  had  thus  sanc> 
tioned.  England  dissembled,  pretending  to  refer  to  treaties, 
and  to  wait  a  more  favourable  opportunity  for  explanation.  But 
in  order  to  prevent  the  Dutch  from  taking  shelter  under  the 
armed  neutrality,  she  declared  war  against  that  Republic,  even 
before  the  act  oi  her  accession  to  these  treaties  had  been  ratified 
by  the  powers  of  the  North. 

New  disputes  had  arisen  between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks 
after  the  peace  of  Kainargi.  The  haughtiness  of  the  Porte  was 
unwilling  to  admit  the  independence  of  the  Tartars,  which  was 
sanctioned  by  that  peace.  He  was  indignant  to  see  the  Russians 
parading  their  flag  even  under  the  walls  of  Constantinople  ;  and 
moreover,  he  tried  every  stratagem  to  elude  the  execution  of 
those  articles  in  the  treaty  which  did  not  meet  v/ith  his  approba- 


I! 


1    - 


lets  expelled  the  £han  Dowlut  Gueray,  who  was  favourably 
SmedCards  the  Porte,  and  put  Sahin  G-ray  .n  hjs  plac. 
who  was  devoted  to  the  interests  of  Russ  a.  1  his  lattnr  having 
SLe^  dispossessed  by  Selim  Gueray,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Porte  the  Empress  marched  a  body  of  troops  mto  the  Crimea, 
iTer  the  command  of  Suwarow  (1778.)  and  restored  her  pro- 
♦po-p  tn  the  throne  bv  force  of  arms. 

^ThP  Turks  made  cr.-":.t  preparations  for  war,  and  a  new  rup-,    I 
turlbetweenrtwo  empires  was  expected  when,  by  the  inter- 
tare  between  me  \  ambassador  to  the  Turk- 

Fsh  Cour  the  fi  van  r^eVted  to  an  accommodation  which  was 
conclS  It  Constantinople  (Marcli  21,  779,)  under  the  name 
TihTExplicative  Convention.  The  independence  of  the  Cn- 
^Pn^ndXe  sovereignty  of  Sahin  Guenvy,  were  thereby  acknow- 
Su4d  anronf^^^^^^^^^  anew.  Russia  and  the  Porte  engaged  to 
withdraw  theTr  troops  from  that  peninsula,  as  well  as  from  the 
wtnaravv  ineir        j  promised  especially  never  to  al- 

'i'l°  p  "cT.,  of^'p'Snt-,  fo,  Wring  wi.h  .he 
lege  uiiy  v\\'-'-  "^  »  ,     t^i,„„„      The  free  intercourse  be- 

tIeXtk  KftrXVhtSea'vt  secured  in  the  most 
expr^s  ma.  iier  to  all  Russian  vessels  that  wore  of  the  form,  size 
a'ldcapacity,  of  the  ships  of  other  nations  who  carried  on  trade 

"'S.nrnSofdId  not  restore  any  permanent  good  und^r- 
standing  between  the  two  Empires  ;  new  troubles  were  no  long 
i ,  snrinffin-  up  a<rain  in  the  Crimea.     The  Khan  Sah  n  Gueray 
wa?onoTmore  eVlled  by  the  party  adhering  to  the  Turks 
1782T   A  Russian  army  immediately  entered  that  peninsula, 
Ee  tored  the  Sgitive  iChan  ;  while  a  Russian  fleet  sad.ng 
i  Se  no  t  of  Azoff,  cut  off"  the  malecontents  from  all  commu- 
Sion  wUh  Constantinople.     Under  these  circumstances  the 
'     Emnress  Catherine  II.  thought  the  moment  had  arrived  for  pla- 
d^  he  Crimea  among  the  number  of  her  own  provinces.    She 
■     cHu^ed  her  t^oop,  to  occupy  that  peninsula  as  well  as  the  whole 
nf  rnban     and  expelled  the  Turks  from  Taman,  of  which  they 
i     haJmade'themsekes  masters,  with  the  view  of  opening  a  com- 
mu,  SaUon  with  the  Tartars.     Finally,  she  explained,  ma  man- 
So  the  motives  which  induced  her  to  unite  the  *3r.mea  to  her 
Emoirrtoither  with  the  isle  of  Taman,  and  the  Cuban  and 
\     feqXdsS  Gueray  formally  to  resign  the  sovereignty  which 
he  had  enjoyed  for  so  short  a  lime  (June  28,  17HJ.) 

That  event  was  a  terrible  blow  to  the  Ottoman  Porte.     The 
inhabilSinte  of  Constantinople  loudly  demanded  war;  but  the 


lili 

5?  ii.' 


independence  of 

er  ambitious  pro- 
was  favourably 

»ray  in  his  place, 
lis  lattnr  having 

assistance  of  the 
into  the  Crimea, 

restored  her  pro- 

r,  and  a  new  rup- 

hen,  by  the  inter- 

iador  to  the  Turk- 

)dation  which  was 

,)  under  the  name 

[idonce  of  the  Cri- 

e  thereby  acknow- 

Porte  engaged  to 

well  as  from  the 

cially  never  to  al- 

iterfering  with  the 

ree  intercourse  be- 

secured  in  the  most 

re  of  the  form,  size, 

10  carried  on  trade 

lanent  good  under- 
iblcs  were  not  long 
[han  Sahin  Gueray 
ring  to  the  Turks 
red  that  peninsula, 
issian  fleet  sailing 
lis  from  all  commu- 
circumstances,  the 
^ad  arrived  for  pla- 
vn  provinces.  She 
s  well  as  the  whole 
man,  of  which  they 
■  of  opening  a  com- 
xplained,  in  a  man- 
3  the  Crimea  to  her 
id  the  Cuban,  and 
3  sovereignty  which 
,  1783.) 

oman  Porte.  The 
nded  war;  but  the 


FfcuioD  vin.     A.  D.  1713 — 178(9. 


407 


Divan,  who  were  sensible  of  their  weakness,  used  every  endea- 
vour to  avoid  it.  The  preparations  of  the  Russians  both  by  sea 
and  liiiid,  were  immense  ;  and  there  subsisted  a  co-operation  and 
,\  perfect  intimacy  between  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and  St.  Peters, 
burg.  England  tried  in  vain  to  engage  the  Turks  to  take  up 
arms,  but  they  were  withheld  by  France  and  Austria.  Instead 
of  fighting,  they  were  resolved  to  negotiate  ;  and  a  new  treaty 
was  ."signed  at  Constantinople  (Jan.  8,  1784.)  The  sovereignty 
of  the  Crimea,  the  island  of  Taman,  and  all  the  part  of  Cuban 
which  lay  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of  that  name,  and  form- 
*ed,  as  it  were,  a  frontier  between  the  two  Empires,  were  aban- 
doned to  Russia.  The  fortress  of  OczakofT,  to  which  the  Tar- 
tars of  the  Crimea  had  some  claims,  was  ceded  to  the  Porte, 
with  its  whole  territory.  Thus  ended  the  dominion  of  the  Tar- 
tars in  the  Crimea,  once  so  terrible  to  Russia.  The  Empress 
formed  the  whole  of  that  vast  country  into  two  new  govern- 
ments, Taurida  and  the  Caucasus. 

There  had  existed  for  a  long  time  certain  disputes  between 
the  Dutch  and  the  government  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  as 
to  the  execution  of  the  Barrier  Treaty  (1715,)  and  that  of  the 
Hague  (1718.)  They  had  neglected  to  define  precisely  the 
limits  of  Dutch  Flanders,  which  these  treaties  had  pointed  out 
rather  than  determined ;  and  for  a  long  time  the  Imperial  Court 
had  ceased  to  pay  the  Dutch  the  subsidies  which  the  Barrier 
Treaty  had  stipulated  in  their  favour.  That  court  would  not 
consent  to  agree  to  a  definitive  settlement  of  these  limits,  or  the 
payment  of  the  subsidies,  until  England  and  Holland  should  co 
operate  with  her  in  repairing  the  Barrier  towns,  whose  fortifica- 
tions had  been  ruined  during  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succes- 
sion. She  demanded,  also,  that  these  powers  should  unite  for 
concluding  a  treaty  of  commerce,  and  a  tariff  favourable  for  the 
Low  Countries,  as  they  had  engaged  to  do  by  former  treaties. 
At  length  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  thought  he  might  avail  him- 
self of  the  war  which  had  arisen  between  England  and  Holland, 
to  free  the  Austrian  Netherlands  entirely  from  the  claims  which 
the  Barrier  Treaty  had  imposed  on  them.  The  order  for  de- 
molishing all  the  fortified  places  in  the  Netherlands  compre- 
hended the  Barrier  towns  ;  and  the  Dutch  were  summoned  to 
withdraw  their  troops  from  them.  These  republicans,  not  be- 
ing able  to  solicit  the  protection  of  England,  with  which  they 
wore  at  war,  found  themselves  obliged  to  comply  with  the  sum- 
mons of  the  Emperor.  Their  troops  then  evacuted  all  the  Bar- 
r-er  towns  in  succession. 

This  compliance  on  the  part  of  the  Dutch,  encouraged  the 
Emperor  to  extend  his  pretensions  still  farther.     Not  content 


■■') , 


I  ft 


** 


/^1 


n 

'4 


if"  :i ' 


n 


408 


CHAPTER  IX. 


Nvith  annulling  the  treaties  of  1715-18,  he  required  that  the 
boundaries  of  Flanders  should  be  re-estabhshed  on  the  footing 
of  the  contract  of  1664,  between  Spain  and  the  States-General ; 
and  instead  of  making  his  new  demand  a  subject  of  negotiation, 
he  took  possession  of  the  forts,  as  well  as  of  the  to^^nris  and  dis-     , 
tricts  included  within  the  limits  which  had  been  fixed  by  thi& 
latter  agreement.     The  Dutch  having  addressed   their  com-     . 
plaints  to  the  Court  of  Vienna  against  these  violent  proceedings,     | 
the  Emperor  consented  to  open  a  conference  at  Brussels  (17«4,) 
for  bringing  all  these  disputes  to  an  amicable  termination.     He 
declared,  at  the  opening  of  the  meeting,  that  he  would  desist  from 
all  the  claims  which  he  had  against  the  Republic,  provided  they 
would  grant  the  Belgic  provinces  the  free  passage  and  naviga- 
tion of  the  Scheldt ;  with  the  privilege  of  direct  commerce  with 
India,  from  all  the  ports  in  the  Netherlands.  But  while  proposing 
this  state  of  things  as  the  subject  of  negotiation,  he  announced, 
that  from  that  moment  he  was  firmly  resolved  to  consider  the 
Scheldt  as  free  ;  and  that  the  least  opposition,  on  the  part  ot  the 
States-General,  would  be,  in  his  eyes,  as  the  s:-nal  of  hostih- 
ties,  and  a  declaration  of  war.      The  Dutch,  v  ..    .ut  b^mg  m- 
timidated  by  these  threats,  declared  the  demai,!  .,:        ivmperor 
to  be  contrary  to  their  treaties,  and  subverr  v     -    ,h     salety 
and  prosperity  of  their  Republic.     Vice-Admiri        - ,  nst  ^yas 
ordered  to  station  himself,  with  a  squadron,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Scheldt,  and  to  prevent  all  Imperial  or  Flemish  ships  from  pass- 
ing    Two  merchantmen  having  attempted  to  force  the  passage, 
the  Dutch  gave  them  a  broadside,  and  obliged  them  to  strike. 

The  Emperor  then  regarded  the  war  as  declared,  and  broke 
off  the  conference  at  Brussels ;  he  had,  however,  made  no  pre- 
parations ;  and  the  Low  Countries  were  entirely  divested  of  their 
Troops,  magazines,  and  warlike  stores.     The  prince  had  flatter- 
ed himself,  that  the  Court  of  France  would  espouse  his  quarrel, 
and  that  he  would  obtain  from  them  the  supplies  stipulated  by 
the  treaty  of  Versailles.     But  France,  who  was  then  negotiating 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Republic,  easily  foresaw,  that  if  she 
abandoned  them  at  that  particular  time,  they  would  be  obliged 
to  throw  themselves  into  the  arms  of  England.     M.  de  MaiUe- 
bois  then  got  orders  to  pass  to  Holland,  while  France  set  on  toot 
two  armies  of  observation,  one  in  Flanders,  and  the  other  on  the 
Rhine.     The  King  wrote  to  the  Emperor  very  pressing  letters, 
wishing  him  to  adopt  pacific  measures.  ,  •  .    .u„ 

These  proceedings  and  the  numerous  difficulties  which  the 
war  of  the  Netherlands  presented  to  the  Emperor,  induced  him 
to  accept  the  mediation  of  the  Court  of  Fiance  ;  a  negotiation 
on  this  subject  was  entered  into  at  Versailles.     The  bmperor 


quired  that  the 
d  on  the  footing 
States-General ; 
t  of  negotiation, 
e  towns  and  dis- 
n  fixed  by  thi& 
ssed   their  com- 
lent  proceedings 
Brussels  (1784,) 
ermination.     He 
would  desist  from 
ic,  provided  they 
iage  and  naviga- 
:t  commerce  with 
t  while  proposing 
n,  he  announced, 
d  to  consider  the 
on  the  part  of  the 
signal  of  hostili- 
ivii  ■  lUt  being  in- 
,()  M'        Fmperor 
V  i.     safety 

lin  ^^nst  was 
;  the  mouth  of  the 
1  ships  from  pass- 
force  the  passage, 
them  to  strike, 
clared,  and  broke 
ver,  made  no  pre- 
y  divested  of  their 
prince  had  flatter- 

fouse  his  quarrel, 
ies  stipulated  by 
s  then  negotiating 
jresaw,  that  if  she 
would  be  obliged 
d.  M.  de  Maille- 
France  set  on  foot 
id  the  other  on  the 
•y  pressing  letters, 

iculties  which  the 
leror,  induced  him 
ce ;  a  negotiation 
8.     The  Emperor 


<, 


rEBioo  vin.     A  u.  1713 — 1789. 


409 


there  persisted  at  first  in  maintaining  the  liberty  of  the  Scheldt, 
but  afterwards  became  less  rigid  on  this  point.  He  was  con- 
tent to  enforce  his  other  claims.  This  negotiation  was  as  tedi- 
ous as  it  was  intricate.  It  occupied  the  French  ministry  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  year  1785.  The  Emperor  insisted 
much  on  tlie  cession  of  Maestricht,  and  the  territory  of  Outrc- 
Meuse.  From  this  demand  he  would  not  recede,  except  on  the 
payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money  by  way  of  indemnity,  and 
another  in  reparation  of  the  damage  which  the  inundation  of 
Flanders,  ordered  by  the  States-General,  had  occasioned  to  his 
Austrian  subjects.  By  the  peace  which  was  signed  at  Fontain- 
bleau,  the  treaty  of  Munstcr  (164S)  was  renewed ;  but  nothing 
was  said  of  the  Barrier  treaty,  nor  of  that  of  Vienna  (1731.) 
They  agreed  on  shutting  the  Scheldt  from  Saftingen,  as  far  as 
the  sea;  as  well  as  the  Canals  of  Saas,  Swin,  and  other  com- 
munications with  the  sea  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  States- 
General  engaged  to  pay  the  Emperor,  in  lieu  of  his  claims  on 
Maestricht  and  the  Outre-Meuse,  the  sum  of  9,500,000  Dutch 
florins  ;  and  another  of  500,000  florins  for  repairing  the  damages 
done  by  the  inundations.  That  Prince  got  ample  satisfaction 
on  the  subject  of  most  of  his  other  claims  ;  and  France  under- 
took to  guarantee  the  treaty.  Immediately  after  it  was  signed, 
they  renewed  the  negotiation  respecting  the  treaty  of  alliance 
projected  between  France  and  the  Republic.  This  treaty  was 
also  signed  at  Fontainblcau  (Nov.  10,  1785)  two  days  after  the 
treaty  of  peace. 

Various  intestine  disturbances  at  that  time  agitated  the  Repub- 
lic of  the  United  Provinces.  The  animosity  of  the  Republican 
party  against  the  Stadtholder  and  his  partisans,  had  been  re- 
vived more  keenly  than  ever,  on  account  of  the  war  in  Ame- 
rica between  France  and  England.  The  Republicans  reproach- 
ed the  Stadtholder  for  his  devotedness  to  the  interests  of  Eng 
land,  which  had  made  him  neglect  their  marine,  and  fail  in  the 
protection  which  he  owed  the  Dutch  commerce,  in  his  capacity 
of  Admiral-General  of  the  forces  of  the  Republic.  The  dif- 
ferent magistrates  of  the  municipal  towns,  in  order  to  discredit 
the  Stadtholder  in  the  opinion  of  the  public,  encouraged  peri- 
odical writers  to  inveigh  against  the  person  of  William  V.  and 
nis  administration.  They  blamed  his  coun-sellors,  and  especially 
Louis  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who,  as  governor  to  the  Stadtholder 
during  his  minority,  had  had  the  principal  direction  of  aflairs, 
and  who  still  continued  to  aid  him  with  his  councils. 

The  city  of  Amsterdam,  which  had  always  been  distinguish- 
ed for  its  opposition  to  the  Stadtholder,  was  the  first  that  de- 
manded the  removal  of  the  Duke,  whom  they  blamed  as  the 


*v; 


1  . 


j"r 


4in 


CHAPTER  IX. 


1 1 


r«i«e  of  the  languid  state  of  their  maritime  power.      That 
\\     0^08  Is  CO,  id  to  resi5,n.,  (17>S4.)  and  even  to  withdraw 
!       From  the  territories  of  the  Republic.   The  retirement  of  the  Duke 
!     embodened  the  oppo.unUs  of  the  Stadtholder,  who  soon  went  be- 
i     vond  all  bounds,  ^f  hut  party,  purely  aristocratic  .n  its  ongu.,  had 
I     C  a  ler wards  reinforced  by  a  nudlitude  of  democrats    who, 
I!     To^o  Sed   with  hu,nblin/the   Stadtholder,  attacked  e 
'■ '     the  power  of  the  magistrates  ;  and  tried  to  change  the  constUu- 
!  i     tion  by  rendering  the  government  more  popular  and  democraUc. 
•       n   the  prLipal  towns,  associations  were    formed  under  the 
■  i     name  of^Fre  Vfc,  for  exercising  the  citizens  m  the  manage- 
:     St  o    arms.     The  party  opposed  to  the  Stadtholder  took  the     1 
Zlo(Zrio,s.     fhe/were  secretly  supported  by  France 
whTwished  to  employ  them  as  an  instrument  for  deslroymg  the 
Xerfo    EnglaUand  attaching  the   Repubhc  to  her  own 
imere  tJ^  A  popSlar  insurrection,  which  happened  at  the  Hague 
1785     urnished  the  Stales  of  Ho.land  with  a  pre  ext  for  re- 
movhg  the  Stadtholder  from  the  command  of  that  place,  which 
was    ilusted  to  a  Council.     This  blow,  struck  at  a  prerogative 
Xh  was  regarded  as  inherent  in  the  Stadthoklership.mduced 
Ihe  Prince  of  Orange  to  quit  the  Hague,  and  (ix  his  residence 
n  the  provhce  of  SueldSrs,  the  States  which  were  most  par- 
"cukrly  devoted  to  him.     An  attack  which  the  prmce  made 
agai    t  the  towns  of  Elburg  and  Haltem,  for  refusing  to  ex- 
ecL  the  orders  which  he  had  intimated  to  them  in  the  nan,e 
of  the  States  of  Gueldors.  exasperated  the  minds  of  the  Uutch^ 
U  added  to  the  strength  of  the  Patriotic  party,  and  encouraged 
he  States  of  Holland  to  make  a  renewed  attack  on  tie  Stad- 
tholdership ;  and  even  to  go  so  far  as  to  suspend  the  prince  from 
the  functions  of  Captain-General  ot  that  province. 

The  Court  of  Berlin  had  taken  measures,  bo  h  with  the 
States-General  and  the  province  of  Holland,  to  facilitate  an  ac- 
commodation between  the  two  parties      F;f  ^Ji^  ^^'"'^^  "^ 
who  succeeded  his  uncle  Frederic  the  Great,  (1786,)  sent  to  the 
Hague,  with  this  view,  the  Count  de  Gortz,  his  minister  of  state . 
while  M.  Gerard  de  Ravneval  was  ordered  to  repair  thither  on 
the  nart  of  France.     A  "negotiation  was  opened  between  these 
two  ministers  and  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Patriotic  party 
but  without  effect.     Their  animosities  rather  increased,  and  the 
Patriots  broke  out  into  every  kind  of  violence.     They  uismis- 
sed  the  magistrates  of  the  chief  towns  by  force,  7f/<^P'^J«^ 
them  bv  their  own  adherents  ;  a  step  which  obliged  the  aristo- 
crats to  coalesce  with  the  Stadtholder's  party,  in  order  to  with- 
suind  the  fury  of  the  republicans.     A  civil  war  seemed  'o  aU 
ap^arance  Sevitable.     In  this  state  of  mMters.  the  Princess  of 


power.     That 
to  withdraw 
nt  of  the  Duke 
soon  went  be- 
lts origin,  had     t 
mocrats,  who,     j 
attacked  even     : 
Tc  the  constitu-     | 
md  democratic, 
ned  under  the 
in  the  inanage- 
holder  took  the 
led  by  France, 
destroying  the 
blic  to  her  own 
ed  at  the  Hague 
I  pretext  for  re- 
hal  place,  which 
iit  a  prerogative 
lorship,  induced 
X  his  residence 
were  most  par- 
le  prince  made 
refusing  to  ex- 
em  in  the  name 
ids  of  the  Dutch 
and  encouraged 
ick  on  tie  Stad- 
l  the  prmce  from 
nee. 

s,  both  with  the 
)  facilitate  an  ac- 
leric  William  II. 
1786,)  sent  to  the 
minister  of  state ; 
repair  thither  on 
ed  between  these 
!  Patriotic  party, 
ucreased,  and  the 
E.  They  liismis- 
rce,  and  replaced 
bliged  the  aristo- 
in  order  to  with- 
ar  seemed  'o  all 
rs.  the  Princess  of 


PBBioo  vm.     A.  n.  1713 — 1789. 


Orange  took  the  resolution  of  repairing  in  peroon  to  the  Hague, 
with  the  dr^sign,  as  she  alleged,  of  endeavouring  to  restore 
pence.  She  was  arrested  on  her  route  by  a  detachment  of  the 
republican  corps  of  Gouda  (June  28,  1787,)  and  conducted  to 
Schcenhoven,  whence  she  was  obliged  to  return  to  Nimeguen, 
without  being  able  to  accomplish  the  object  of  her  journey. 

The  King  of  Prussia  demanded  satisfaction  for  this  outrage 
offered  to  his  sister.  The  States  of  Holland,  not  feeling  dis- 
posed to  give  it  in  the  terms  which  the  King  demanded,  he  sent 
ii  body  of  20,000  men  to  Holland,  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  who,  in  the  space  of  a  month,  made  him- 
.self  master  of  the  whole  country,  and  even  obliged  the  ciiy  ot 
Amsterdam  to  submit.  All  the  former  resolutions  which  had 
been  taken  for  limiting  the  power  of  the  Stadtholder,  were  then 
annulled,  and  the  prince  was  re-established  in  the  plenitude  of 
his  rights. 

Although  the  subsistence  of  the  alliance  between  France  and 
the  Republic  was  obviously  connected  with  the  cause  of  the 
Patriots,  the  former  took  no  steps  to  support  that  party,  or  to 
oppose  the  invasion  of  the  Prussians.  France  had  even  the 
weakness  to  negotiate  with  the  Court  of  London,  for  disarming 
their  respective  troops  ;  declaring,  that  she  entertained  no  hos- 
tile intentions  relative  to  what  had  passed  in  Holland.  The  po- 
litics of  the  States-General  from  that  time,  underwent  a  com- 
plete revolution.  Renouncing  their  alliance  with  France,  they 
embraced  that  of  Prussia  and  Great  Britain.  By  the  treaties 
which  were  signed  at  Berlin  and  the  Hague  (April  15,  1788,) 
these  two  powers  undertook  to  guarantee  the  resolutions  of 
1747  and  1748,  which  made  the  Stadtholdcrship  hereditary 
in  the  House  of  Orange.  France  thus  shamefully  lost  the 
fruits  of  all  the  measures  which  she  had  taken,  and  the  sums 
which  she  had  lavished  for  attaching  Holland  to  her  federative 
system,  in  opposition  to  England. 

The  troubles  which  we  have  just  now  mentioned  were  soon 
followed  by  others,  which  the  innovations  of  the  Emperor  Jo- 
seph II.  had  excited  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  The  differ- 
ent edicts  which  that  Prince  had  published  since  the  first  of 
January  1787,  for  introducing  a  new  order  of  administration  in 
the  Government,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  of  the  Belgic  pro- 
vinces, were  regarded  by  the  States  of  that  coimtry  as  contraiy 
to  the  established  constitution,  and  incompatible  with  the  en- 
gagements contracted  by  the  sovereign  on  his  accession.  The 
great  excitement  which  these  innovations  caused,  induced  the 
Emperor  to  recall  his  edicts,  and  to  restore  things  to  their  an- 
cient footing.     Nevertheless,  as  the  public  mind  had  been  exas- 


:  i 


.  N 


\  ^k 


-,« 


ui* 


nt 


«"ii 


•1^ 


412 


CHAPTEB  IX. 


Derated  on  both  sides,  disturbances  were  speedily  renewed.  The 
Einpcror  ha vin<^  demanded  a  subsidy,  which  was  refused  by  tlie 
Slates  of  Brabunt  and  Hainault,  this  circumstance  induced  him 
to  revoke  tiie  anmesty  which  he  had  granted  ;  to  suppress  the 
States  and  Sovereign  Council  of  Brabant ;  and  to  declare,  that 
he  no  longer  considered  himself  bound  by  his  Inaugural  Con- 
tract. A  great  number  of  individuals,  and  several  members  of 
the  States,  were  arrested  by  his  orders.  The  Archbishop  of 
Mechlin,  and  the  Bishop  of  Antwerp,  were  suspected  of  having 
fomented  those  disturbances,  and  saved  themselves  by  flight. 

Two  factiojis  at  that  time  agitated  the  Belgic  Provinces,  where 
they  fanned  the  flame  of  civil  discord.  The  one,  headed  by  Vonk, 
an  advocate,  and  supported  by  the  Dukes  of  Ursel  and  Arem- 
berg,  inclined  to  the  side  of  Austria.  These  limited  their  de- 
mands to  the  reformation  of  abuses,  and  a  better  system  of  re- 
presentation in  the  States  of  the  Netherlands.  The  other,  under 
the  direction  of  Vandernoot,  and  the  Pensionary  Vaneupen, 
<vhile  adhering  to  the  support  of  the  ancient  forms,  pretended  to 
vest  in  the  States,  that  sovereignty  and  independence  of  which 
they  wished  to  deprive  the  House  of  Austria.  The  partisans  of 
Vonk  hoped  to  eflect,  by  their  own  means,  the  reforms  which 
they  had  in  view ;  while  the  adherents  of  Vandernoot  founded 
their  hopes  on  the  assistance  of  foreigners— especially  of  Prussia, 
who  would  not  fail,  they  supposed,  to  seize  this  occasion  of  weak- 
ening the  power  of  Austria.  This  latter  party  had  undertaken 
to  open  an  asylum  for  the  discontented  emigrants  of  Brabant,  in 
the  territory  of  the  United  Provinces  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Breda.  The  two  parties  acted  at  first  in  concert.  Vandermersch, 
a  native  of  Menin  in  Flanders,  and  formerly  a  Colonel  in  the 
Austrian  service,  was  proposed  by  Vonk,  and  received  as  Gen- 
eral by  both  parties.  A  body  of  the  insurgents,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Vandermersch,  marched  to  Turnhout  in  Brabant,  and 
repulsed  the  Austrians,  who  had  come  to  attack  them  under  the 
orners  of  General  Schroeder.  This  first  success  gave  a  stimu- 
lus to  the  insurrection,  which  spread  from  Brabant  over  the  other 
Belgic  provinces.     The  Austrians  abandoned  by  degrees  all  the 

Erincipal  towns  and  places,  and  retired  to  the  fortress  of  Luxem- 
urg.  Vandernoot  made  his  triumphant  entry  into  Brussels. 
The  States  of  Brabant  assembled  in  that  city,  and  proclaimed 
their  independence  (Dec.  29,  1789.)  The  Emperor  Josejjh  II. 
was  declared  to  have  forfeited  the  sovereignty,  by  having  viola- 
ted the  engagements  which  he  had  come  under  by  his  Inaugural 
Compact. 

Tlve  example  of  Brabant  was  soon  followed  by  the  other  pro- 
vitices.     An  assembly  of  Deputies,  from  all 'the  Belgic  provinces 


,.  .       '"^imlu^*^ 


nniov  VIM.     A.  D.  1713—1789. 


413 


•enewed.  The 
refused  by  the 
3  induced  him 
)  suppress  the 

0  declare,  that 
augural  Con- 
•al  members  of 
Archbishop  of 
icted  of  having 
'es  by  flight.         i 
ovinces,  where 
eaded  by  Vonk, 
•sel  and  Arem-     | 
miled  their  de-     | 
r  system  of  re- 
'he  other,  under     j 
vry    Vaneupen,     ! 
as,  pretended  to 
dence  of  which 
rhe  partisans  ol 

reforms  which 
dernoot  founded 
;ially  of  Prussia, 
[■casion  of  weak- 
had  undertaken 
ts  of  Brabant,  in 
eighbourhood  ot 

Vandermersch, 

1  Colonel  in  the 
received  as  Gen- 
,  under  the  com- 
,  in  Brabant,  and 
i  them  under  the 
;ss  gave  a  stimu- 
ant  over  the  other 
ly  degrees  all  the 
)rtress  of  Luxem- 
ry  into  Brussels. 
f,  and  proclaimed 
nperor  Joseph  II. 
j  by  having  viola- 
■  by  his  Inaugural 

by  the  other  pro- 
!  Belgic  provinces 


WP.«  formed  at  Brussels  (Jan.  11,  1790.)  They  signed  an  Act, 
by  which  these  provinces  joined  in  a  confederacy,  under  the  title 
of  the  United  Belgic  States.  The  rights  of  sovereignty,  in  m 
fur  as  regarded  their  common  defence,  were  vested  in  a  Con- 
gress, composed  of  deputies  from  the  diflercnt  provinces,  under 
the  name  of  the  Sovereign  Congress  of  the  liv/gir  States.  Each 

1>rovinco  preserved  its  independence,  and  the  exercise  of  the  , 
egisiative  power.  Their  union  was  declared  permanent  iind 
irrevocable.  They  meddled  neither  with  religion  nor  the  con- 
stitution, and  they  admitted  no  other  representatives  than  those 
who  had  been  already  nominated.  This  latter  determination 
highly  displeased  General  Vandermersch,  and  all  those  of  Vonk's 
party,  who  had  as  much  horror  for  an  oligarchy  in  the  States  as 
for  the  despotism  of  the  Court  of  Vienna.  The  party  of  the 
States  prevailed  nevertheless  by  the  influence  of  Vandernoot, 
and  the  instigations  of  the  priests  and  monks.  Vandermersch, 
and  all  the  zealous  partisans  of  reform,  were  removed  from  the 
management  of  afiairs.  The  former  was  even  arrested,  and 
General  Schonfield  put  in  his  place.  Ruinous  impeachments 
and  imprisonments  were  the  consequences  of  this  triumph  of  ike 
aristocratic  faction. 

These  divisions,  added  to  the  death  of  Joseph  II.,  which  hap- 
pened in  the  meantime,  produced  a  change  favourable  for  the 
mterests  of  the  Court  of  Vienna.  Leopold  II.,  who  succeeded 
his  brother  on  the  throne  of  Austria,  seemed  disposed  to  termi- 
nate all  these  differences;  and  the  Belgic  Congress,  seeing  they 
could  not  reckon  on  the  assistance  of  foreign  powers,  were  also 
desirous  of  coming  to  an  accommodation.  The  Court  of  Berlin 
had  refused  its  protection  to  the  Belgians,  and  that  of  London 
was  decidedly  opposed  to  their  independence.  These  two  courts, 
conjunctly  with  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  inter- 
posed their  mediation  for  allaying  those  disturbances.  The 
Emperor  Leopold  solemnly  engaged,  under  the  guarantee  of  the 
three  media*ing  powers,  to  govern  the  Netherlands  agreeably  to 
the  constitution,  laws,  and  privileges  which  had  been  in  force 
under  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  ;  never  to  do  any  thing  to 
their  prejudice ;  and  to  annul  whatever  had  been  done  to  the 
contrary  under  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  A  declaration  published 
by  Leopold  (Nov.  1790,)  enjoined  all  his  Belgic  subjects  to  take 
anew  the  oath  of  allegiance.  That  Prince  granted  a  general 
and  unconditional  pardon  to  all  those  who  should  lay  down  their 
arms  within  a  given  time.  All  the  provinces  in  succession  ac- 
knowledged their  allegiance.  Brussels  opened  her  gates  to  the 
Austrian  troops  (Dec.  2,  1790,)  and  the  patriots  Vaneupen  and 
Vandernoot  took  refuge  in  Holland. 


'if; 


n= 


414 


CHArTER  U. 


The  nnimosily  which  had  for  n  long  lime  subsisted  betweiD 
Riisstn  nnil  the  Porto,  oira^ioned  a  new  war  between  these  two 
powers  in  17W.  The  T nri<s  roiild  not  endure  the  huifiiliuting 
conditinnM  wiiich  the  late  treaties  with  Russia  liad  imposed  on 
them.  Tiif  hiirli  tone  which  tlie  Court  of  St.  Petersburg  used 
in  tiii'ir  ooninnitiications  witli  the  Porte,  wounded  the  pride  of 
the  Ottomans  ;  and  tlie  extraordinary  journey  of  the  Empress 
to  Cher.«on  iinil  tlic  Crimea  (May  176?,)  in  which  she  was  ar- 
companied  by  tiie  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  created  alarm  even  in 
the  city  of  Constuntinopie.  Tlic  inhabitants  of  that  capital 
thou(<;ht  they  could  perceive,  in  that  journey,  a  premeditated  do* 
sign  in  the  Courts  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Vienna  to  annihilate 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  divide  the  spoil  between  them.  The 
Court  of  London,  supported  by  that  of  Berlin,  dexterously  fanned 
the  sj)ark  which  lay  concealed  under  these  ashes.  They  wish- 
ed to  be  avenged  on  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg  for  the  diflicuU 
ties  which  slie  had  thrown  in  the  way  of  rcnewinj^  ^..eir  treaty 
of  commerce  ;  as  well  as  the  advantageous  conditions  which  she 
had  granteil  to  France  by  the  conuiiorcial  treaty  concluded  with 
that  power.  The  great  activity  with  which  Russia  had  carried 
on  her  commerce  in  the  Black  Sen,  since  she  had  obtained  en- 
tire liberty  liv  her  tri»aties  with  the  Pone,  excited  likewise  the 
jealousy  of  England,  who  was  airaid  that  the  commercial  con- 
nexions which  she  maintained  with  that  power,  through  the 
Black  Sea,  might  thereby  l»e  destroyed.  The  Turks,  moreover, 
had  to  complain  of  the  Russian  Consul  in  Moldavia,  who,  as 
ihey  alleged,  sought  every  means  to  interrupt  the  peace  and  good 
understanding  between  the  two  Empires.  They  demanded  that 
he  should  be  recalled,  and  moreover,  that  the  Empress  should 
renounce  the  protection  of  Prince  Hcraclius,  and  withdraw  her 
troops  from  Georgia.  Finally,  they  wished  that  all  Russian 
vessels  that  passed  the  Straits  should  be  subjected  to  an  exami- 
nation, in  order  to  prevent  contraband  trade. 

These  demands  were  no  sooner  made,  than  the  Divan,  with- 
out waiting  for  an  answer  from  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg, 
determined  to  proclaim  war  (Aug.  18,  1787,)  by  sending  the 
Russian  minister,  M.  de  BoulgakoflT,  to  the  Castle  of  the  Seven 
Towers.  On  the  news  of  this  rupture,  the  Empress  despatched 
a  considerable  force  against  the  Turks ;  her  troops  extended 
from  Kominjec  in  Podolia,  to  Balta,  a  Tartar  village  on  the 
frontiers  of  Poland,  between  the  Dniester  and  the  Bog.  Prince 
Potemkin,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  had  under  him 
Suwarow,  Repnin,  Kamenskoi,  and  others.  The  Emperor  Jo- 
seph II.,  after  having  for  some  time  supported  the  character  of 
mediator  between  the  Turks  and  RuSitiaHS,  engaged  in  the  woi 


(sisled  belweiB 

wuen  these  two 

the  huiTiiliuting 

lad  imposed  on 

'etersburg  used 

ed  the  pride  of 

of  the  Empress 

ieh  she  was  ar- 

ularm  even  in 

of  that  capital 

iremeditated  de- 

iiu  to  annihilate 

een  them.     The 

xterously  fanned 

es.     They  wish- 

(r  for  the  diflicul- 

wiii^  ...eir  treaty 

litions  which  she 

y  concluded  with 

ussia  had  carried 

hud  obtained  en- 

ited  likewise  the 

commercial  con- 

wer,  through  the 

Turks,  moreover, 

Moldavia,  who,  as 

he  peace  and  good 

ey  demanded  that 

e  Empress  should 

and  withdraw  her 

that  all  Russian 

BCtcd  to  an  exami- 

II  the  Divan,  with- 
»r  St.  Petersburg, 
',)  by  sending  the 
!astle  of  the  Seven 
mpress  despatched 
r  troops  extended 
rtar  village  on  the 
I  the  Bog.  Prince 
ny,  had  under  him 
The  Emperor  Jo- 
»d  the  character  of 
ingaged  in  the  woi 


z.. 


ll 


PBKIOD  VIII.     A.  ».  1713 — 1789. 


415 


as  the  alljr  of  Russia  (Feb.  9,  178H.)  Ho  attacked  the  Turks 
in  Moldavia,  and  on  sevcriil  points  of  Ilunpiiry.  Marshal  Lau- 
don  undertook  the  sicffo  of  Uc'l^'railo,  of  whidi  ho  niudc  himself 
master  (Oct.  8,  1789.)  It  was  obvious,  however,  that  t'vj  pro- 
gress of  the  Austrians  did  not  correspond  either  to  the  ability  of 
their  generals  or  the  superiority  of  iheir  arms. 

Another  enemy  of  Russia  appeared  on  the  stage.  Gustavus 
III.,  King  of  Sweden,  listencnl  to  the  iiisimiations  of  the  Cabi- 
nets of  London  and  Berlin,  and  made  a  diversion  in  favour  of 
the  Porte.  That  prince,  after  renewing  his  alliance  with  the 
Porte,  commenced  the  war  against  Russia,  at  the  very  instant 
when  the  whole  of  her  forces  were  turned  afjnirisi  the  Turks. 
A  land  army  was  formed  by  bis  ordiTs  in  Finland,  while  a 
Swedish  fleet,  consisting  of  twenty  ships  of  the  line  and  ten 
frigates,  advanced  on  Cronstadt,  and  threw  llie  city  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg into  a  state  of  prciit  terror.  An  engagement  between 
the  two  fleets  took  place  near  the  Isle  of  Hoogland  (May  30, 
1789.)  Both  sides  fought  with  equal  advantage  ;  but  an  un- 
foreseen event  disconcerted  the  measures  of  the  Swedish  mo- 
narch. After  he  had  made  his  dispositions  for  attacking  the 
city  of  Fredricksheim  in  Finiiind,  several  oHicers  of  his  army 
refused  to  march,  alleging  as  a  reason,  that  the  constitution  of 
the  kingdom  would  not  permit  them  to  be  accessary  to  an  olFen- 
sive  war,  which  the  Swedish  nation  had  not  sanctioned.  The 
example  of  theae  officers  occasioned  the  defection  of  u  great 
part  of  the  troops.  The  expedition  to  Finland  failed,  and  the 
Russians  thus  gained  time  to  put  themselves  in  a  state  of  defence. 

The  Empress,  thus  attacked  by  the  King  of  Sweden,  claimed 
the  supplies  which  Denmark  owed  her,  in  virtue  of  the  alliance 
which  subsisted  between  the  two  States.  The  Danes  fitted  out 
a  squadron,  and  marched  a  body  of  auxiliary  troops  into  tne  go- 
vernment of  Bohus,  which  they  soon  conquered  (1788.)  From 
Bohus  they  marched  to  West  Gothland,  and  laid  siege  to  Got- 
tenburg.  The  King  of  Sweden  hastened  in  person  to  the  de- 
fence of  that  place,  one  of  the  most  important  in  his  kingdom. 
It  would  certainly  have  fallen,  however,  but  for  the  powerful 
intervention  of  the  Cabinets  of  London  and  Berlin,  who  oblig- 
ed the  Court  of  Copenhagen  to  conclude  the  different  truces 
with  Sweden  (1789,)  and  to  adopt  a  perfect  neutrality,  even 
with  the  consent  of  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg. 

The  war  between  the  Swedes  and  the  Russians  was  then  con- 
fined to  naval  operations,  the  success  of  which,  in  the  campaigns 
of  1789  and  1790,  was  nearly  equal  on  both  sides.  The  defeat 
which  the  Swedish  fleet  sustained  in  the  Gulf  of  Viburg  (July 
3, 1790,)  was  compensated  by  the  victory  which  the  King  of  Swe- 


<v 


4  in 


CHAFTER    IX. 


If! 


't;! 


if 

.  <* 


ilcn  gnint'd  in  person  (July  tt,  10,)  at  Swcnknsund  over  iho 
Russian  Hoct,  lonmiiUKlfrd  by  llic  I'riruc  of  NnsMnu-Sicgeii. 
This  nctif)n,  which  cost  thf  ltus^<ilInH  many  men,  mid  n  great 
ninnber  of  llieir  sliips,  tended  to  iiccelernto  the  peace  Ijctwecn 
the  two  j)ower9.  The  King  of  Sweden  \mn^  deserted  by  the 
Courts  of  London  and  Berlin,  who  hud  drawn  him  into  the  war, 
was  terrified  lost  the  Russians  should  take  advantage  of  the  dis- 
contents that  prevailed  amf)ng  the  Swedish  Nobles,  to  penetrate 
into  the  interior  of  his  kinjfdoin.  He  willingly  accepted  the 
equitable  conditions  which  the  KinproHs  of  Russia  proposed  to 
him.  Peace  was  concluded  in  the  I'lain  of  Werela,  near  the 
liver  Kymen  (Aug.  14,  17U0,)  between  the  advanced  posts  of 
the  two  camps  :  and  the  limits  of  both  States  were  re-estab- 
lished on  the  footing  of  former  treaties. 

As  to  the  events  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  the  Porte, 
they  were  entirely  in  favour  of  the  former  power.  A  body  of 
Russian  troops,  in  conjunction  with  the  Austrian  army,  made 
themselves  masters  of  Choczim  (Sept.  1798.)  Prince  Potem- 
KJn  undertook  the  siege  of  the  important  fortress  of  OczakofI 
(Dec.  17,)  and  carried  the  place  by  assault,  in  spite  of  the  cou- 
rageous defence  made  by  the  Turks.  The  whole  garrison  was 
put  to  the  sword,  and  a  great  part  of  the  inhabitants  met  with 
the  same  fate.  Suwnrow  and  the  Prince  of  Coburg  beat  the 
Turks  near  Focksani  in  Moldavia  (July  21,  1789.)  The  same 
General,  with  the  assistance  of  that  Prince,  gained  a  brilliant 
victory  over  the  Turks  jiear  Martincsti,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rymna  (Sept.  22,)  'vhich  gained  him  the  epithet  of  Ryvinuki. 
The  taking  of  the  fortress  of  Bender,  was  an  immediate  conse- 
quence of  that  victory.  Besides  the  province  of  Oczakofl",  the 
whole  of  Moldavia  and  Bessarabia,  with  Tulcza,  Isakzi,  Kilia,  and 
Ismael,  and  the  fortress  of  Sudjoukkale,  in  Turkish  Cuban,  fell 
successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  The  taking  of 
[smael  by  Suwarow,  occasioned  prodigious  slaughter.  It  cost 
the  lives  of  30,000  Ottomans  ;  without  reckoning  the  prisoners, 
who  amounted  to  the  number  of  10,000. 

These  victories  stirred  up  the  jealousy  of  the  British  minis- 
try, who  fitted  out  an  expedition  to  make  a  new  diversion  in  fa- 
vour of  the  Porte,  and  engaged  their  ally,  the  King  of  Prussia, 
to  despatch  a  body  of  troops  to  the  frontiers  of  Silesia  and 
Poland.  Not  confining  himself  to  these  operations,  that  Prince 
concluded  a  formal  alliance  with  the  Porte,  in  which  he  agreed 
to  declare  war  against  the  Austrians,  as  well  as  the  Russians,  in 
the  course  of  next  spring.  The  Emperor  Leopold  IL,  yielding 
to  these  menaces,  and  being  desirous  of  restormg  peace  to  his 
suhiects,  concluded    an  agreement  at  Relchenlmch  (July  37. 


Bund  ovei  iho 
ias«iu-Siegen. 
I),  iiiid  a  great 
ponce  Ijctween 
cNi-rU'd  by  the 
II  into  thc!  war, 
mge  of  thc  (lis- 

■n,  to  penetrate 
y  accepted  the 
in  proposed  to 

rein,  near  the 
nnccd  posts  of 
were  re-cstab- 

imd  the  Porte, 
r.     A  body  of 
m  army,  made 
Prince  Potem- 
DS9  of  Oczakofl 
pile  of  the  cou- 
ile  gnrrison  was 
lilants  met  wilii 
'oburg  bout  the 
•id.)     The  same 
lined  a  brilliant 
lu  bnnlis  of  the 
et  of  Ryviniski. 
n mediate  conae- 
of  Oczakofl',  thc 
Isakzi.Kilia.nnd 
•kish  Cuban,  fell 
The  taking  of 
lughter.     It  cost 
ng  the  prisoners. 

le  British  minis- 
V  diversion  in  fa- 
King  of  Prussia, 
s  of  Silesia  and 
itions,  that  Prince 
which  he  agreed 
3  the  Russians,  in 
)pold  II.,  yielding 
ring  peace  to  his 
enbach  (July  27. 


rxRioD  VIII.    A.  D.  1713—1789. 


1790,)  with  the  Court  of  Berlin,  by  which  he  granted  an  armia- 
ticc,  and  consenlf'd  to  make  n  f>pecial  pence  with  the  Porte  on 
the  basis  o*"  the  statvs  aiili  bellnm.  This  peace  was  signed 
at  Szistnwn,  in  Bulgaria  (Aug.  4,  1791,)  under  the  mediation 
of  Hollnnd  and  Prussia.  The  Emperor  restored  Belgrade,  and 
in  general,  nil  that  he  had  taken  from  the  Turks  during  llje 
war.  He  agreed  to  retain  Chocziin  no  longer  than  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  peace  between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks  ;  only 
they  promised  him  a  more  ndvantageous  frontier  on  the  left 
tmiik  of  the  Unna  ;  and  on  the  side  of  Wallachia,  the  river 
Tzerna  was  ndopted  as  the  boundary  between  the  two  Empires. 

The  Empress  of  Russia  having  resolved  not  to  receive  the 
proposals  which  the  two  allied  courts  ofTered  her,  then  continued 
the  war  alone  against  the  Porto,  and  her  generals  signalized 
thein,selves  by  new  exploits.  At  length  the  British  ministry  be- 
ing convincea  that  this  Princess  would  never  yield,  thought  fit 
to  abandon  the  terms  which,  in  concert  with  the  Court  of  Ber- 
lin, they  had  demanded,  as  the  basis  of  the  peace  to  be  conclud- 
ed between  Russia  and  the  Porte.  Besides,  they  were  desirous 
of  making  up  matters  with  Russia,  at  the  time  when  she  de- 
tached herself  from  France,  by  renouncing  the  engagements 
which  she  had  contracted  with  that  power  by  the  treaty  of  com- 
merce of  1787,  with  the  Court  of  Berlin.  The  British  minis- 
try agreed  never  to  assist  the  Turks,  should  they  persist  in  re- 
fusing the  equitable  conditions  of  peace  which  the  Empress  had 
offered  them. 

A  negotiation  was  opened  at  Galatz  on  the  Danube.  The 
preliminaries  between  Russia  and  the  Porte  were  signed  there; 
and  the  definitive  peace  concluded  at  Jassy  in  Moldavia  (Jan. 
9,  1792.)  This  treaty  renewed  the  stipulations  of  all  former 
treaties  since  that  of  Kainargi.  The  Dniester  was  establishea 
as  a  perpetual  frontier  between  the  two  Empires.  The  Turks 
ceded  to  Russia  the  fortress  of  OczakofT,  with  all  the  country 
lying  between  the  Bog  and  the  Dniester.  The  cession  of  the 
Crimea,  the  isle  of  Taman,  and  part  of  the  Cuban,  lying  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  of  that  name,  was  confirmed  to  Russia. 
The  Porte  likewise  engaged  to  put  a  stop  to  the  piracies  of  the 
Barbary  Corsairs,  and  even  to  indemnify  the  subjects  of  Russia 
for  their  losses,  should  they  not  obtain  reparation  within  a  lim- 
ited time.  Russia  likewise  restored  all  ner  other  conquests ; 
only  stipulating,  for  certain  adrantages,  in  favour  of  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia. 

It  had  been  agreed  between  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  Iwe 
Empires,  that  the  Porte  should  pay  a  sum  of  12,000,000  of 
piasters,  to  indemnify  Russia  for  the  expenses  of  the  war.    But 

27 


,>     '■    '•! 


J^^ 


■¥ 


4t8 


CRAPTBR  X. 


intimation  that  she  7"'*' "''";;",'.  ,7, /xcLd  tho  admiration 
the  Porte;  a  piece  of  generoMty  ^^»"'  /^J^;;  „f  j„,,v  Rave 
of  the  Ottoman  nlen.potentmnos      T»u^pcjn  o^,^  ^^^.  ^^^^^ 

new  energy  to  t\ie  '^"'"'"'^'^7,;^  town  and  port  of  Odessa, 
Sea;  and  the  Empress  found  d  the  own  anaj^^^^^^^         ^^^ 


CHAPTER  X. 


PERIOD  IX. 

.  ^f  ih.  Vrenrh  Revolution  to  the  doum- 
From  the  mnmencement  of  the  ^'^^^'^.^uqIirIS. 
faU  of  Buonaparte,    a.  d.  1789— l»io- 

The  period  of  the  Frencl.  R-olution  on  whi^^^^^^  - 

tering,  Ls  not  --prehend  more    han    -^^^^^ 

that  short  space  <^«"''''"«J"S''  ^ed  it.     In  course  of  that 
than  the  two  centuries  which  prece« Usa  u.  ,      ^^0  po- 

Unte  the  condition  of  f  ,Xo7X    o^itd  Uour  of  th  ee 

kingdoms  and  whole  nations  in  the  "uns.  ^.^^^ 

l?wa8  an  era  fertile  ,n  "a^l^  both  «  J'^^^^^f  „^,„„,„ 
It  displayed  the  extremes  of  suffenng  and    ^^  ^^^^ 
and  magnanimity.     *^\"edom8  ro.e  a.  i .  ^^j 

New  principles  in  '^"^tvf  ,fe  sEurorwas  subdue'd  and 
were  Quickly  superseded  by  f'?;^.^^ZTeZ\iiy,  and  after- 
enslaved,  first  in  the  naine  of  ^f'^y  J"J^^"„'',,  /^  length  an 
wards  to  gratify  the  ^'^^^  °J  "^^^i^'^"'^^^  he  nations  of  the 
tZ^^:^^^  tiTuirpati^n  which  they  had  too 

powers  who  dismembered  P"'"^"*^'":*"  f'„  „ "ample  that  might 
Ld  equity  yield  to  conve-ence,  and     t  n„    xamp^^^^  ^^^^ 

^graltEf  wU  XnTinTe-iinets  of  Europe,  that 


Empress  gare 
U  in  favour  of 
tlio  luimirniion 
of  Jiistty  ifnvc 
on  the  Black 
»ort  of  Odessa, 
twoen  the  Bog 
1  Oczakoff. 


ion  to  the  down- 
815. 

lich  wc  are  on- 
r-fivc  years  ;  but 
(riant  instruction 
n  coarse  of  that 
inRed.  The  po- 
d  labour  of  three 
its  basis,  burying 

irtues  and  vices, 
ence,  of  meanness 
ppeared  by  turns, 
led  for  a  day,  and 
was  subdued  and 
quality,  and  after- 
ir.  At  length  an 
the  nations  of  the 
vhich  they  had  too 

ted  in  the  fifteenth 
f  Westphalia  and 
uring  the  neriod  of 
its  downfall.  The 
iciples.by  the  three 
vhich  made  justice 
ixample  that  might 
rhe  other  was  the 
ets  of  Europe,  that 


PBHIOD  IX.      A.  1).  1780 — 1^15. 


410 


fne  project  of  fnundiiijf  an  univorinl  monarchy  was  for  evef 
hopi'lc!<s  and  visionary — ii  iiersiiu.-'ion  which  hud  lulled  them 
into  a  siiite  of  (iilnl  reposf.  ThiN  project,  however,  wiiich  they 
thought  iin()riii'ticnl)li',  was  actually  carried  into  execution ; 
thou^'h  it  np|)('ared  under  a  new  form.  The  daring  individual 
who  conceived  the  desijrn,  gove  it  the  name  of  the  Fedrrative 
Sijstiun.  By  his  plon,  the  difrerenl  States  on  the  Continent  were 
to  preserve  an  apparent  independence,  A'henever  this  did  not 
thwart  his  own  views  ;  but  their  policy  was  to  be  entirely  sub- 
servient to  his  interest,  and  to  lie  regulated  according  to  his  di- 
rection. In  this  manner  he  undertook  to  conquer  the  whole 
world,  with  the  aid  of  the  Federal  States,  who  were  obliged  to 
espouse  his  (juarrels,  and  to  make  common  caufc  with  him 
against  every  power  that  refus<;d  to  submit  voluntarily  to  his 
sway,  or  to  that  of  his  family,  whom  he  placed  as  his  vassals  on 
some  of  the  most  ancient  thrones  of  Europe. 

To  this  was  added  another,  which  he  called  the  Conti7iental 
Sijstem.  Its  main  object  was  to  exclude  Great  Britain  from  all 
commerce  with  the  other  European  states.  By  this  means  ]}e 
hoped  to  deprive  her  of  the  command  of  the  sea,  of  which  she 
wos  now  undisputed  mistress  ;  to  annihilate  her  commerce  ;  cut 
ofTthe  sources  of  her  wealth;  ruin  her  marine;  and  even  to 
overthrow  the  constitution,  which  had  so  long  been  the  boast  and 
happiness  of  the  English  nation.  Had  it  been  possible  to  carry 
this  project  into  execution,  the  Continent  must  necessarily  have 
been  impoverished  and  ruined. 

The  twenty-five  years  of  which  we  are  now  to  give  a  brief 
outline,  are  so  crowaed  with  events,  that,  for  the  sake  of  perspi- 
cuity, it  will  bo  necessary  to  divide  them  into  separate  periods. 
In  the  history  of  France,  the  natural  divisions  are  the  five  fol- 
lowing, viz.  (1.)  From  the  opening  of  the  States-General,  May 
5,  1789,  till  the  abolition  of  Monarchy  and  the  Constitutional 
Government,  Aug.  10,  1792.  (2.)  The  Reign  of  Terror ;  from 
Aug.  10,  1792,  t'll  Oct.  26,  1795,  when  the  Convention  ceased 
to  govern  France.  (3.)  The  Republican  Government ;  from 
Oct.  26,  1705  till  May  18, 1804,  when  Buonaparte  was  declared 
Emperor.  (4.)  The  Reign  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte  ;  from  May 
18,  1804,  till  March  30,  1814,  when  the  Allies  entered  Paris. 
(5.)  The  Restoration  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  after  an  exile  of 
more  than  twenty  years. 

These  divisions  point  out  the  most  remarkable  changes  that 
occurred  in  France  during  this  period.  Nevertheless,  as  we 
must  notice  the  events  which  took  place  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  a 
more  convenient  division  will  be  as  follows.  (1.)  From  the 
commencement  of  the  French   Revolution  till  the  Peace  of 


^'i  1  ^■ 


it 


Wi 


CHAPTER  t. 

«     k  07  isno      (2  )  From  the  Peace  of  Amiens  tin 
Amiens,  March  27,  l»u~.     {-■)  ^  j^    greatest 

fur  |3TFi"h?enTo7th1  yeT;T810,  til,  the  Tre.f  of 

the  French  Empire  "."^er  Buonapar  e  ana  ^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^ 

new  political  system  m  Europe      Alter  ^^^     ^^_ 

various  events  which  ^ap^enecUn  Franc^ .  we  s                 y  ^^ 

vert  to  the  revolution  wli  ch  the  ^  "ereni  »  J^^^  ^^ 

,  J.^igr.fr  C*  Be™£r(«ay  1789,,  and  ending 

France  must  be  tmced  tack  w  '^^'"^^f'i  ■„,  ,„,„my 
ce»,  which  began  under  U,™  XIV.,  o. he  gen  ^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

which  premiled  under  *«  B?f "' °t°°'„  L„„i,  XV. ;  and, 
iaration  ot  the  S»«™™' £,r„'Su°and  polilical,  which 
S;StcrJrXna«='Sr'Sj-Sre>  U,e  e%h.ee„.h  cen- 

>  -  "^eSitr  r-^usxr^i^d!"  t£ 

UUng  government  of  Fmn^inaq  ^^|^.  ^^^^^^ 

-"••iSfel'BstSsrb^sCir^ 

cations,  letters  of  exile,  *<^- '  ^'  .  Certain  bodies,  it  is  true, 

resisted  only  by  the  feeblest  t'^";Yh;sc  nrSges  were  seldom 
possessed  means  f  J^  :r:;r'e"  xtpteH^^^^^^ 
respected.     1  he  noDiesse  ^eie  r  g  ^y  the  prohi- 

thestate  and  totally  separated  from  th^^^^^^^^        ^  Jmpted  from 

?'^\n  fTXchTey  subsUtuted'v'oruntary  grants/  Besides 
laiation,  tor  wmcn  'nej  ^i  ;„i,,nal  administrat  on  was  badly 
these  oppressive  imposts,  the  mtemal  »»"""'  y^^  „ere 

°'^"'"i,-  ^dtd  rnrLeV*fa^°X  w»  ataSked  «.  all.the 
"efS'rdes^neVtX-SotSnnhhacieswiththeir 


mtm 


;e  of  Amiens  tiH 

at  its  greatest 

ill  the  TrealY  of 

2cline  and  fall  ot 

restoration  of  a 

a  sketch  of  the 

shall  shortly  ad- 

is  of  Europe  un 

if  other  parts  of 

lay  happen  to  he 

;ommencing  with 
789,)  and  ending 

\e  Revolution  in 
state  of  her  finan- 
sneral  imiAorality 
to  the  mal-\dmin- 
Louis  XV.  ;  and, 
id  political,  which 
[le  eighteenth  cen- 

^  abuses  in  the  ex- 
be  corrected.    The 
1  arbitrary  rather 
lity,  greater  power 
ties  of  the  subject 
of  imposts,  confis- 
rous  authority  was 
lin  bodies,  it  is  true, 
ileges  were  seldom 
)m  contributions  to 
mons,  by  the  prohi- 
also  exempted  from 
ry  grants.     Besides 
listration  was  badly 
orders,  which  were 
ibandoned  to  all  the 
irtial  representation. 
vho  lived  on  the  fa- 
lon  sympathies  with 
rmy  for  which  they 
il  appointments  and 
into  two  classes,  one 
d  abbacies  with  their 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  178ft— 1816. 


421 


rich  revenues,  while  the  other  was  destined  to  poverty  and  la 
bour.  The  commons  scarcely  possessed  a  third  part  of  the 
soil,  for  which  they  were  compelled  to  pay  feudal  services  to  the 
territorial  barons,  tithes  to  the  priests,  and  taxes  to  the  King. 
In  compensation  for  so  many  sacrifices,  they  erjoyed  no  rights, 
had  no  share  in  the  administration,  and  were  admitted  to  no  pub- 
lic employments. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  France  when  Louis  XVI.  ascended 
the  throne.  This  order  of  things  could  not  continue  for  ever; 
but  with  proper  caution  and  skilful  management,  many  salutary 
improvements  might  have  been  introduced,  without  plunging 
the  nation  into  rebellion  and  anarchy.  Louis  XVI.  had  just 
views  and  amiable  dispositions  ;  but  he  was  without  decision  of 
character,  and  had  no  perseverance  in  his  measures.  His  pro- 
jects for  regenerating  the  State  encountered  obstacles  which  he 
had  not  foreseen,  and  which  he  found  it  impossible  to  overcome. 
He  was  continually  vacillating  in  the  choice  of  his  ministers ; 
and  his  reign,  up  to  the  assembling  of  the  States-General,  was 
a  complication  of  attempt«(l  reforms,  which  produced  no  benefi- 
cial result.  Maurepas,  Turgot,  and  Malesherbes,  had  been  succes- 
sively intrusted  with  the  management  of  affairs  ;  but  they  found 
it  impossible  to  give  satisfaction  to  any  party.  Their  efforts  for 
retrenchment  displeased  the  courtiers,  while  the  people  were  dis- 
contented at  the  continuation  of  existing  abuses.  The  exhaust- 
ed state  in  which  the  American  war  had  left  the  finances  of  the 
kingdom,  and  the  unskilfulness  of  the  ministers  ;  one  of  whom, 
the  celebrated  Necker,  could  contrive  no  other  method  of  repair- 
ing these  losses,  than  by  means  of  forced  loans,  which  augment- 
ed the  national  debt,  and  added  to  the  other  embarrassments  of 
the  government.  The  plan  of  M.  de  Calonne,  another  of  the 
ministers,  was  to  assemble  the  Notables,  or  respectable  and  dis- 
tinguished persons  of  the  kingdom  (Feb.  23,  1787,)  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  through  their  means  those  new  imposts  which 
he  could  not  expect  to  be  sanctioned  by  the  Parliament  of  Paris. 
But  this  assembly  seemed  little  disposed  to  second  his  designs. 
They  discovered,  with  astonishment,  that  within  a  few  years 
loans  had  been  raised  to  the  amount  of  one  th'^asand  six  hun- 
dred and  forty-six  millions  of  francs  ;  and  that  there  was  an  an- 
nual deficit  in  the  revenue  of  one  hundred  and  forty  millions. 
This  discovery  was  the  signal  for  the  retirement  of  Calonnn. 

His  successor.  Cardinal  Brienne,  the  Archbishop  of  Toulouse 
tried  in  vain  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  Parliament,  who 
declared,  by  a  solemn  protestation  (May  3,  1788,)  that  the  right 
of  granting  supplies  belonged  to  the  States-General  alone.  Louis 
XVI.,  yielding  to  this  expression  of  the  public  opinion,  promised 


^  11 


'»•'     ;  ' 


's-i^ap^nm':^,.:, 


422 


CHAPTER  X. 


to  assemble  the  deputies  of  the  nation.  A  second  meetir ;  of 
the  Notables,  held  at  Versailles  (Nov.  6,)  deliberated  as  to  the 
f'mn  and  constitution  of  the  Stales-General.  _M.  Necker,  who 
was  recalled  to  the  ministry,  counselled  the  King  to  prefer  the 
advice  of  the  minority,  who  had  espoused  the  popular  side  ;  and 
proposed  to  grant  to  the  Tier.s-Etat,  or  Thtrd  Order  a  double 
number  of  Representatives  in  the  States-General ;  which  advice 

was  followed.  ,.       .,, 

The  Slates-(Jeneral  were  summoned  to  meet  at  Versailles  on 
the  27th  of  April  1789.     The  number  of  deputies  was  twelve 
hundred ;  six  hundred  of  wJiom  were  of  the  Tiers-Etat,  three 
hundred  of  the  noblesse,  and  three  hundred  of  the  clergy.    Ihe 
Kincr  opened  the  assembly  in  person  (May  5,  1789^     It  was 
accompanied  with  great  solemnity  and  magnificence.    The  dergy 
occupied  the  first  place;  next  came  the  noblesse.     Ihe  liers- 
Etat  followed  hst.     These  individuals  comprehended  the  choice 
of  the  nation;  but  the  greater  part  of  them  were  entirely  inex- 
perienced in  state  affairs,  and  not  a  few  of  them  were  imbued 
with  the  principles  of  the  new  philosophy.     The  majority  pro- 
posed to  rocenerate  the  government  according  to  their  own  specu- 
lative notions ;  while  others  secretly  entertained  the  hope  ot 
overturning  it,  to  gratify  their  own  antipathies ;  or  to  satiate 
their  avarice  and  ambition.  ,  ,1.1, 

A  difference  immediately  arose  on  the  question,  whether  they 
should  sit  according  to  their  orders.     Conciliatory  measures 
havincr  been  tried  in  vain,  the  deputies  of  the  Tiers-Etat  resolved 
to  declare  themselves  a  National  Assembly.     The  King  having 
ordered  them  to  suspend  their  sittings,  they  changed  their  place 
of  assembly  to  a  Tennis  Court,  where,  in  opposition  to  the  Koya 
authority,  they  took  an  oath  never  to  separate  until  they  ha  1 
achieved  the  regeneration  of  France.      The  majority  of  the 
clergy,  and  some  of  the  nobles,  joined  this  tumultuous  assembly. 
Louis  XVI.,  by  a  Royal  Session  (June  23,)  condemned  the  con- 
I     duct  of  this  meeting  ;  abrogated  its  decisions ;  and  published  a 
declaration  containing  the  basis  of  a  free  constitution.     B«t  the 
authority  of  the  King  had  now  ceased  to  be  respected.     Ihe 
1     National  Assembly  refused  to  accept  from  him  as  a  boon,  what 
1     they  were  preparing  to  seize  by  force.     Alarmed  at  this  opposi- 
tion, Louis  commanded  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  to  join  the 
I     popular  party,  or  Tiers-Etat,  as  a  measure  for  conciliating  the 

i     public  mind.  t.^.    ,  „  „f 

I         The  prime  agent  in  this  revolution  was  Mirabeau,  a  man  ol 
i     an  ambitious  and  turbulent  spirit,  who  inflamed  the  Assembly 
by  his  violent  harangues.     A  demagogue  from  mterest,  and  o 
'     good  abilities,  though  immoral  in  his  character,  he  was  resolved 


I  meetir.  '  of 
ited  as  to  the 
Necker,  who 
to  prefer  the 
lar  side ;  and 
ier,  a  double 
which  advice 

Versailles  on 
s  was  twelve 
rs-Etat,  three 
i  clergy.  The 
rsg.)     It  was 
J.    The  clergy 
.     The  Tiers- 
dcd  the  choice 
entirely  inex- 
were  imbued 
I  majority  pro- 
leirowuspecu- 
i  the  hope  of 
;  or  to  satiate 

,  whether  they 
tory  measures 
s-Etat  resolved 
e  King  having 
gcd  their  plac( 
on  to  the  Boy  a  I 
until  they  hal 
najority  of  the 
tuous  assembly, 
emned  the  con- 
md  published  a 
iition.     But  the 
espected.     The 
as  a  boon,  what 
d  at  this  opposi- 
■rgy  to  join  the 
conciliating  the 


a  beau,  a  man  of 

(d  the  Assembly 

interest,  and  of 

he  was  resolved 


PBBIUD  IX.       A.  D.  1789 — 1816. 


423 


*o  bu'ld  1  is  fortune  on  the  public  troubles,  and  to  prevent,  by  all 
ipeans  in  his  power,  the  first  symptoms  of  a  return  to  subordina- 
tion and  tranquillity.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  supplied  money 
to  corrupt  the  troops,  and  excite  insurrections  over  all  parts  of 
Franco. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  King  assembled  an  army  at  Versailles, 
under  the  command  of  Marshal  Broglio ;  and  btmishcd  Necker 
(July  11,)  with  whom  he  had  some  just  reasons  to  be  displeased. 
This  was  the  signal  for  a  popular  commotion.  Paris  was  in  a 
state  of  the  greatest  fermentation.  The  press  inflamed  the  pub. 
lie  mind.  The  people  discussed  in  the  open  air  those  questions 
which  were  agitated  in  the  Assembly.  A  table  served  the  pur- 
pose  of  a  rostrum ;  and  every  citizen  became  an  orator,  who 
harangued  on  the  dangers  of  his  country,  and  the  necessity  of 
resistance.  The  mob  forced  the  Bastille  (July  14,)  seized  on  the 
depots  of  arms,  mounted  the  tri-coloured  cockade,  which  was  the 
distinctive  banner  of  the  city  of  Paris,  and  became  that  of  the 
apostles  of  the  revolution.  Bailly,  the  academician,  was  appoint- 
ed mayor ;  the  citizens  formed  themselves  into  a  National  Guard, 
under  the  command  of  the  Marquis  La  Fayette.  The  King, 
placed  in  so  critical  a  situation,  and  surrounded  with  danger, 
;'onsented  to  withdraw  the  troops  collected  in  the  capital  and 
the  neighbourhood.  He  recalled  M.  Necker,  (July  17,)  and  re- 
paired to  Paris  to  intimate  his  good  intentions  to  the  Assembly ; 
declaring,  that  he  identified  himself  with  the  nation,  and  relied 
on  the  afTection  and  allegiance  of  his  subjects. 

The  National  Assembly  had  usurped  the  whole  legif  lative 
power,  and  ui  dertaken  to  draw  up  a  new  constitution.  T  deir 
charter  commenced  with  a  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man. 
Such  was  the  ardour  of  their  revolutionary  enthusiasm,  tha  iJiey 
abolished,  without  discussion,  and  at  one  nocturnal  sitting,  the 
feudal  regime,  the  rights  and  privileges  of  provinces  and  corpo- 
rations, the  tithes,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  seignorial  preroga- 
tives. It  was  decreed  (Aug.  4,)  that  the  legislative  power  should 
be  exercised  by  a  single  chamber ;  and  that  the  King  could  not 
refuse  his  sanction  to  these  decrees  longer  than  four  years. 

As  the  Revolution  did  not  proceed  with  a  rapidity  equal  to  the 
wishes  of  the  Orleans  faction,  they  took  care  to  stir  up  new  insur- 
rections. The  mob  of  Paris  attacked  Versailles  (Oct.  6,)  in- 
vested the  Chateau,  committed  the  most  horrible  excesses,  and 
conducted  the  King  and  his  family  prisoners  to  Paris,  where 
they  were  followed  by  the  National  Assembly.  These  legisla- 
tors decreed  the  spoliation  of  the  clergy,  by  placing  their  benefices 
at  the  disposal  of  the  nation.  They  ordered  the  division  of 
France  into  eighty-three  departments ;  the  sale  of  the  crown- 


V:f, 


wtm 


424 


CHAPTER  X. 


lands,  and  ecclesiastical  property  ;  the  proceeds  of  which  to  be 
pkdged  for  the  redemption  of  tie  paper  money,  which  waa  or- 
Sered  to  be  issued,  under  the  name  ofassignats ;  the  admission 
Sr/ews  to  the  rights  of  citizens;  the  prohibition  of  monasUc 
vows  •  the  ri-ht  of  the  National  Assembly  to  declare  war.  m 
oTsequence  of  a  proposition  from  the  King ;  a  -"  ar  consU^^^ 

tion,  which  rendered  the  clergy  jnJ^F"'!^"^"^*^,^^  ''\1ho!,'; 
church,  and  gave  the  people  a  right  to  nominate  their  bishops  , 
5he  Swon  5f  the  noblesse  ;  and  the  establishment  of  a  tribunal 
It  Orleans  for  iudcring  crimes  of  high  treason  against  the  nation 

OccupTe'dwiih  these  decrees  (1790-91,)  the  National  Assem- 
bly left  Ihe  King  no  authority  to  repress  the  crimes  and  excesses 
wLch  were  multiplying  every  day  within  the  kingdom    nor  d^d 
thev  adopt  themselves  any  measures  for  putting  a  stop  to  them. 
The  King,  indeed,   according  to  the  plan  of  their  constitution, 
was.  To  be  Ihe  depository  and  supreme  head  of  the  executive 
power ;  but  he  had  been  stripped  of  the  means  necessary  to  the 
Eve  exercise  of  any  authority  whatever.     He  had  n«'ther 
places  to  grant,  nor  favours  to  bestow.     He  was  left  without  any 
Kol  o?er  the  inferior  parts  of  the  administraUon,  smce^he 
men  who  filled  these  posts  were  elected  by  the  people.     He  was 
not  even  allowed  the  pomp  of  a  throne,  or  the  splendour  of  a 
crown      The  Assembly  seemed  to  think  it  a  part  of  their  glory 
to  divest  their  monarch  of  his  most  valuable  prerogatives.    They 

magTned  that  a  monarchy  could  subsist  when  its  authority  was 
reduced  to  a  phantom ;  that  the  throne  could  stand  secure  amidst 
ZrZ  of  ranks ;  exposed  to  all  the  waves  of  faction,  and  when 
every  sentiment  of  respect  and  affection  was  destroyed.  Such 
was^the  la  of  royalt'v  entertained  by  the  French  legisktoj^ 
By  abolishing  the  graiations  of  society,  they  sapped  the  very 

foundations  of  that  frail  ««* '"^^gi^^y.^^J'^^^.r^^'^l'^fltdt 
modelled  and  fashioned  according  to  their  own  ideas.  Thousands 
of  noble  families,  finding  their  lives  insecure,  reso  ved  to  abandon 
the  country.  The  King  himself  made  an  attempt  to  escape  from 
he  capSy  in  which  he  was  held.  He  did  escape  in  disgu.se 
lut  wS  reJognised,  and  arrested  at  Varennes  ^y  theNationd 
Guard  (June  25,)  reconducted  to  Pans,  and  suspended  from  his 
S  ions.  Monsieur,  the  King's  brother,  was  more  fortunate 
He  aJ^"ved  at  Brussels.  The  Count  D'Arto.s,  the  younger 
brother,  had  quitted  France  the  year  before. 

The  Orleans  party  undertook  to  compel  the  National  As  em- 
bly  to  pronounce  the'deposition  of  the  King.  A  l"ge  ^-'^^^^^^^^^ 
which  had  met  in  the  Champs-de-Mars  (July  17, 1791,)  was  dis 
Trsed  by  an  armed  force,  by  order  of  Bailly,  and  commanded 
Ey  La  Fayeue      The  mode-ate  party  in  t^ie  National  Assembly 


of  which  CO  be 

which  was  or- 

the  admission 

on  of  monastic 

declare  war,  in 

iccular  conslilu- 

ihc  head  of  the 

their  bishops ; 

cnt  of  a  tribunal 

ainst  the  nation 

National  Assem- 

ica  and  excesses 

ingdom ;  nor  did 

;  a  stop  to  them. 

eir  constitution, 

jf  the  executive 

necessary  to  the 

He  had  neither 

1  left  without  any 

tration,  since  the 

people.     He  was 

[e  splendour  of  a 

art  of  their  glor)' 

rogatives.    They 

its  authority  was 

md  secure  amidst 

faction,  and  when 

lestroyed.     Such 

rench  legislators. 

sapped  the  very 

y  which  they  had 

deas.  Thousands 

solved  to  abandon 

ipt  to  escape  from 

scape  in  disguise, 

s  by  the  National 

ispended  from  his 

is  more  fortunate. 

tois,  the  younger 

National  Assem- 
large  assemblage, 
17, 1791,)  was  dis- 

and  commanded 
iationai  Assembly 


PBRIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 1815. 


425 


had  gained  the  ascendancy.  The  constitutional  articles  were 
revised  in  some  points,  and  digesttd  into  n  systematic  form. 
The  King  accepted  this  new  code  fS^^pt.  13;)  and  tlieru  was 
every  reason  to  believe  tliat  he  was  n.'dlved  to  carry  it  iiilo  exe- 
cution. The  Constituent  Assembly,  altti  having  declared  Avig- 
non  and  Venaissin  annexed  to  France,  separated  (Sept.  30,)  to 
make  way  for  a  Legislative  As.seinbly. 

The  Royal  brothers  and  most  of  tht;  emigrants,  havina-  fixed 
their  residence  at  Coblentz,  published  addresses  to  all  the  Courts 
of  Europe,  to  solicit  their  assistiiiire  in  restoring  the  King,  and 
checking  the  revolutionary  loriciit  which  threatened  to  inundate 
Germany.  The  Princes  of  tlie  Empire,  who  had  possessions  in 
Alsace,  found  themselves  aggrieved  by  the  decrees  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  in  respect  to  those  rights  which  had  been 
guaranteed  to  them  on  the  faith  of  existing  treaties.  They  ac- 
cordingly claimed  the  intervention  of  the  Emperor  and  the 
Empire.  The  Electors  of  Mayence  and  Treves  had  permitted 
the  French  noblesse  to  organize  bodies  of  armed  troops  within 
their  estates.  After  the  arrest  of  the  King  at  Varennes,  the 
Emperor  Leopold  had  addressed  a  circular  to  all  his  brother 
Sovereigns,  dated  from  Padua  (July  6,)  in  which  he  invited  them 
to  form  an  alliance  for  restoring  the  King's  legitimate  author- 
ity in  France.  Accordingly,  an  alliance  was  concluded  at 
Vienna  a  few  days  after  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  compel  France  to  maintain  her  treaties  with  the 
neighbouring  States.  The  two  monarchs,  who  met  at  Pilnitz 
(Aug.  27,)  declared  that  they  would  employ  the  most  efficacious 
means  for  leaving  the  King  of  France  at  perfect  liberty  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  monarchical  government.  But  after  Louis 
had  accepted  the  constitution  of  the  Assembly,  the  Emperor 
formally  announced  (Nov.  12,)  that  the  co-operation  of  the  con- 
tracting powers  was  in  consequence  suspended. 

In  a  moment  of  unreflecting  liberality,  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly had  formerly  declare<l,  that  none  of  its  members  could  be 
elected  for  the  first  Legislative  Assembly.  This  new  Assembly, 
which  met  Oct.  1,  1791,  was  composed  of  men  altogether  defi- 
cient in  experience,  and  hurried  on  by  the  headlong  fanaticism 
of  revolution.  It  was  divided  into  two  parties.  On  the  right 
hend  were  those  who  hoped  to  preserve  monarchy,  by  maintain- 
ing the  constitution  with  certain  improvements  and  modifications ; 
and  on  the  left,  those  who  proposed  that  they  should  proceed  in 
their  revolutionary  career.  This  latter  party,  in  which  the  depu- 
ties of  the  Girondists  had  the  ascendancy,  had  conceived  two 
methods  for  overturning  the  constitution,  viz.  1,  to  bring  the 
King  into  disrepute,  by  obliging  him  to  make  use  of  his  suspen- 


49.G 


OHAFFBH  X. 


!    ii 


•„».  fliniP  aecrees  which  appeared  most  popu.ar ; 

"•/„  ':£  ;f;Zl"c  fdeeCSS  «„,  and  .hereby  .e.  rid 
„r  .he  .?mv  The  dcmuL  on  ,he  let.  nc.er  ceased  .o  inve.gh  from 

ealammes.  The  mminry  re,isi.ed  ihe.r  offlce,  and  lh»  K.ng  re 

ThTSembirconSd  .0  4  Aei'  ""'"frK'nran'd 
which  .«ere  bolh  repagnan.  lo  the  coascence  of  ihc  K.ng.  ana 

rangeroas  .o  the  security  of  .he  "I'TK-'^Zks  decked  hJ 
recenlly  offended  by  Ihe  dism.ss.1  of  h.s  guards,  declarea 


most  popuiar ; 

It  find  employ- 

e  new  order  of 

majority,  had 

an.     The  As- 

s  brothers,  as 
10  had  taken  no 
red  the  King  of 
;s  of  annoyance 

the  enjoyment 
f  those  popular 
ailed  from  their 
ing  to  that  reli- 
cad  all  France, 
the  control  and 
I.  It  was  there 
led  the  National 
raiiist  the  Royal 
)f  emissaries  in 
ind  prepared  the 

[1  thereby  get  rid 
d  to  inveigh  from 
ign  powers ;  and 
them  in  their  de- 
le  object  of  their 
and  the  King  re- 
March  17,  1792,) 
iez,  who  became 
5  and  Duranthon, 
Roland,  who  was 

irere  on  terms  of 
js  of  those  princes 
nng  him  satisfac- 
ing  to  propose  to 
iwer  his  demands 
ir.  This  proposi- 
1  hailed  with  en- 
irage  to  oppose  it. 
lutionarv  decrees, 
!  of  the  King,  and 
lis,  who  had  been 
lards,  declared  he 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1789 — 1816. 


427 


could  no  longer  submit  to  the  insolence  of  those  new  ministers, 
three  of  whom  he  discarded  with  indignation.  Their  accim- 
plices,  the  Jacobins,  and  Pethion  the  mayor  of  Paris,  then  or- 
ganized an  insurrection  of  the  armed  popiilaic  of  the  Faiixhonrgs 
or  suburbs.  The  mob  then  repaired  to  the  Tuileries  (June  20,> 
to  force  the  King  to  sanction  the  decrees  of  the  Assembly,  and 
recall  the  patriot  ministers.  The  King  saved  his  own  life,  and 
that  of  his  Queen,  by  repelling  those  factions  demagogues  with 
firmness  and  courage.  He  constantly  refused  to  grant  what 
they  demanded  of  him  by  violence ;  while  the  National  Assem- 
bly displayed  the  most  shameful  pusillanimity.  They  oven  car- 
ried their  cowardice  so  far,  as  to  replace  Pethion  and  Manuel  in 
their  functions,  whom  the  King  had  suspended  for  having  failed 
to  perform  their  duty. 

rethion,  and  those  v.'ho  ruled  at  their  pleasure  the  Sections 
of  Paris,  where  no  royalist  dared  to  appear,  then  demanded  the 
dethronement  of  the  liing;  and  in  order  to  compel  the  Assem- 
bly to  pronounce  sentence  against  him,  the  conspirators  publicly 
organized  a  new  insurrection.  The  populace  rose  in  arms,  and 
attacked  the  Castle  of  the  Tuileries  (Aug.  10.)  The  King  re- 
fused the  assistance  of  those  faithful  citizens  who  had  flocked 
round  his  person.  Misled  by  unwise  or  perfidious  counsels,  he 
repaired  with  his  family  to  Paris ;  and  entering  the  National 
Assembly,  addressed  them  in  these  words :  "  Gentlemen,  I  am 
come  here  to  avoid  the  commission  of  a  great  crime.  I  shall 
always  consider  myself  and  my  family  in  safety  when  I  am 
among  the  representatives  of  the  nation."  The  populace  having 
assailed  the  Castle,  the  faithful  Swiss  Guards  defended  it  with 
courage,  and  perished  in  the  performance  of  their  duty.  The 
greater  part  of  those  found  in  the  Tuileries  were  massacred 
by  the  rabble.  The  representatives  of  the  nation,  who  were, 
during  this  time,  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  alarm,  decreed,  in 
presence  of  the  Sovereign,  and  on  the  proposal  of  Vergniaud, 
that  the  King  should  be  suspended,  and  a  National  Convention 
assembled. 

Some  days  after,  Louis,  with  his  Queen,  the  Dauphin,  Ma- 
dame Royale,  and  Madame  Elizabeth,  the  King's  sister,  were 
imprisoned  in  the  Temple,  under  a  guard  of  the  municipality  of 
Paris,  composed  of  partisans  of  the  Revolution.  This  munici- 
pality, and  the  ministers  appointed  by  the  Assembly,  exercised 
a  most  tyrannical  authority.  The  prisons  were  crowded  with 
priests  and  nobles.  Danton,  the  Minister  of  Justice,  and  a  most 
violent  revolutionist,  entered  into  arrangements  with  the  Com- 
muve  for  the  massacre  of  these  innocent  men.  The  cruel  work 
of  butchery  continued  for  three  days  without  remorse  (Sept.  2, 


i^ 


1  M 


4-28 


CIUPTCB  X. 


^"Trw;;';hadco.n.ncncod  in  the  month  "f  April  1791.  L-J 
ner    Roc    unhand,  and  Lu  Fayette    commanded  the  French 

s^i^t  their  "p-tthj:;s:;t:r=ofr::i.(^::. 

trians  had  meridy  acted  on  llu.aekn^.ve  ^  ^^^^  ^^^ 

concluded  at  Berlu.  (^eb.  7.)  between  1         ^^  ^^^-^^^ 

the  command  of  Ihe  army  ,  "^,.    "y  ,  *^  ,c„,„  on  1  which  was 

:i=hv^;^««9g^y-.d 

■»^-.sdis^;|S'h(Al5^^-^ 

""T°„lS"I*laws  and  acts  which  ihc Convenlion publis^ 


Mfttf 


i-RRiob  IX.     A.  D.  1799 — IS  15. 


429 


to  interp«»«e 

It  to  the  Tribu- 

1  put  to  dniilh 

the  Legislative 

ir  the  National 

•il  1791.  Luck- 
ed the  French 
ss.     The  Aus- 
le  of  an  alliance 
npcror  and  the 
ssiana,  to  whicti 
jf  emigrants,  all 
uul  an  Austrian 
e  by  way  of  the 
ir  gates  to  the 
arrested  by  the 
La  Fayette  in 
•ss  and  the  want 
.  20,)  which  was 
led  army  retired 
emburg. 

siasts  in  France, 
)     The  very  day 
yalty,  on  the  pro- 
:i  proclaimed  the 
ceded  it,  this  was 
of  the  Girondists 
on  of  order  ;  the 
u  continuing  the 
of  contest  which 
but  they  assumed 
lain  purpose  from 
!  Mountainists,  as 
1  the  reproach  of 
'.ralkts,  a  reproach 
in  order  to  nave  a 
the  Republic  was 

onvention  publish- 
France,  would  be 

lid  extravagances ; 

I  such  of  its  opera- 

,  or  produced  any 
to  banish  all  enii- 


grnnts  for  ever ;  and  to  order  those  to  bo  put  to  death  who  should 
return  to  their  native  country-  Soon  after,  they  made  a  tender 
of  ihrir  nssislnnce  to  all  subje'cn  who  niiu;hl  be  inclined  to  revolt 
aganist  their  legitimate  sovereigns;  and  in  the  countries  which 
were  occupied  by  their  own  nrniies,  they  proclaimed  tlie  sover- 
eignty of  the  people,  and  the  abolilion  «if  iheestalilished  authori- 
ties. The  moderate  party,  nr,  more  ]'  operly  speaking,  the  less 
furiousparty  of  the  Convention,  were  willing  to  spare  the  King'.s 
life.     This,  however,  was  one  reason  for  the  Mduntainiitts  to 

5 lit  him  to  death.  The  Convention  accordingly  decreed  (Dec. 
,  1792,)  that  a  trial  should  bo  instituted  against  Louis  Capet, 
as  they  called  him  ;  and  combining,  in  the  most  absurd  manner, 
the  functions  of  accusers,  judges,  and  legislators,  they  assumed 
the  right  of  pronouncing  as  to  his  culpability.  Twice  they  com- 
pelled him  to  appear  at  their  bar  (Dec.  11,  26,)  where  de  Seze, 
Malesherbes,  and  Tronchet  undertook  his  defence.  The  de- 
meanour of  the  King  was  full  of  candour  and  dignity.  Of  seven 
hundred  and  twenty  voters,  six  hundred  and  eighty-three  de- 
clared him  guilty  (Jan.  15, 1793.)  Thirty-seven  refused  to  vote 
on  different  grounds,  some  of  which  were  honourable  ;  but  the 
Assembly  did  not  contain  a  single  man  who  dared  positively  to 
pronounce  the  innocence  of  their  victim.  Two  only  of  those  who 
refused  to  vote,  declared  they  did  not  think  themselves  entitled  , 
to  sit  as  judges  of  the  King. 

The  minority  in  vain  had  flattered  themselves  that  they  might 
rescue  the  King  from  death,  provided  they  referred  the  punish- 
ment to  the  nation  itself.  But  in  this  they  were  disappointed. 
Of  seven  hundred  and  eighteen  voters,  fourliundred  and  twenty- 
four  objected  to  the  appeal  to  the  people.  Two  hundred  and 
eighty-three  admitted  it ;  and  eleven  had  voted  from  interested 
motives,  which  could  not  be  sustained.  Nothing  now  remained 
hut  to  pronounce  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted  on  the  King. 
Of  seven  hundred  and  twenty-one  voters,  three  hundred  and 
sixty-one  were  for  an  unconditional  sentence  of  immediate  death, 
and  among  these  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  (Jan.  17.)  The  partisans 
of  Louis  interposed,  and  appealed  from  this  sentence  to  the  na- 
tion. In  vain  did  the  Girondists  support  this  petition.  Of  six 
hundred  and  ninety  voters,  three  hundred  and  eighty  decided 
that  his  execution  should  take  place  within  twenty-four  hours. 

Louis  heard  his  sentence  of  death  with  composure  and  Chris- 
tian resignation.  He  had  already  made  his  will,  a  monument 
at  once  of  his  piety  and  the  purity  of  his  heart.  He  died  the 
death  of  a  martyr  (Jan.  21,  1793.)  At  the  moment  when  the 
executioner's  axe  was  ready  to  strike,  the  Abbe  Edgeworth,  his 
confessor,  addressed  him  in  these  sublime  words : — "  Son  of  St. 


It*  I 


...   .    -i 


4:J0 


CHAPTER  X. 


J  .    iT„..ini,  "•  The  whole  "mhabimuts  of  Paris,  who 

!;:r;,x"t:r ""\vi.b .":,: .0. , .- «...  a  ,no«n. 

tat  «iK»..o  'oii;.!''!  iii  1I.0  nty.         ,       .       ,|^    conduct  <if  lb« 

eu^eer  of  ll.;  ^i*"'''''"'?; S'     ^  ,Ves     reS  the  ruin  of  ihe 

airondi.t.  tl.o.^h  ^y -^^  '  :^;:;r  |,r  Lis  (£ a,) 
four  mon  hs  ^  "^  ■^'  ,  ,^^^^^^  ^f  the  commune  and  by  llie 
organized  by  H.btri,  procur  .  jpcidcd  the  victory, 

deputies  Marat.  Danton,  ""'^  f .^^^^^^  federalism.  The 

TlK.  Girondists  were  P^"^"^  '";'',';  uthc  title  of  Sam-cu- 
victorious  party  houome.  ^  '^  '^^'^f^^^^Xj  ^  Reign  of  Ter- 
loltes,  and  c-onunenced  ^^'"^ , '  J^  .I'^re  than  an  assembly 
ror.  The  ConvuU.on  was  ^^l^^^^^  "to  hoodwink  and  de- 
of  executioners  and  a  den  "'  ^,  '^'J  7,  ,i/„„probation  the  plan 
ceive  the  people,  they  «"*"">"^^  ',^   '^j    Sdles  (June  24 ;) 

-^-T'r''Z^;Tv!i^^^^^^^-^^^  to  exercise  the 
accordmg  to  wh  cl  t lie  I  '^"''''J'^  le.rislalive  measures.  After 
sovereignty,  •"''l/'^'''t'rno  e  wa«  in  t  le  ha,.ds  of  the  Com- 
U,e  2d  "f  J;;-;/  -.;;;^,f  Xcl  ^^^^^f  "med  in  the  Convention, 
mittec  ol  l"H'  r  ^  r„r  e  L  a  popular  assembly  more 
Danton,  the  cJucf  of  '  '^^^P,  f  ^J,  ;^^  the  most  influ- 

extravagant  than  ^e  -  b  -^^-^^^^^^^^^^  by  Robespierre, 
ence  for  a  tnt^e ,  7\ '"^  .  ,  ,  j,.„e  had  been  adopted  m  the 
The  ConsUtut..n  of  \« f ^»;^^°'  ^ m  decreed  that  it  should  be 
Primary  Asb^^-^: /'^  «£  PJ^  Republic  was  in  a  state  ol 
suspended    ^ug-  -«  •)  ""^^  ^^^  ^,3  acknowledged. 

nical  and  the  -«f  .-^^^"rj;^/*^ til  Frances  v^^^^^^^^  with 
Robespierre  was  at  the  h^*^*^  «'  "-^^j^-^^'^J  '„",„ies  were  disper.- 
revolutionary  comm.tteej  f  J"^  "^'eU-afTected  to  pun- 
ed  every  -hejej^raggu  g^he  weaj^th^^^^^^^ 

ishment.     A  law  wun  re^ui"  r  •  p^sons  with 

the  public  edifices  ^  «  Pn  o^^^^^^  ^^^  remedy  the  fa^l  of  the  as- 
vjctims  de;ogd  ^^des^cuon.      ^^^^^^^^^^  ^^„^j    ^e  mar. 

signals,  the  ^"""^^""f"  „_\„mption  :  a  measure  which  reduced 
mum,  on  all  articles  "f  ^o"f.""™P"2{I  „  Qu^en.  Maria  Antoinette, 
the  country  toa  state 0^^^^^^^^^  brought  to 

was  •^'^Xr.  (O  t    16       Many  of  the  Girondist  deputies  vvere 

:i:erd':n  t&  i^^^tr:^^  7:^^ 

^^"^S:^::^  ^o^ody  pitied 


tsof  Paris,  who 
in«.     A  mourn-     j  1 

conduct  of  the 

A  not  check  the 

with  which  the 

the  ruin  of  the 

liy  1  flruRfe'le  of 

I  riiris  (June  a,) 

une,  unil  by  the 

jdcd  the  victory. 

fedcrahsin.  The 

title  of  Sam-cv- 

le  Reign  of  Ter- 

hnn  un  assembly 

oodwink  and  de- 

robiilioii  the  plan 

lelles  (June  ^4 ;) 

re  to  exercise  the 

meiisures.     After 

unds  of  the  Com- 

i  the  Convention. 

ar  assembly  more 

id  the  most  influ- 

d  by  Robespierre. 

len  adopted  in  the 

d  that  it  should  be 

I  was  in  a  state  ol 

vledged. 

•nt,  the  most  tyran- 
)ry  ever  recorded, 
ncc  swarmed  with 
mies  were  dispers- 
ell-afTected  to  pun- 
ersons  changed  all 
1  the  prisons  with 
the  fall  of  the  as- 
t.  called  the  maxi- 
jure  which  reduced 
1.  Maria  Antoinette, 
ml,  and  brought  to 
idist  deputies  were 
le  same  fate.     The 
ct  of  execration  to 
7.)     Nobody  pitied 


PKRIOD  IX.       A.   V.   17b9 — iSli). 


431 


hiN  fntp.  Over  nil  tin-  provinces  of  the  kingdom  the  blood  of 
the  innocent  flowed  in  lorrenln. 

The  revoiulionints  diil  not  stop  here.  To  their  political 
cririiec  they  lulded  iicis  of  impiily.  They  liegim  liy  iiliolishing 
the  (jrrcgorian  caiciuhir  and  tin-  Christian  em,  iirid  Nul)>iituted 
in  its  place  the  era  of  the  iicpublic ;  t<i  conuncruc  on  (In-  lliid 
SeptemlK-r  175).'J.  In  a  short  time,  Hcbert  and  Chaunieiic,  two 
chiefs  of  tin;  comnnine,  got  the  Convention  to  decree  the  abo- 
lition of  the  Christian  religion  (Nov.  10.)  The  worsliii)  of 
Reason  was  substituted  in  its  place;  and  the  chunh  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Paris  was  profaned,  by  lx;ing  converted  into  a  templfl 
of  atheism.  Gobel,  the  Coiistituli(mal  Bishop  of  Paris,  and  se- 
veral other  ecclesiastics,  publicly  apostatized  from  their  faith. 
Plunder  and  sacrilege  of  all  kinds  were  committed  in  the  Catho- 
lic churches. 

The  departments  in  the  west  of  France  had  remained  faithful 
to  the  King.  In  Poitou,  Maine,  Brittany,  and  Normandy,  a 
civil  war  arose,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Vendean  War,  which 
was  on  the  point  of  overturning  the  Republic.  The  Vendean 
insurgents  took  the  title  of  the  Catholic  army,  which  was  com- 
manded in  the  name  of  Louis  XVII.,  (who  still  remained  a  pri- 
soner in  the  Temple  after  his  father's  death,)  by  a  Council  which 
sat  at  Chatillon.  M.  d'Elbee  was  Commander-in-chief.  He 
had  under  him  Artus  de  Bonchamp,  the  Marquis  de  Lescurc, 
de  Larochcjacquelin,  Cathclineau,  Charette,  and  Stofflet.  This 
insurrection  had  broken  out  on  account  of  a  levy  of  troops  which 
the  Republic  had  ordered. 

The  war  was  carried  on  with  violence  and  cruelty.  Among 
the  most  remarkable  of  its  events  that  happened  in  the  year 
1793,  were  the  battle  of  Saumur  (June  9,)  after  which  all  the 
towns  on  the  Loire,  except  Nuntes,  declared  for  the  King ;  the 
battle  of  Chatillon,  where  the  Royalists  were  repeatedly  defeated 
by  the  army  of  Mayence,  which  the  Convention  had  sent  against 
them ;  the  passage  of  the  Loire  (Oct.  17,  19,)  by  a  hundred 
thousand  of  the  Vendeans,  including  old  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren, who  were  eager  to  approach  the  coast,  where  they  expect- 
ed the  supplies  promised  by  England  to  arrive ;  the  defeat  of  the 
army  of  Mayence  at  Chateau  Gontier  ;  the  taking  of  Mans  by 
the  Republicans,  and  their  victory  at  Savenay ;  the  taking  of 
Noirmoutier,  where  the  brave  d'Elbee  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy  (Jan.  2,  1794;)  and,  in  the  last  place,  the  defeat  of  Cha- 
rette at  Machecoult.  The  troops  of  the  Convention  were  com- 
manded in  succession  by  Biron,  Oanclaux,  Westermann,  Kleber, 
Beysser,  I'Echelle,  Marceau,  and  Rossignol.  The  deputy  Car- 
rier de  Nantes  covered  the  whole  country  with  slaughter,  and 
exerted  his  ingenuity  to  invent  new  methods  of  massacre. 


:i  ' 


■iit 


A 


I  a 


432 


CIIAI'TBR  X. 


OiIkt  insiirroctionx  nroso  in  the  «outh  of  Frnnce,  nftcr  the  r« 
volution  of  tlioUil  of  JiitK.'.  Uoiinlciiux,  Lyons,  MarsoilloB,  and 
Toulon,  (Icclnri'il  ihcinRt'lvfs  uijiiinjtt  the  Convention.  Kordenux 
wn."  speedily  f«uli(lucd  (An>,'.  ii'l,  179:j.)  Ueiienil  Carteaux  took 
possi-.isiou  of  iMiirfieillo!*,  with  the  iiNsiNtance  of  the  populnco. 
Toulon  proclniined  Louis  XVII.  (Auir,  i»9,)  and  threw  them 
selves  under  the  protection  of  AdrniniU  Hood  nnd  Lnn^arn,  who 
were  cruisinij  otf  their  coast  with  the  Kngli.^h  tind  Spanish  fleets 
Kellcrinan  had  onler.-:  to  he^ieije  Lyons;  a  ta.«k  which  was 
nfterward.s  intru.sted  to  Doppet.  This  city  surrendered  after  a 
vitforous  re.nistance  (Oct.  9.)  It  hecaine  the  scene  of  the  most 
atrocious  actions.  Its  finest  huildini^s  were  entirely  ruined  nnd 
demolished  by  order  of  the  Convention.  Carteaux  took  Toulon 
by  assault  (Dec.  21.)  It  was  during  the  siege  of  this  place,  that 
a  young  officer  distinguished  himself  by  his  (Courage,  and  after- 
wards by  his  enthu.siasm  for  the  Revolution.  This  youth  was 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  native  of  Ajnccio  in  Corsica. 

The  very  same  day  on  which  the  Convention  met,  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Teschen  nt  the  head  of  the  Austrian  army,  had  com- 
menced the  siege  of  Lille  ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  raise  it  in  about 
twenty  days.  The  Legislative  Assembly  had  declared  war 
against  the  King  of  Sardinia  (Sept.  10,  1792.)  General  Mon- 
tesquiou  took  possession  of  Savoy,  nnd  Anselm  made  himself 
master  of  Nice.  Some  months  niter,  the  Convention  declared 
these  provinces  to  be  annexed  to  France.  While  the  allies  were 
retiring  from  Champagne,  Custine  took  Mayence  by  n  coup  de 
main  (Oct.  21,)  assisted,  as  it  afterwards  appeared,  by  treachery. 
Dumouriez,  with  asuperior  force,  bent  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Teschen 
ut  Gemappe  (Nov.  6,)  and  soon  achieved  the  conquest  of  the 
Belgic  provinces.  The  Convention  having  declared  war  against 
England  and  the  Stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands  (Feb.  1, 1793,) 
at)  well  as  against  Spain,  a  powerful  coalition  was  formed  against 
them,  of  which  England  and  Russia  were  the  prime  supporters  ; 
the  one  by  her  ammunitions,  and  the  other  by  the  subsidies  which 
she  furnished.  They  were  joined  by  all  the  Christian  Sover- 
eigns in  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  Denmark. 

Dumouriez  undertook  the  conquest  of  Holland,  and  penetra- 
ted as  far  as  Moerdyk  :  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  ob- 
ject in  consequence  of  the  defeat  of  Miranda  who  had  laid  siege 
to  Maestricht,  by  the  Austrian  army  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg.  Dumouriez  was  himself  defeated  at 
Nerwinden  (March  18,)  after  which  he  retired  towards  the  fron- 
tier of  France.  Being  determined  to  put  an  end  to  the  tyranny 
of  the  Convention,  and  to  re-establish  the  constitution  of  1791, 
he  concluded  an  armistice  with  the  Austrinns,  and  delivered  up 


r" 


PBBioD  IX.     A.  n.  1789—1816. 


433 


(•«•,  nftPT  the  re 
Murspillod,  and 
ion.     Biirtlonux 
Carti'ttiix  look 
tho  populace, 
ul  threw  them 
il  LniiKura,  who 
,;  Spanish  fleets 
tank  which  was 
renJere (1  after  a 
eno  of  tlie  most 
iroly  ruined  and 
(lUX  took  Toulon 
of  this  place,  that 
lurage,  and  after- 
This  youth  was 
)rsica. 

jn  met,  the  Duke 
army,  had  com- 

0  raise  it  in  about 
lad  declared  war 
)     General  Mon- 
dm  made  himself 
nvention  declared 
lilo  the  allies  were 
encc  by  a  coup  de 
ured,  by  treachery. 
[oofSaxe-Teschen 
le  conquest  of  the 
jclared  war  against 
nds  (Feb.  1, 1793.) 
was  formed  againsl 

prime  supporters ; 
the  subsidies  which 
16  Christian  Sover- 
mrk. 

)lland,  and  penetra- 
to  abandon  his  ob- 
who  had  laid  siege 
;he  command  of  the 
himself  defeated  at 
ed  towards  the  fron- 

1  end  to  the  tyranny 
onstitution  of  1791, 
18.  and  delivered  up 


to  them  the  commissioners  which  'lie  Convention  had  sent  to 
deprive  him  of  his  office  ;  but  Ihm  army  haviti),'  rt-'fused  to  obey 
him,  he  escuned  to  Tounuiy,  where  (Jenerul  Clairfait  then  wa».. 
The  younjr  Duke  nf  Chartres  accompanied  him  in  his  flight. 

During  the  rest  of  the  campaign,  success  was  divided  In'tween 
the  two  parties.  The  Austriuns,  who  were  conquerors  at  Fi»- 
mars  (May  21,)  took  Conde,  Valenciennes,  and  Quesnoy  (July.) 
The  Duke  of  York,  who  con\iiianded  tho  English  army,  wa.'^ 
Deat  by  Houchard  at  Hondscote  (Sept.  8.)  Jourdun  compelled 
General  Clairfait,  by  means  of  the  battle  of  Wattignies,  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Maubeuge.  On  tho  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Span- 
ish generals,  Kicardosand  Venturu-Caro,  gained  several  advan- 
tages ;  the  former  having  taken  Bcllegardc,  CoUioure,  and  Port 
Vendre.  On  the  Rhine,  the  allies  had  the  best  of  the  campaign. 
After  an  obstinate  siege,  Mayence  surrendered  to  tho  Prussians 
(July  22,)  who  beat  Moreau  at  Pirmasens  (Sept.  14,)  though 
they  failed  in  the  siege  of  Landau.  An  army  of  tho  allies, 
80,000  strong,  commanded  by  Wurmser  and  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, forced  the  lines  at  Wissemburg  (Oct.  13,)  and  penetrated 
nearly  as  far  as  Strasburg ;  but  General  Pichegru,  who  had 
taken  the  command  of  the  French  army,  obliged  Wurmser  to 
repass  the  Rhine  (Dec.  30.)  The  Prussians  maintained  them- 
selves on  the  left  bank  of  that  river,  between  Oppenheim  and 
Bergen. 

In  France,  the  revolutionists  were  divided  into  three  parties. 
The  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  at  the  head  of  which  was 
Robespierre,  supported  by  the  club  of  Jacobins,  governed  with 
an  absolute  power.  Heoert,  Chaumette,  Anacharsis  Clootz,  a 
native  of  Prussia,  and  the  other  members  of  the  Commune  of 
Paris,  formed  a  second  party ;  more  violent  than  the  first,  but 
contemptible  from  the  character  of  the  individuals  who  composed 
it.  The  third,  comprehended  Danton,  Desmoulins,  Herault  de 
Sechelles,  and  others,  who  stood  in  awe  of  Robespierre,  and 
were  terrified  by  the  extravagant  fury  of  these  bandits.  The 
faction  of  the  Commune  was  the  first  that  was  annihilated  by 
the  temporary  union  of  the  other  two  parties  (March  24,  1794.) 
After  that,  Robespierre  found  little  difficulty  in  sending  Danton 
and  his  friends  to  the  scafTold  (April  6 ;)  but  in  a  short  time  some 
of  the  members  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  the  re- 
mains of  the  Girondist  party,  conspired  against  him.  In  order 
to  please  the  people,  he  abolished  Oie  worship  of  Reason  (May 
7,)  and  caused  the  Convention  to  proclaim  the  existence  of  a 
Supreme  Being  (June  8 ;)  he  introduced  a  new  religion,  that  of 
Deism,  of  which  he  created  himself  high-priest. 

The  power  of  Robespierre  was  now  in  its  apogee,  and  his 

28 


4' 


r 


m 


'I'fliit'*" 


434 


CHAPTER  X. 


downfall  approached.  As  the  revolutionary  tribunal  was  noi 
sufficiently  expeditious  in  despatching  those  whom  he  had  mark- 
ed out  for  destruction,  he  passed  a  decree  (June  10,)  by  which 
an  unlimited  authority  was  vested  in  that  tribunal.  This  open- 
ed the  eyes  of  his  enemies  in  the  Convention  ;  and,  not  doubt- 
ing that  they  were  doomed  to  death,  they  conspired  the  ruin  of 
the  tyrant.  T allien  and  Billaud  Varennes  were  the  first  that 
attacked  him  before  the  tribunal.  Having  repeatedly  attempted 
to  defend  himself,  he  was  prevented  by  the  voice  of  the  Assem- 
bly, crying,  "  Down  with  the  tyrant !"  At  length,  repulsed  and 
dispirited,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  arrested.  Having  found 
means,  however,  to  escape  from  the  fjuard,  he  saved  himself  in 
the  midst  of  the  Commune,  which  was  composed  of  those  who 
had  adhered  to  him  after  the  fall  of  Hebert.  Both  sides  took  to 
arms;  Robespierre  and  his  faction  were  outlawed,  but  they 
showed  little  courage.  Finding  themselves  undone,  they  en- 
deavoured to  escape  the  swords  of  the  enemy,  by  despatching 
themselves.  Robespierre  attempted  self-destruction,  but  he  only 
broke  his  jaw-bone  with  a  pistol  shot.  He  was  executed,  with 
twenty-one  of  his  accomplices  (July  28,  1794.)  Eighty-three 
others  met  the  same  fate  in  course  of  the  two  following  days; 
fi  jm  that  time  the  reign  of  terror  was  at  an  end,  and  thousands 
of  innocent  persons  were  liberated  from  the  prisons.  His  do- 
minion, however,  was  not  yet  discontinued ;  and  the  career  of 
this  Convention,  from  its  beginning  to  its  dissolution,  was  mark- 
ed by  a  series  of  cruelties  and  oppressions. 

The  campaign  of  1794  was  triumphant  for  the  French  arms. 
Pichegru  commanded  the  army  of  the  North,  and  Jourdan  that 
of  the  Sambre  and  the  Meuse.  The  Duke  of  Coburg  had  at 
first  the  command  of  the  Austrian  army ;  but  towards  the  end 
of  the  campaign,  he  transferred  it  to  Clairfait.  The  King  of 
Prussia,  become  disgusted  with  the  war,  had  threatened  to  with- 
draw his  grand  army  from  the  Rhine,  and  to  leave  only  his  con- 
tingent as  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  and  the  20,000  men  which 
he  was  bound  to  furnish  Austria,  in  virtue  of  the  alliance  of 
1792.  But  England  and  Holland  being  engaged,  by  a  conven- 
tion signed  at  the  Hague,  to  furnish  him  with  supplies,  hepro- 
mised  to  retain  62,400  men  under  arms  against  France.  Tney 
were  under  the  command  of  Field-Marshal  Mellendorff.  The 
taking  of  Charleroi  by  Jourdan,  and  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  which 
he  gained  over  the  Duke  of  Coburg  (June  26,)  decided  the  fate 
of  the  Netherlands.  After  some  movements  in  conjunction  with 
the  army  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  under  the  command  of  the  Duke 
of  Saxc-Teschen, — movements  which  had  but  little  success,  from 
the  want  of  agreement  among  the  gfenorais. — Clairfait.  at  the 


■* 


tribunal  was  noi 
lotn  he  had  mark- 
ine  10,)  bjr  which 
unal.     This  open- 
;  and,  not  douht- 
ispired  the  ruin  of 
rere  the  first  that 
peatedly  attempted 
oice  of  the  Assem- 
igth,  repulsed  and 
d.     Having  found 
e  saved  himself  in 
losed  of  those  who 

Both  sides  took  to 
jutlawed,  but  they 
;s  undone,  they  en- 
my,  by  despatching 
truction,  but  he  only 
was  executed,  with 
'94.)  Eighty-three 
two  following  days ; 

end,  and  thousands 
le  prisons.  His  do- 
;  and  the  career  of 
ssolution,  was  mark- 

for  the  French  arms, 
th,  and  Jourdan  that 
ke  of  Coburg  had  at 
but  towards  the  end 
irfait.    The  King  of 
id  threatened  to  with- 
to  leave  only  his  con- 
le  20,000  men  which 
tuc  of  the  alliance  of 
ngaged,  by  a  conven- 
with  supplies,  hepro- 
rainst  France.    Tney 
lal  MellendorfT.     The 
ttle  of  Flcurus,  which 
3  26,)  decided  the  fate 
Its  in  conjunction  with 
command  of  the  Duke 
1  but  little  success,  from 
rals.— Clairfait.  at  the 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 1815. 


435 


h»!ad  of  the  Austrian  army,  retired,  about  the  end  of  the  year,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  followed  by  MellendorfT,  whom  the 
French  had  never  been  able  to  bring  into  action. 

The  army  of  the  Pyrenees,  under  the  command  of  Dugom- 
oiier,  gained  a  splendid  victory  at  Ceret  over  General  La  Union 
vApril  30,)  and  retook  Bellegarde.  The  two  generals  of  the 
army  were  slain  at  Monte-Nero,  where,  after  a  battle  of  three 
days,  the  Spaniards  were  repulsed  by  Perignon  (Nov.  27.)  The 
French  took  Figuieres  (Feb.  4,)  and  Roses  about  cwo  month» 
after.  The  western  army  of  the  Pyreneec,  under  the  command 
of  MuUer,  entered  Spain,  took  Fontarabia  and  St.  Sebastian 
(Aug.  1,  11,)  beat  the  Spaniards  at  Pampeluna  (Nov.  8,)  and 
spread  terror  to  the  very  gates  of  Madrid.  After  the  reduction 
of  Toulon,  the  English  fleet,  under  Admiral  Howe,  being  invited 
into  Corsica  by  Paoli,  took  possession  of  that  island  (June  18,) 
which  submitted  to  Britain  as  an  independent  kingdom.  The 
French  fleet,  under  Admiral  Villaret  Joyeuse,  was  defeated  off 
Ushant  by  Admiral  Howe  (Jun«  1.)  Most  of  the  French  colo- 
nies had  already  fallen  into  the  power  of  the  English. 

General  Pichegru,  favoured  by  the  rigour  of  winter,  and  the 
intrigues  of  the  party  opposed  to  the  Ho  ;se  of  Orange,  had 
made  himself  master,  almost  without  striking  a  blow,  of  the 
United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands  (Jan.  1795,)  where  the 
Patriots  had  re-established  the  ancient  constitution,  such  as  it  had 
been  before  the  year  1788 ;  the  office  of  Stadtholder  being  again 
abolished,  as  the  Prince  of  Orange,  after  being  deprived  of  all 
his  functions,  had  fled  to  England.  France  concluded  a  treaty 
with  this  Republic  at  the  Hague  (May  16,)  where  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  latter  was  formally  acknowledged.  She  entered 
also  into  an  alliance  against  England  ;  paid  one  hundred  mil- 
lions of  florins  ;  and  ceded  a  part  of  her  territory.  It  was  at 
this  time  (June  8, 1795,)  that  the  royal  Infant  Louis  XVII.,  only 
son  oi  Louis  XVI.,  died  in  the  Temple,  in  consequence  of  the 
bad  treatment  which  he  had  endured  incessantly  for  nearly 
three  years.  His  uncle,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  Regent 
about  the  beginning  of  1793,  succeeded  him  in  his  right  to  the 
throne.  That  Prince,  who  then  resided  at  Verona,  took  the 
title  of  Louis  XVIII. 

After  the  battles  of  Mans  and  Savenay,  and  th'  taking  of  Noir- 
moutier,  the  Vendeans  had  found  themselves  grtatly  exhausted 
But  at  the  time  of  which  we  now  speak,  they  formed  themselves 
into  bands  of  insurgents  in  Brittany  and  Normandy,  under  the 
name  of  Ckovans.  After  the  death  of  Larochejacquelin,  Cha- 
rette  and  Sapineau  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Convention  at 
Tausnaie  (Feb.  17, 1795.)  Cormartin,  the  leader  of  the  Chouans, 


„  f  ■  ' , 


;t  >■  -i 


:: 


i  1 1 '( 


43G 


CHAPTER  X. 


did  the  same  at  Mabilais ;  but,  a  few  weeks  after,  the  Conven- 
tion caused  hitn  to  be  arrested  and  shot,  with  seven  other  chiefs. 
This  was  the  signal  for  a  new  insurrection.  The  English  go- 
vernment  at  length  resolved  to  send  assistance  to  the  Royalists. 
A  body  of  emigrants  and  French  prisoners  of  war  were  landed 
in  the  Bay  of  Quiberon  (June  18.)  But  the  whole  of  the  expe- 
dition  was  badly  managed,  and  had  a  most  disastrous  result. 
General  Hoche  attacked  the  troops  on  their  debarkation.  Tbo 
greater  part  might  have  saved  themselves  on  board  the  vessels  ; 
but  the  Marquis  de  Sombreuil,  and  five  hiindred  and  sixty  young 
men  of  the  best  families,  were  taken  and  shot  by  order  of  Tal- 
lien  (June  21,)  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  General  Hoche,  who 
declared  that  he  had  promised  to  spare  their  lives. 

In  the  National  Convention,  two  parties  were  contending  foi 
the  superiority ;  the  Thermidorians  or  Moderates,  and  the  Ter- 
rorists. The  inhabitants  of  Paris,  reduced  to  de.spair  by  the 
dearth  which  the  waximum  had  caused,  and  instigated  by  the 
Jacobins,  had  several  times  revolted,  especially  on  the  days  of 
the  12th  Germinal  (April  1,)  and  the  1st  Prairial  (May  20.) 
The  moderate  party,  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  many  of 
the  deputies  proscribed  since  the  2d  June  1793,  gained  the  vie 
tory  ;  and  purged  the  Convention,  by  banishing  or  putting  to 
death  the  most  execrable  of  the  Terrorists.  They  even  concili- 
ated, in  some  respects,  the  opinion  of  the  public,  by  drawing  up 
a  new  constitution  (June  23,)  \vhich  might  appear  wise  and  ju- 
dicious compared  with  the  maxims  which  had  been  disseminated 
for  several  years.  Its  fundamental  elements  were  a  Legislative 
Body,  composed  of  two  elective  chambers ;  one  of  which  was 
to  have  the  originating  of  the  laws,  and  the  other,  composed  of 
men  of  judgment  and  experience,  was  to  be  invested  with  a 
veto.  The  executive  power  was  to  be  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a 
Council  of  five  persons,  clothed  with  an  authority  greater  than 
that  which  the  Constitution  of  1791  had  given  to  the  King. 
The  Convention  passed  several  other  laws,  which  indicated  a 
desire  to  return  to  the  principles  of  morality.  They  also  resolved 
to  exchange  Madame  Royale,  the  only  remains  of  the  family  of 
Louis  XVI.,  for  the  deputies  delivered  up  by  Dumouriez.  Bui 
they  lost  again  the  iflTections  of  the  people,  by  their  laws  of  the 
6th  and  13th  F-uctidor  of  the  year  Three,  (Aug.  22,  &  30, 
1795.)  Premo'iished  by  the  fault  which  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly had  committed,  in  prohibiting  its  members  from  entering 
into  the  Legislative  Body,  and  wishmg,  at  the  same  time,  tc  s- 
cape  punishment  for  the  many  crimes  they  had  committed,  they 
ordained  that  two-thirds  of  the  members  then  composing  the 
Convention,  should,  of  necessity,  become  a  part  of  the  new  Le- 


■BSSE 


PEHIOD  IX.       A.  D.   1789 — 1816. 


437 


it 


after,  the  Conven- 

seven  other  chiefs. 

The  English  go- 

ce  to  the  Royalists. 

if  war  were  landed 

whole  of  the  expe- 

disastrous  resuU. 

.  debarkation.     Tbo 

n  board  the  vessels  ; 

Ired  and  sixty  young 

lot  by  order  of  Tal- 

General  Hoche,  who 

ir  lives. 

were  contending  foi 
lerates,  and  the  Ter- 
;d  to  despair  by  the 
and  instigated  by  the 
icially  on  the  days  of 
it  Prairial  (May  20.) 
accession  of  many  of 
1793,  gained  the  vie 
nishing  or  putting  to 
.     They  even  concili- 
public,  by  drawing  up 
It  appear  wise  and  ju- 
had  been  disseminated 
nts  were  a  Legislative 
3  ;  one  of  which  was 
he  other,  composed  of 
to  be  invested  with  a 
Iged  in  the  hands  of  a 
authority  greater  than 
id  given  to  the  King, 
iws,  which  indicated  a 
ly.   They  also  resolved 
jmains  o"f  the  family  of 
p  by  Dumouriez.     But 
e,  by  their  laws  of  the 
rhree,  (Aug.  22,  &  30, 
;h  the  Constituent  As- 
niembers  from  entering 
at  the  same  time,  tc    s- 
ey  had  committed,  they 
irs  then  composing  the 
!  a  part  of  the  new  Le- 


gislation ;  and  that  if  the  Primary  Assemblies  did  not  re-appoint 
five  hundred  of  the  ex-conventional  deputies,  the  newly  elected 
members  should  themselves  complete  the  quota,  by  adding  a 
sufficier    number  of  their  ancient  colleagues. 

The  New  Constitution  had  been  submitted  for  the  approba- 
tion of  the  people,  which  they  doubted  not  it  would  receive,  as  it 
was  to  deliver  France  from  the  revolutionary  faction.  The  Con- 
vention took  advantage  of  this  disposition  of  the  people,  to  cor..- 
pel  the  Sections  likewise  to  accept  the  two  decrees,  by  declar- 
ing them  an  integral  part  of  the  Constitution.  But  this  attempt 
was  the  occasion  of  new  troubles.  The  Sections  of  Paris  wished 
to  vote  separately  on  the  Constitution,  and  on  the  decrees  which, 
in  that  case,  would  have  been  rejected  over  all  France;  the 
moderate  party  of  the  Convention,  if  we  can  honour  them  with 
that  name,  joined  with  the  Terrorists.  Perceiving  the  storm  to 
be  gathering,  they  now  sought  assistance  and  support  from  the 
troops  whose  camp  was  pitched  under  the  walls  of  Paris.  They 
armed  a  large  body  of  men,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Bona- 
parte, who  gained  a  sanguinary  victory  over  the  Parisians,  on 
the  13th  Vendemiaire,  in  the  year  Three  (October  5th,  1795.) 
The  desire  to  restore  the  Bourbons  had  been  the  secret  motive 
with  the  chiefs  of  the  insurrection. 

A  new  Legislative  Body  assembled,  which  might  be  regarded 
as  a  continuation  of  the  Convention  ;  so  long  at  least  as  the  five 
hundred  deputies  of  the  Convention  were  not  excluded,  who  sat 
in  consequence  of  the  annual  renewals  of  one-third  of  its  mem- 
bers. The  Executive  Directory,  appointed  by  the  Council  of 
the  Ancients  from  a  hst  presented  by  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred, consisted  of  Lareveillere-Lepeaux,  Rewbel,  Barras,  Le 
Tourneur,  and  Carn6t,  who  had  replaced  Sieyes, — this  member 
having  declined  to  make  one  of  the  Directory — the  whole  five 
being  Regicides.  The  forms  of  Terrorism  were  mitigated  in 
some  respects,  but  the  morals  of  the  administration  gained  no- 
thing by  the  change.  The  reign  of  the  Directory  was  an  era  of 
corruption  and  dissoluteness,  whose  effects  were  long  felt.  An 
Unbounded  avarice  seized  the  nation,  and  the  Directory  encour- 
aged and  fed  that  shameful  passion,  by  lending  itself  to  the 
most  infamous  traffic.  Men  coveted  the  nobility  of  riches, 
rather  than  that  of  honour  and  birth. 

The  Directory  had  to  struggle  against  two  inconveniences ; 
the  one  was  the  spirit  of  rebellion,  which  induced  the  Terrorists 
to  form  a  I'onspiracy  among  themselves, — such  as  that  of  Druet 
and  Babeuf  (Mny  10,  1796,)  and  that  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Conspiracy  of  the  Camp  at  Grenoble  (Sept.  9.) 
The  other  inconvenience  was  still  more  serious,  namely,  the 


.f; 


''■J 


ma. 


I  S.t^ 


438 


CHAPTER  X. 


^Srmirp'riv  "V  neffecmal.  .he  ...igna.s  ™re  reptaced 

t"Sl:o„'';Ll°~d.h.,  U  ».u.dhe  found  n--y 

then  »e':ame  ■  •;         ^  ^^^^^  accustomed  to  pay. 

'ThTEtcudve  oTreSory  had  succeeded  in  puttingan  end  to 
thPwL  in  La  Vendee.     This  success  was  owing  to  the  firmness 

=B:53£^t:o»S^S'S^^! 

%teS.ral"^^^^^^  a  third  of  the  members  of  the 
two  eg\l  ve  councils,  the  moderate  party  gamed  the  ascend 
ancv  On  M.  Berthelemy's  being  appointed  to  the  Directory, 
here  aro"e  a  schism  between  LareveiUere-Lepeaux,  Rewbel  and 
Barras  who  were  called  the  Triumvirs,  and  Carndt  and  Ber- 
fhelmayrwho  were  inclined  for  peace,  and  for  p77g,7^^"^^° 
therea  ures  of  the  Kevolution.  The  triumvirate  lost  the  ma- 
oritv  ia  the  Council,  where  Pichegru  had  put  himbelf  at  the 
Dof  the  moderate  party,  who  hoped  to  restore  the  monarchy. 
R^yil   4'  aS£  by'^^^  of  W  press  -hich  France^t  en 

erioved,  had  made  such  progress  as  frightened  the  triumvirs 
Thev  thought  themselves  sure  of  the  army,  so  easy  to  be  sedu- 
red  when  thev  are  allowed  to  deliberate  ;  and  especially  of  Bo- 
naparte      They  hen  performed  the  exploit,  which  ,s  known  by 
?he  name  of  the  Revolution  of  the  18th  Fruct.dor  (Sept.  4^ 

Si;  and  he  moderate  kws,  issued  three  months  befo^. 
were  superseded  by  revolutionary  measures.  The  au  hors,  ed- 
■.         „n,1  nrinters  of  rovalist  or  moderate  Journals,  were  a  so 


ts 


itity  of  assigtiats 

',000  francs.   To 

)0,000  in  specie. 

Its  vere  replaced 

;  and  finally  by 

the  former  after 

ere  put  into  effec- 

!  found  necessary 

The  State  thus 

ions  of  francs.    It 

system  of  regular 

omed  to  pay. 

putting  an  end  to 

ing  to  the  firmness 

was  betrayed,  and 

ho  had  fallen  into 

ime  fate  at  Nantes 

[March  29.)     The 

Generals,  signed  a 

idal,  the  leader  of 

le  members  of  the 
gained  the  ascend- 
d  to  the  Directory, 
peaux,  Rewbel,  and 
I  Carn6t  and  Ber- 
ir  putting  an  end  to 
ivirate  lost  the  ma- 
put  himself  at  the 
store  the  monarchy, 
which  France  then 
sned  the  triumvirs, 
so  easy  to  be  sedu- 
id  especially  of  Bo- 
which  is  known  by 
?"ructidor  (Sept.  4.) 
erthelemy  and  Car- 
l  such  of  them  aa 
!erts  of  Sinamari  in 
two  Councils  were 
iree  months  before, 
The  authors,  ed- 
Journais,  were  also 
olished,  and  contin- 
Merlin,  n  la-vjer  of 


r&'iffiriwr'r- , 


PEIIIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 1815. 


439 


Douay,  was  appointed  to  the  place  of  one  of  the  exiled  Direc- 
tors, and  the  poet  Francois,  a  native  of  Neuch&teau  in  Lorrain,  to 
that  of  another. 

Here,  it  will  be  proper  to  take  a  retrospect  of  the  events  of  the 
war.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  was  the  first  th^it  set  the 
example  of  a  reconciliation  with  France,  which  wi-  signed  at 
Paris,  (Feb.  9,  1795.)  The  King  of  Prussia,  whf.j  finances 
were  exhausted,  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  Berthelemejr, 
the  Republican  ambassador,  which  was  concluded  at  Basle  by 
Baron  Hardenberg,  (April  5.)  Prussia  not  only  abandoned  the 
coalition ;  she  even  guaranteed  the  neutrality  of  the  North  of 
Germany,  according  to  a  line  of  demarcation  which  was  fixed 
by  a  special  convention,  (May  17.)  The  Landgrave  of  Hesse 
Cassel  likewise  made  peace  at  Basle,  (Aug.  28th.) 

The  retreat  of  the  Prussians  oa  the  one  hand,  and  the  scar- 
city which  prevailed  in  France  on  the  other,  had  retarded  the 
qpening  of  the  campaign  of  1795.  Field  Marshal  Bender  hav- 
<ng  reduced  Luxemburg,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months,  and  a 
plentiful  harvest  having  once  more  restovd  abundance,  the 
iirmy  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse,  commanr^ed  by  Jourdan,  and 
■-hat  of  the  Rhi  iC  and  Moselle,  under  Pichegru,  passed  the  Rhine. 
The  former,  being  beat  at  Hochst  by  Clairfait,  (Oct.  11,)  repas- 
sed that  river  in  disorder;  and  Mayence,  then  under  siege,  was 
relieved.  Pichegru,  who  had  taken  Manheim,  (Sept.  22,)  re- 
treated in  like  manner,  and  General  Wurmser  retook  that  city. 
An  armistice  was  concluded  on  the  last  day  of  the  year. 

In  Italy  the  French  were  expelled  from  Piedmont  and  the 
States  of  Genoa,  which  they  had  invaded ;  but  the  victory  which 
Scherer  gained  over  de  Vins  at  Lovano  (Nov.  23,)  was  a  pre- 
lude to  greater  advantages,  which  they  gained  in  course  of  next 
year. 

In  Spain,  Moncey  gained  the  battle  of  Ormea,  and  occupied 
Bilboa.  But  the  peace  which  the  Chevalier  Yriarte  signed  at 
Basle,  (July  6,)  put  an  end  to  his  conquests.  The  King  of  Spain 
ceded  to  the  Republic  his  part  of  the  Island  of  St.  Domingo. 
Lord  Bridpoit  defeated  the  French  fleet  off  L'Orient,  (June  23, 
1795,)  which  intended  to  oppose  the  debarkation  of  the  emi- 
grants at  Quiberon.  The  coalition,  which  the  retirement  of 
Prussia  and  Spain  had  threatened  to  dissolve,  gained  fresh 
strength  by  several  new  alliances,  such  as  that  of  Vienna,  be- 
tween Austria  and  Great  Britain,  (May  20,)  and  the  Triple  Al- 
liance of  St.  Petersburg,  (Sept.  28.) 

The  campaign  of  1796,  was  glorious  for  the  French  arms  in 
Italy.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  there,  at  the  head  of  an  army 
destitute  of  every  thing  except  courage.     By  a  series  of  vie- 


H 


t>l 


:  ; ;  '1 


«»1  3 


ii,  ; 


440 


CHAPTER   X. 


tories  which  he  gained  at  Montenotte,  Deco,  Millesimo,  Ceva, 
and  Mondovi,  over  the  Austrian  General  Beaulieux,  and  the 
Sardinian  General  Colli,  he  obliged  the  King  of  Sardinia  to 
sign  a  truce  at  Cherasco,  (April  28,)  by  which  he  surrendered 
up  three  fortresses.  Bonaparte  passed  the  Po  at  Placentia ; 
granted  a  truce  on  very  disadvantageous  terms  to  the  Duke  of 
Parma ;  and  forced  the  passage  of  the  Bridge  of  Lodi,  (May 
9.)  The  fate  of  Lombardy  was  decided.  Cremona  and  Piz- 
zighitone  opened  their  gates  to  the  conqueror,  (May  14,)  who 
soon  made  his  entry  into  Milan.  The  Duke  of  Modena  obtain- 
ed a  suspension  of  arms.  The  King  of  Sardinia  agreed  to  sign 
a  peace  at  Paris,  by  which  he  surrendered  Savoy  and  the  dis- 
trict of  Nice.  The  terror  of  the  French  arms  was  so  great, 
that  the  King  of  Naples  promised  to  remain  neutral,  by  a  con- 
vention which  he  concluded  at  Brescia  (June  6.)  The  Pope 
also  obtained  neutrality,  by  the  armistice  of  Bologna,  (June  28,) 
but  on  conditions  exceeding  "y  severe.  Though  the  war  had 
ceased  in  Tuscany,  a  body  of  French  troops  occupied  Leghorn, 
(June  28,)  to  seize  the  English  merchandise  in  that  port. 

The  Court  of  Vienna  was  resolved  to  make  every  effort  to 
save  Mantua,  the  only  place  which  remained  to  them  in  Italy. 
At  th^  head  of  50,000  fresh  troops,  Wurmser  marched  from  the 
Tyrol,  broke  the  French  lines  on  the  Adige,  (July  31,)  and  com- 
pelled Bonaparte  to  raise  the  siege  of  Mantua.  The  latter 
General  encountered  the  Austrians,  and  beat  them  al  Castig- 
lione  ;  without  however,  being  able  to  prevent  Wurmser  from 
throwing  fresh  supplies  into  Mantua.  This  place  was  invested 
a  second  time  ;  and  a  second  time  the  Austrian  army  marched 
to  its  relief.  While  Bonaparte  was  engaged  with  Davidovitch 
at  Roveredo,  (Sept.  4,)  and  Massena  pushing  on  as  far  as  Trent, 
Wurmser  marched  in  all  haste  towards  Mantua.  Bonaparte 
suddenly  directed  his  course  against  him,  vanquished  him  in 
several  battles,  and  compelled  him  to  throw  himself,  with  th'3 
wreck  of  his  army  into  the  fortress  (Sept.  15.)  After  this 
event,  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  the  Duke  of  Parma, 
signed  a  definitive  neace  at  Paris ;  and  the  Republic  of  Genoa 
concluded  a  treaty,  (Oct.  9,)  by  which  it  retained  at  least  the 
appearance  of  indtpendence.  Austria  tried  a  third  time  to 
relieve  Mantua.  Two  armies  under  the  command  of  Alvinzi 
and  Daviii'^vitch  marched,  the  one  from  Friuli,  and  the  other 
from  the  Tyrol.  The  former  was  encountered  by  Bonaparte, 
who  defeated  them  in  a  sanguinary  iction  at  Arcole,  (Nov.  17.) 
Immediately  he  directed  his  march  aj^ainst  the  other,  and  beat 
them  at  Rivoli,  (Nov.  21.) 

While  matters  were  thus  passing  in  Italy,  the  army  of  the 


I 


illesimo,  Ceva, 

ulieux,  and  the 

of  Sardinia  to 

he  surrendered 

o  at  Placentia; 

to  the  Duke  of 

of  Lodi,  (May 

cmona  and  Piz- 

,  (May  14,)  who 

f  Modena  obtain- 

lia  agreed  to  sign 

voy  and  the  dis- 

is  was  so  great, 

leutral,  by  a  con- 

;  6.)     The  Pope 

tlogna,  (June  28,) 

igh  the  war  had 

ccupied  Leghorn, 

1  that  port. 

ie  every  effort  to 

to  them  in  Italy. 

marched  from  the 

Fuly  31,)  and  com- 

ntua.     The  latter 

it  them  at  Castig- 

it  Wurmser  from 

place  was  invested 

in  army  marched 

with  Davidovitch 

JR  as  far  as  Trent, 

mtua.     Bonaparte 

anquished  him  in 

himself,  with  the 

15.)      After  this 

Duke  of  Parma, 

lepublic  of  Genoa 

tained  at  least  the 

I  a  third  time  to 

nimand  of  Alvinzi 

uli,  and  the  other 

red  by  Bonaparte, 

Arcole,  (Nov.  17.) 

lie  other,  and  beat 

',  the  army  of  the 


PERIOD  IX.       A.  D.   1789 1815. 


441 


Sambre  and  Mouse,  commanded  by  Jourdan,  had  sevi,,il  en- 
gagements with  the  Archduke-Charles,  brother  of  the  Emperor, 
on  ilie  Sieg  and  the  Lahn.  Morcau,  at  the  head  of  the  army  of 
the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  passed  the  Rhine  at  Strasburg,  and  gained 
several  advantages  over  the  army  which  Wurmser  hail  com- 
manded at  the  beginning  of  the  campaign  ;  he  concluded  truces 
with  the  Duke  of  Wurtembcrg,  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  and  the 
Circle  of  Swabia,  who  supplied  him  with  money  and  provisions, 
(July,)  and  penetrated  into  Bavaria,  the  Elector  of  which  was  also 
obliged  to  submit  to  very  rigorous  conditions,  (Sept.  7,)  to  obtain 
a  suspension  of  arnis.  Jourdan,  on  his  side,  having  also  passed 
the  Rhine,  marched  through  Franconia,  as  far  as  iho  Upper 
Palatinate.  The  iichduke-Charles,  who,  since  the  departure  of 
Wurmser  for  Ita'.y,  had  been  at  the  head  of  all  the  Austrian 
armies  in  Germany,  retired  before  so  great  a  superiority  of  num- 
bers, and  drew  near  to  the  quarter  whence  he  expected  the  ar- 
rival of  reinforcements.  He  immediately  fell  on  the  undis- 
ciplined army  of  Jourdan,  defeated  them  at  Aniberg,(Aug.  24,) 
and  Wurtsburg,  (Sept.  3;)  and  put  them  so  completely  to  the 
rout,  that  tiiey  were  obliged  to  repass  the  Rhine  (Sept.  19.)  This 
disaster  compelled  Moreau  to  make  his  retreat ;  in  effecting 
which,  he  displayed  the  talents  of  a  great  general.  After  a 
number  of  engagements,  in  which  he  was  more  frequently  the 
conqueror  than  conquered,  he  brought  back  his  army  to  Hunin- 

fen,  (Oct.  26,)  where  they  passed  the  Rhine.   That  fortress  and 
[ehl  were  the  only  points  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  which 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  French. 

The  Cabinet  of  London,  finding  that  Spain  had  declared  war 
against  her  (Aug.  19,)  according  to  the  treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso 
which  allied  her  strictly  with  France  ;  and  moreover,  seeing 
Ireland  threatened  with  an  invasion,  ordered  the  British  troops 
to  evacuate  the  island  of  Corsica,  (Oct.  21,)  of  which  the  French 
took  possession.  Lord  Malmesbury  was  sent  to  Lille  to  nego- 
tiate a  peace  (Oct.  24,)  which  he  was  not  able  to  obtain,  because 
the  conditions  were  not  agreeable  to  the  three  Directors  who 
formed  the  majority.  The  attempts  which  the  French  made  to 
land  in  Ireland  (Dec.  22,)  under  Admiral  Morard  de  Galles,  and 
General  Hoche,  proved  unsuccessful. 

In  1797,  the  Austrians  made  a  fourth  attempt  to  save  Man- 
tua. Alvinzi  arrived  with  80,000  men  ;  but  after  several  bloody 
engagements,  this  army  was  dispersed,  and  old  Wunnser  was 
compelled  to  surrender  Mantua  by  capitulation  (Feb.  2.)  Bo- 
naparte, who  had  broken  his  truce  with  the  Pope,  invaded  the 
Ecclesiastical  States  ;  but  being  menaced  in  the  rear  by  a  new 
Austrian  army,  he  again  made  peace  with  his  Holiness  at  To- 


J 


n 


*  ';  > 


Si 


.iH 


442 


CIMPTKR    X. 


i\! 


m 


luntino  (Feb.  19.)  The  Pope,  besides  renouncing  Avignon  i\nd 
the  Venaissin,  ceded  also  Fcrrara,  Bologna  and  Komagnn.  The 
new  Austrian  army  in  Italy  was  commanded  by  the  Archduke- 
Charles  ;  but  not  being  able  to  cope  with  that  of  Bonaparte  in 
pitched  battle,  the  Archduke  retired  through  the  Tyrol  and  Curin- 
thia  into  Stiria,  where  he  was  followed  by  the  French  General. 
This  precipitate  march  threw  the  French  army  into  a  situation 
highly  perilous;  since,  besides  the  want  of  provisions,  they  were 
menaced  in  the  rear  by  an  insurrection  of  the  Tyrol,  and  the 
arms  of  the  Venetian  Republic.  Bonaparte  then  offered  peace, 
which  was  accepted  by  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna,  and  signed  at 
Leoben  (April  18,  1797,)  the  same  day  that  Heche  passed  the 
Rhine  at  Neuwied ;  and  two  days  after  Moreau  had  passed  that 
river  at  Strasburg. 

The  preliminaries  at  Leoben  were  honourable  for  Austria. 
She  renounced,  it  is  true,  Belgium  and  all  her  possessions  in 
Italy,  as  far  as  the  Oglio  ;  but  she  was  indemnified  by  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  Venetian  territory,  as  well  as  by  Istria  and 
Dalmatia ;  for  which  the  Republic  were  to  receive  Bologna, 
Ferrara  and  Romagna  ;  Peschiera  and  Mantua  were  to  be  sur- 
rendered to  the  Emperor.  France  recognised  the  principle,  that 
the  integrality  of  the  Empire  was  to  be  the  basis  of  a  pacifica- 
tion with  the  Germanic  Body.  Immediately  after  the  peace  ol 
Leoben,  Bonaparte,  without  having  received  orders,  overturned 
the  Venetian  Republic,  and  caused  his  troops  to  occupy  that 
city  (May  16.)  He  united  the  provinces  of  Lombardy  which 
Austria  had  ceded,  into  a  Republic,  on  the  model  of  that  oi 
France  (June  29;)  and  this  new  State  was  called  the  Cisalpine 
Republic.  He  obliged  the  Genoese  to  change  their  government, 
and  toconstitute  themselves  into  the  Ligurian  Republic  (June  6.) 

The  negotiations  for  a  definitive  peace  were  long  in  coming 
to  a  conclusion.  Bonaparte  regretted  having  promised  the 
restitution  of  Mantua ;  and  the  three  Jacobin  members  of  the 
Directory,  who  were  displeased  with  the  terms  on  which  the 
peace  with  Germany  was  to  be  founded,  began  to  intrigue  for 
the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  and  with  this  view, 
to  protract  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  until  the  Revolution  of 
the  18th  Fructidor  should  gain  their  party  the  asseiulancy.  The 
negotiations  with  Lord  Malmesbury  were  immediately  broken 
off;  and  Bonaparte  threatened  to  resume  hostilities,  unless 
Austria  would  accept  the  conditions  dictated  by  the  New  Di- 
rectory. Peace  was  at  length  concluded  at  Cainpo  Formio  near 
Udina,  (Oct.  17,)  by  Buonaparte,  and  Count  Louis  de  Cobenal. 
The  two  parties  divided  between  them,  it  is  said,  the  whole  ter- 
ritory of  the  Republic  of  Venice  ;  so  that  the  Adige  should  be 


ig  Avignon  nnd 

'lomugna.  The 

the  Archduke- 
}f  Bonaparte  in 
fyroland  Carin- 

rench  General. 

into  a  situation 
sions,  they  were 

Tyrol,  and  the 

in  offered  peace, 

and  signed  at 

xhe  passed  the 

had  passed  that 

ble  for  Austria, 
possessions  in 
nified  by  a  con- 
as  by  Istria  and 
eceive  Bologna, 
were  to  be  sur- 
le  principle,  that 
sis  of  a  pacifica- 
'ter  the  peace  ol 
rders,  overturned 
s  to  occupy  that 
ionibardy  which 
model  of  that  ol 
ed  the  Cisalpine 
leir  government, 
cpublic  (June  6.) 
long  in  coming 
g  promised  the 
members  of  the 
s  on  which  the 
to  intrigue  for 
with  this  view, 
le  Revolution  of 
ssendancy.  The 
lediately  broken 
ostilitics,  unless 
ly  the  New  Di- 
ipo  Formio  near 
uis  de  Cobenzl. 
1,  the  whole  ter- 
kdige  should  be 


I 


PERIOD  IX.       A.   I).    1781) — 1815. 


443 


ihe  frontier  on  the  Continent  of  Italy,  while  tin-  Venetian  Is- 
lands, on  thtj  coast  of  Albania  and  Turkey,  should  belong  to 
France.  Austrian  Lonibardy,  with  Peschiera  and  Mantua,  the 
Modenois,  and  the  Venetian  territory  to  the  west  of  the  Adige, 
and  the  three  Leijutincs  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  nnd  Roningna, 
were  to  form  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  A  Congress  for  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  the  Empire  was  to  be  opened  at  Rasladt.  By 
certain  secret  articles,  the  Emperor  consented  eventually  to  the 
perpetual  and  complete  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ; 
and  stipulated  for  him.self  the  possession  of  Salzburg,  in  case  of 
a  partial  cession ;  and  greater  advantages,  provided  the  whole 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine  were  abandoned  to  France.  The  States 
of  Germany,  who  might  suffer  loss  by  the  partial  or  total  cession 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  were  to  receive  indemnification 
in  Germany,  as  was  expressed  in  the  treaty.  A  compensation 
was  to  be  allowed  to  the  Prince  of  Orange  ;  but  this  was  not 
to  take  place  in  the  neiffhbourhood  of  the  Batuvian  Republic, 
nor  in  that  of  the  Austrian  posscss^ions.  Prus.sia  was  to  pre 
serve  hei  provinces  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  but  she  was 
to  claim  no  new  acquisitions  in  Germany. 

The  Directory  were  not  eipially  satished  with  all  the  articles 
of  this  treaty;  bat  they  durst  not  disavow  the  negotiator,  who 
had  assisted  in  accomplisbin?  the  Revolution  of  the  18th  Fruc- 
tidor.  The  French  government  were  displeased  with  the  in- 
crease of  power  granted  to  Austria,  and  especially  with  the 
dismemberment  of  Bavaria,  which  Rewbol,who  piqued  himself 
on  his  political  abilities,  regarded  with  reason  as  contrary  to  the 
interests  of  France.  Moreover,  the  articles  relative  to  Prussia 
and  the  Prince  of  Orange  were  in  direct  opposition  to  the  Con- 
vention of  Berlin,  (1794,)  which  was  the  basis  of  the  existing 
unanimity  between  Prussia  and  France.  By  that  Convention 
the  Bishopric  of  Munster  was  made  over  to  the  King,  by  way  of 
reimbursement  for  his  possessions  beyond  the  Rhine  ;  while  the 
House  of  Orange  was  to  have  Wurtzburg  and  Bamberg.  These 
circumstances  obliged  the  Directory  to  conceal  from  the  Court  of 
Berlin  the  secret  articles  of  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  ;  and 
this  constraint  greatly  embarrassed  them,  by  the  mistrust  which 
it  excited  on  the  part  of  Prussia. 

General  Bonaparte,  with  Trielhard  and  Bonnier,  members 
Df  the  Convention,  were  appointed  to  negotiate  at  Rastadt  with 
the  deputation  of  the  Empire.  Bonaparte  made  only  a  short  stay 
(here,  to  sign  a  secret  convention  with  Count  Louis  de  Cobenzl, 
(Dec.  1 ;)  according  to  which  Mayence  was  to  be  restored  to  the 
(ruops  of  the  French  Republic,  in  fulfilment  of  what  had  been 
resolved  on  at  Campo  Formio.     The  object  which  the  French 


I 


I  . 


;! 


i 


'/^ 


i  "I 


444 


CIIAPTEn  X. 


n.-otittt.rs  proposoa.  was  to  obtnm  the  entire  ''c^''""  "  ^^f 
left  bunk  of  the  Rhino,  free  from  all  charges  ;  and  to  obtain  ,t 
V  ho  u  boinir  ..bliR,Hl  to  p.ir.lK,«e  it  at  the  price  which  Bona- 
pa  te  had  pro^nis..!  to  Austria.  The  means  tor  attammff  the 
Sect  veUlo  seaiie  tlie  consent  of  the  majority  of  the  deputa- 
"ion  mid  the  agroemeiit  of  I'n.ssia,  and  then  to  prevail  with 
Ihe  la  ir  to  object  to  ihe  dimnembernK-nt  of  Bavar.a-a  measure 
which  would  compel  France  to  reveal  the  secret  negotiations 
at  Camno  Forinio.  The  first  proposition  on  which  these  mm- 
isters  (lemanded  the  cession  of  the  whole  left  bank  of  the 
E  e  became  the  subject  of  a  tedious  negotiation,  RH«"'ile Kr 
nronolc'l  aTd  thwarted  by  a  thousand  intrigues.     At  lenglfi 

h"  deputation  admitted  itW-h  ^f  •)  ^"V^TrS  U.en 
which  the  ministers  were  determined  to  reject.  The  latter  then 
proposed  as  a  second  basis,  the  idemnification  of  the  princes  in 
possession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  which  was  adopted 
^without  much  difficultv  ^!iarch  15.)  The  third  d~\  ^ 
ferred  to  the  manner  of"  carrying  the  fundamental  articles  in  o 
execution.  On  this  ground  the  French  advanced  a  multitude 
of  pretensions,  each  more  unjust  and  more  ridiculous  than  the 

"'until  then  the  negotiations,  in  all  probability,  w-re  serious 
on  the  part  of  Austria  and  France  ;  as  the  former,  supported  by 
r"i  sia,\oped  to  obtain  the  consent  of  Prussia  to  the  dismem- 
be  r^ent  of  Bavaria ;   while  France,  on  her  side,  vainly  antici- 
pated a  sUcfallLc;  with  the  Cabinet  of  Berlin,  which  would 
Save  e^mbled  lh<  Directory  to  have  dictated  its  own  conditions 
of  neae      B.   .towards  iL  middle  of  the  year,  war  had  be- 
come  inevitable,  in  consequence  of  the  numerous  aggressions 
which  the  Executive  Directory  had  committed  in  difTerent  coun- 
tries      To  them  war  had  become  necessary  to  occupy  their  ar- 
m'es.     The  continuation  of  the  Congress  at  Rastadt,  therefore, 
served  m.>relv  to  gain  time  to  prepare  for  hostilities      1    the 
C"urt  of  '/ieina  had  flattered  themselves,  that  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  would  form  an  independent  State.they  were  undeceived 
?;^he  treaty  of  alliance  with  France  which  t^at  Republic  was 
otliged  to  accept,  in  spite  of  the  determined  refusal  »[.  tl\«  C^oun- 
cil  of  Ancients.     It  was,  in  reality,  a  treaty  of  subjection   by 
which,  among  other  articles,  it  was  stipulated  that    here  should 
always  be  25,000  French  troops  in  the  Cisalpine  States,  tor  the 
support  of  which  they  should  pay  eighteen  millions  per  annum. 
A  tumult  having  happened  at  Rome,  •"  wh'ch  .°ne  of  the 
French  generals  was  killed,  the  Directory  made  Uiis  a  pretext 
for  invading  the  Ecclesiastical  States.     General  Berthier  pro- 
ckimed  thf  Roman  Fepublic  (Feb.  15,  179S;)  and  Pope  ^us 


cession  of  ihe 
d  to  obtain  it 
whicli  Bonn- 
fUtnininp  the 
of  the  (lepnta- 
[o  prevail  with 
ia — a  measure 
t  negotiations 
ich  these  min- 
"t  bank  of  the 
ion,  ttltornatel 
■s.     At  lenf^lli 
Icr  restrictions 
The  latter  then 
the  princes  in 
h  was  adopted 
rd  demand  re- 
articles  into 
red  a  multitude 
ulous  than  the 


lely 
L'th 


la 


y,  •.V'^re  serious 
3r,  supported  by 
to  the  dismem- 
le,  vainly  antici- 
n,  which  would 
own  conditions 
ir,  war  had  be- 
ous  aggressions 
1  different  coun- 
)ccupy  their  ar- 
stadt,  therefore, 
3tilities.  If  the 
it  the  Cisalpine 
vere  undeceived 
it  Republic  was 
sal  of  the  Coun- 
f  subjection,  by 
lat  there  should 
e  States,  for  the 
ons  per  annum, 
lich  one  of  the 
le  this  a  pretext 
il  Berth  ier  uro- 
and  Pope  Pius 


1 


ya<M 


PBRinU  IX.      A.  D.  1789 — ISl/J. 


445 


VI.  was  curried  captive  to  France  where  In-  died,  (Aug.  29, 1799.^ 

The  Directory,  from  no  just  motive,  excited  a  revolution  in 
Switzerland  ;  and  under  pretence  of  being  invited  by  one  of  the 
jMrties,  they  sent  troon^  into  that  country  (Jan.  26;)  overturned 
the  exi.«ting  order  of  tliinjfs  ;  and  under  the  title  of  the  Ihlrrtir 
Rtpiihlir,  they  established  a  government  entirely  .subject  on 
their  authority  (April  11.)  A  piece  of  imprudence,  conimitl«'d 
oy  the  French  ambassador  at  Vienna,  was  the  cause  of  a  populu.- 
commotion  there  ;  in  consequence  of  which  he  ([uitted  his  ^ituT- 
tion.  This  event  made  a  great  noise.  It  gave  ri.'^e  to  the  con- 
ferences which  took  place  at  Seltz  in  Alsace  (April  13,)  between 
the  Ex-Director  Francois  and  Count  De  Cobenzl  ;  in  which 
France  and  Austria  tried,  for  ibe  last  time,  if  it  were  possible  to 
corno  to  a  proper  understanding  regarding  their  mutual  interests. 
These  conferences  had  no  other  effect  than  to  convince  the  Court 
of  Vienna,  that  they  must  turn  the  current  of  their  politics  into 
a  new  channel. 

A  French  fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral  Breueix,  sailed  from 
Toulon  (May  19,)  with  General  Bonaparte  and  40,000  men. 
When  they  arrived  off  Malta,  Bonaparte  got  possession  of  that 
island  by  means  of  a  capitulation,  signed  in  name  of  the  order  of 
St.  John  (June  12,)  by  some  of  the  knights  who  had  disclaimed 
all  submission  to  the  Grand  Master  and  the  Assembly  of  the 
States.  From  Malta  the  French  fleet  sailed  with  a  fair  wind 
for  Egypt,  and  Lnded  at  Alexandria  (July  2,)  to  undertake  the 
conquest  of  that  country  ;  although  France  was  then  at  peace 
with  the  Porte.  The  English  fleet,  however,  under  Admiral 
Nelson,  which  had  gone  in  quest  of  the  French,  joined  them  off 
Alexandria,  and  defeated  them  in  an  action  which  was  fought  in 
the  bay  of  Aboukir  (Aug.  1,)  and  which  lasted  thirty-six  hours. 

Charles  Emanuel  IV.,  King  of  Sardinia,  insulted  in  every 
kind  of  way  by  the  French  generals,  and  by  his  neighbours  the 
Cisalpine  and  Ligurian  Republics,  resolved  to  shelter  himself 
from  these  annoyances  under  the  protection  of  the  Directory. 
He  had  concluded  an  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  with 
France  (April  5,  1797  ;)  but  the  latter  having  demanded  a  nev 
pledge  of  his  friendship,  he  concluded  a  convention  at  Milan,  by 
which  the  French  government  granted  him  their  protection  ;  or. 
condition  that  he  would  surrendertothem  the  citadel  of  hiscapital. 

The  events  which  we  have  now  detailed  gave  rise  to  a  second 
coalition  against  France,  which  was  entered  into  by  Great  Britain, 
Russia,  Austria,  the  Porte,  and  the  Two  Sicilies.  The  two  first 
of  these  powers  promised  to  support  the  rest ;  Britain  furnishing 
supplies,  and  Russia  auxiliary  troops.  Before  taking  up  arms, 
the  Cabinet  of  Vienna  attempted  to  conciliate  that  of  Berlin. 


»  I 


il 


1*1) 


r 


44(1 


ClfAPTKR  X. 


!!!» 


with  ihc view ofrompfllinjrFrnniro  to  mod  rate somoofherclaim!i. 
Xt'j^oliiitidiiM  were  iicrordiii^^lyiilcn'd  iiiio  nt  Hcrlin,  nt  lirU  bf- 
tw»'C'i\  tlif  twfi  |»o\V('rH  iiloiic,  mill  nl'tcrwiinls  undir  the  mcdiatiou 
o(  tlio  ICni|iiTnr  I'liiil  of  Rii>^iii.  But  in  order  to  obtiiiii  n  tiiiituul 
co-oj'prnlion,  it  was  iiccoHsiiry  to  begin  by  Liablishiriff  mutiinl 
ronndi.'iirf.  'J'hi.s  was  irnpnssiblo,  us  ciich  of  tlic  f'lbincM?  iuid  iti 
yvni  ^l(■(•r('t,  whicli  it  would  not  commiiiiicnto  to  "  ■  f  !i"r.  Piu*" 
sia  had  her  own  treiity  of  tlie  If^t  of  August  179<, ,  ,  d  A\w  ■■< 
iu>T  SLcrot  nrtii'ics  of  Cnmno  Forinio.  The  circuinsijini'i'  \vh:  h 
dntorinined  the  Emporor  I'liul  to  takr  a  part  in  the  war  o  'unst 
Franco,  was  the  indignation  «liic!  he  felt  at  the  8poliuii.or>  of 
the  Knights  of  Malta,  whom  lie  liad  taken  under  his  protection, 
and  afterwards  accepted  tlie  oflice  of  Grand  Master  of  the  Order 

This  coalition  was  formed  by  tren'ie*  of  alliance  between  the 
several  parlies  respectively.  HnssiaagTi  d  to  send  an  army  of 
60,000  men,  under  Suwarow,  tothe  Daiiiilie,  and  to  furnish  Prus- 
sia with  45,000,  to  bo  paid  by  Great  Britain. 

After  the  revolution  of  the  ISih  Fructidi).,  t)ic  Execuli\c  Di- 
rectory of  the  French  Republic  bad  to  strugj^de  against  the  gene- 
ral discontent,  as  well  as  ag.viist  tli*-  disorderel  -late  of  the 
finances,  and  the  intrigues  of  liic  Jacobms,  whose  tiflucnce  they 
had  imprudently  augtnented,  hoping,  by  their  means,  to  annil.i- 
latc  the  party  of  the  op|)o.vilioii.  That  faction  would  infallibly 
have  aflecled  a  counter-revolution  in  France,  had  not  the  Direc- 
tory, by  a  stretch  of  arbitrary  power,  annulled  the  elections  of 
1798.  The  want  of  funds,  which  was  always  growing  worse, 
had  retarded  the  renewal  of  the  war ;  but  w:;en  it  broko  out,  the 
Directory  adopted  a  measure  which  we  ought  not  to  pass  in  si- 
lence, as  it  has  exercised  a  lasting  influence  on  nil  the  States  o( 
Europe,  who  were  obliged  to  follow  the  example.  We  allude  to 
the  law  which  introduced  the  military  conscription  (Sept.  5, 1798,) 
and  M  hich  was  the  work  of  General  Jourdan. 

Th(  Coalition  was  not  yet  consolidated,  and  Austria  had  not 
yet  fin  died  her  preparations  for  war,  when  the  King  of  the  Two 
Siciliet,  instigated  by  a  party  who  wished  to  urge  the  Cabinet  of 
Vienna  to  greater  despatch,  commenced  hostilities,  by  expelling 
the  French  from  Rome  (Nov,  24.)  That  enterprise  failed  of 
success.  The  Neapolitan  troops,  who  were  commanded  by  a 
foreigner.  General  Baron  de  Mack,  showed  neither  disciplme 
nor  courage.  After  this  first  repulse,  the  King  took  shelter  in 
Sicily.  His  capital  became  a  prey  to  the  most  frightful  anarchy. 
Mack,  to  save  his  life,  deserted  to  the  enemy.  The  Lazzaroni 
defended  Naples  against  the  French  army,  and  it  was  not  till 
after  a  battle  of  three  days,  that  Championnet,  who  was  at  theii 
head,  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  tjie  city ;  after  which  he 


nmnofherclaims. 
IJcrlin,  tit  liru  b«- 
dtr  the  mediation 
(I  nbtaiii  n  iniauitl 
al)lisliin(T  Miuiunl 
'  (^ibincii?  hud  it"* 

>  ■Vii-  '.:i]u:\:    PlD"'- 

rtX.,  ,  d  Aus!'  =• 
rcuins'»rn"i!  wh;'  i' 
n  the  war  o  'iinst 
t  the  spoliiil'oi*  o! 
Jcr  his  prolection, 
iKlcr  of  the  Order 
iancc  between  the 
)  !»end  an  army  of 
id  to  furnish  Prus- 

the  Executive  Di- 
np:ainst  the  gene- 
Icreii  =late  of  the 
ios<j  .tifluence  they 
means,  to  annil.i- 
n  would  infallibly 
had  not  the  Direc- 
;d  the  elections  of 
^s  jTTOwing  worse, 
;n  it  broke  out,  the 
it  not  to  pass  in  si- 
m  nil  the  States  oi 
pie.  We  allude  to 
lion  (Sept.  5, 1798,) 

id  Austria  had  not 
le  King  of  the  Two 
irgc  the  Cabinet  of 
ilities,  by  expelling 
interprise  failed  of 
I  commanded  by  a 
neither  discipline 
ing  took  shelter  in 
t  friglitful  anarchy. 
f.  The  Lazzaroni 
and  it  was  not  till 
;t,  who  was  at  their 
;ity ;  al\er  which  he 


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PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.   1789 — 1815. 


447 


proclaimed  the  Parthenopeaii  Republic  (Jan.  25.)  General  Jou- 
bert  took  possession  of  Turin ;  and  when  the  new  campaign 
opened,  the  whole  of  Italy  was  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 

The  Executive  Directory  made  these  hostile  preparations  of 
the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  a  pretext  for  declaring  war  against 
the  King  of  Sardinia  (Dec.  6, 179S,)  who  was  in  alliance  \yith 
France.  General  Joubeit  having  already  advanced  into  Pied- 
mont, Charles  Emanuel  I  /.  signed  an  act,  drawn  up  by  General 
Clauzel,  by  which  he  renounced  the  exercise  of  all  power,  and 
commanded  his  subjects  to  obey  the  provisional  government 
which  the  French  were  about  to  establish.  He  afterwards  re- 
tired into  Sardinia,  where  he  protested  against  the  violence  which 
he  had  experienced. 

The  Congress  of  Rastadt  had  continued  their  sittings.  On 
the  6th  December  1798.  the  French  plenipotentiaries  gave  in 
their  ultimatum  on  the  third  proposition  relative  to  the  mode  o( 
carrying  into  execution  the  two  fundamental  articles  agreed  to  ; 
with  a  threat  to  quit  Rastadt  unless  it  was  accepted  within  six 
days.  The  majority  of  the  deputation,  who  were  not  initiated 
into  the  secrets  of  great  cabinets,  and  who  were  importuned  by 
a  crowd  of  princes,  nobles,  and  deputies  under  the  influence 
either  of  interest  or  terror,  accepted  this  ultimatum ;  against 
which  Austria,  Saxony,  and  Hanover  voted.  The  plenipoten- 
tiary of  the  Empire  ratified  it ;  probably  because  the  Court  of 
Vienna,  who  were  on  the  point  of  abrogating  every  thing  that 
had  passed  at  Rastadt,  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  enter  into 
any  discussion  on  that  subject.  This  finished  the  operations  of 
the  Congress.  From  that  moment,  the  French  plenipotentiaries 
did  nothing  but  complain  of  the  march  of  the  Russian  troops, 
who  in  effect  had  penetrated  into  Galicia,  and  were  approaching 
the  Danube.  The  deputation,  whose  distinctive  character  was 
Dusillanimity,  confirmed  these  complaints  in  presence  of  the 
Emperor  (Jan.  4,  1799,)  who,  however,  eluded  giving  any  posi- 
tive answer,  until  the  whole  of  his  measures  were  organized. 
A  French  army,  commanded  by  Jourdan,  passed  the  Rhine,  be- 
tween Strasburg  and  Basle.  The  Congress,  nevertheless,  con- 
tinued to  sit  until  ^he  7th  April,  when  it  was  dissolved  by  Count 
Metternich,  who  aimuUed  all  its  decisions. 

The  28th  of  April  was  a  day  memorable  in  the  annars  oi 
modern  history.  Some  of  the  Austrian  Hussars,  within  a  quar- 
ter of  a  league  of  Rastadt,  assassinated  the  French  ministers 
Bonnier,  Debry,  and  Roberjot,  who  were  on  their  return  to  Paris. 
That  deed  was  not  aiithorized  by  the  Executive  Directory,  aU 
though  it  was  attributed  to  them  because  they  had  artfully  turned 
it  to  their  advantage,  by  exciting  the  public  mind  which  had 


(•««•  •,  :-iAtA 


so«' 


i^ih 


CHAPTER  X. 


448 

already  declared  itself  against  the  war  ;  neither  was  it  author 
ized  by  any  cabinet,  or  commander  of  the  army.     Its  real  au- 
thor has  never  been  officially  made  known. 

The  French  Republic  had  already  declared  war  against  the 
Emperor  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  (March  12,  1799,) 
without  any  apparent  motive.  But,  before  this  declaration  was 
made,  the  campaign  had  already  opened  in  Switzerland,  where 
General  Massena  had  dislodged  the  Austrians  from  the  country 
of  the  Grisons,  which  tliey  had  occupied  in  consequence  of  a 
treaty  with  the  Republicans,  concluded  at  Coire  (Oct.  7,  1798.) 
The  Archduke  Charles,  at  the  head  of  the  main  Austrian  army, 
acquitted  himself  gloriously.  He  defeated  Jourdan  in  several 
pitched  battles  at  Pullendorf  and  Stockach  (March  20,  25,)  and 
compelled  the  army  of  the  Danube,  as  it  was  called,  to  repass 
the  Rhine.  The  remains  ef  Jourdan's  army  were  then  united 
to  that  of  Massena. 

In  Italy,  while  General  Macdonald,  who  had  succeeded  Cham- 
pionnet  in  the  command,  was  covering  Rome  and  Naples,  Gen- 
eral Gauthier  occupied  Florence.  Sherer,  at  the  head  of  the 
army  of  Italy,  was  defeated  by  Kray  at  Legnago  (March  25,) 
Roco  (30,)  and  Verona  (AprifS.)  It  was  at  this  time  that  Su- 
warow  arrived  in  Italy  with  the  Russians,  and  took  the  chief 
command  of  the  combined  army.  IMoreau,  who  with  a  noble 
resignation  had  taken  on  himself  the  interim  command  of  the 
French  army  in  its  present  discouraging  circumstances,  was  de- 
feated at  Cassano  (April  27,)  and  retired  to  Alessandria.  It  was 
of  great  importance  for  Suwarow  to  prevent  Macdonald,  who 
had  arrived  at  Naples,  from  joining  Moreau.  But  the  two 
French  generals  manoeuvred  so  dexterously,  that  this  junction 
took  place  ;  although  Macdonald  had  been  attacked  by  Suwa- 
row near  the  Trebia  (June  17,)  where  he  sustained  a  considera- 
ble loss.  The  whole  of  Lombardy  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Allies.  Mantua  likewise  capitulated.  Joubert,  who  had  been 
appointed  General  of  the  army  of  Italy,  had  scarcely  arrived 
when  he  offered  battle  to  Suwarow  near  Novi  (Aug.  15 ;)  but 
he  was  slain  near  the  commencement  of  the  action.  Moreau, 
who  had  continued  with  the  army  as  a  volunteer,  could  not  pre- 
vent the  general  rout.  Championnet,  who  succeeded  Joubert, 
was  not  more  fortunate.  Coni,  the  last  place  in  their  possession, 
having  been  taken  (Dec.  3,)  the  French  retired  within  the  Ap- 

penines. 

The  Archduke  Charles  having  marched  into  Switzerland, 
Massena  took  up  a  strong  position  on  the  Aar  and  the  Reuss. 
The  hopes  which  they  had  entertained  of  bringing  over  Prussia 
to  the  coalition  having  entirely  failed,  it  was  agreed  between 


I: 
(' 
r 


fcia#is*«»4-»^'-*''*^ '*"•'•  •■^^«-'* 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  o.  1789—1815. 


449 


r  was  it  author 
Its  real  au- 

war  against  the 
larch  12,  1799.) 
declaration  was 
itzerland,  where 
from  the  country 
jnsequence  of  a 
e  (Oct.  7,  1798.) 
1  Austrian  army, 
iirdan  in  several 
irch  20,  25,)  and 
called,  to  repass 
were  then  united 

succeeded  Cham- 
,nd  Naples,  Gen- 

the  head  of  the 
ago  (March  25,) 
lis  time  that  Su- 
d  took  the  chief 
vho  with  a  noble 
command  of  the 
nstances,  was  de- 
essandria.  It  was 
Macdonald,  who 
1.  But  the  two 
hat  this  junction 
tacked  by  Suwa- 
lined  aconsidera- 
the  hands  of  the 
rt,  who  had  been 

scarcely  arrived 
i  (Aug.  15 ;)  but 
action.  Moreau, 
!er,  could  not  pre- 
icceeded  Joubert, 
I  their  possession, 
d  within  the  Ap* 

into  Switzerland, 

r  and  the  Reuss. 

jing  over  Prussia 

agreed  between 


Great  Britain  and  Russia  (June  29,)  that  the  army  of  45,000 
men  which  the  latter  had  eventually  promised  to  place  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  King  of  Prussia  if  he  became  a  party  in  the  war, 
should  henceforth  be  employed  against  France  in  Switzerland. 
Accordingly  these  troops,  who  were  commanded  by  Prince  Kor- 
sakoff, havmg  arrived  on  the  Limmat,  the  Archduke  joined  to 
them  30,000  Austrians ;  while  with  the  rest  of  his  troops  he 
marched  towards  the  Rhine,  where  a  new  French  army  had 
occupied  Heidelberg  and  Manheim.  The  Archduke  compelled 
them  to  repass  the  river,  and  took  Manheim  by  assault  (Sept.  18.). 

After  the  battle  of  Novi,  Suwarow  quitted  Italy  with  the 
Russians  whose  number  was  now  reduced  to  24,000  men,  to 
march  on  the  Limmat,  and  take  the  command  of  the  allied  army 
in  Switzerland.  Massena,  who  was  anxious  to  prevent  this 
junction,  attacked  Korsakoff,  and  defeated  him  near  Zurich  (Sept. 
24 ;)  which  obliged  him  to  evacuate  Switzerland.  Suwarow, 
whose  march  across  the  Alps  had  now  become  very  dangerous, 
accomplished  it  nevertheless  with  boldness  and  celerity;  and 
although  he  had  to  encounter  Lecc  orbe  who  wished  to  intercept 
him,  and  afterwards  Massena  who  was  in  pursuit  of  him,  He 
crossed  the  small  cantons  of  the  Orisons,  and  effected  a  union 
with  the  remains  of  Korsakoff's  army. 

The  Roman  and  Parthenopean  Republics  had  fallen  to  pieces 
after  the  departure  of  Macdonald.  Ancona,  where  he  had  \eh 
a  body  of  troops,  did  not  surrender  until  the  29th  of  November. 
The  combined  fleets  of  the  Turks  and  Russians,  about  the  end 
of  the  year  1798,  had  taken  possession  of  the  French  islands 
that  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  Venetians.  Corfu  held  out  till 
the  1st  of  March  1799.  The  Archduke  Charles  having  advanced 
on  Switzerland  after  the  defeat  of  Korsakoff,  Lecourbe,  who  had 
been  called  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  Alsace,  passed  the 
Rhine ;  but  he  was  soon  after  compelled  to  return  to  the  left 
bank  of  that  river. 

In  virtue  of  a  convention  which  was  concluded  at  St.  Peters- 
burg (June  22,)  the  Emperor  Paul,  in  addition  to  the  105,000 
men  which  he  had  already  despatched,  engaged  to  furnish  17^00 
more.  These  with  12,()00  English,  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  attempted  to  make  a  descent  on  Holland,  and 
landed  at  Helder.  This  expedition  proved  a  total  failure.  The 
Duke  of  York,  after  having  been  worsted  in  several  engage- 
ments with  General  Brune,  evacuated  the  country,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  capitulation  signed  at  Alkmaar  (Oct.  18,  1799.) 
These  disasters  were  but  feebly  compensated  by  the  taJdng  of 
Surinam  (Aug.  16,)  the  last  of  the  Dutch  colonies  which  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  English. 


450 


OBAPTBR  Z. 


While  these  events  were  transacting  in  Europe,  Bonaparte 
had  subdued  the  greater  part  of  Egypt ;  but  he  was  less  suc- 
cessful in  the  expedition  which  he  undertook  against  Syria. 
Being  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of  Acre  (May  19,)  after  sus- 
tauiing  considerable  losses,  he  returned  to  Egypt  wUh  the  feeble 
remains  of  his  army.  Shortly  after  (July  16,)  a  Turkish  fleet 
appeared  off  Aboukir,  and  landed  a  body  of  troops,  who  took 
possession  of  that  fort.  Bonaparte  directed  his  march  against 
them,  beat  them,  and  almost  totally  annihilated  them  (Juljr  25;) 
but  being  displeased  at  the  Directory,  who  had  left  him  without 
support,  and  having  heard  of  their  disorganization,  he  resolved 
to  return  to  Europe.  He  embarked  secretly  (Aug.  23,)  and 
landed  at  Frejus  on  the  coast  of  Provence  (Oct.  9,  1799.) 

At  the  time  of  his  arrival,  France  was  in  a  state  of  the  most 
violent  commotion.  The  Council  of  Five  Hundred  was  become 
more  and  more  Jacobinical,  in  consequence  of  new  elections. 
Sieyes,  Gohier,  Roger  Duces,  and  Moulins,  with  Barras,  Direc- 
tor of  the  Ancients,  formed  the  government.  The  revolutionary 
measures  which  were  adopted  by  the  Council,  seemed  a  pre- 
lude to  the  return  of  Terror.  Such  was  the  law  which  author- 
ized the  Directory  to  take  hostages  among  the  relations  of  the 
emigrants  (July  12 ;)  and  the  loan  of  a  hundred  millions,  which 
was  decreed  (Aug.  6.)  ... 

In  the  west,  the  Chouans  had  organized  a  new  insurrection 
under  the  conduct  of  George  Cadoudal  and  the  Counts  de  Frot- 
te,  D'Autichamp,  and  de  Bourmont.     Disturbances  had  broken 
out  in  other  provinces ;  the  government  had  fallen  into  contempt ; 
»  general  restlessness  had  taken  possession  of  the  public  mind. 
Barras  and  Sieyes  were  perfectly  conscious  that  this  state  of 
things  could  not  continue.     Each  of  them,  separately,  had  con- 
trived the  plan  of  a  new  revolution  ;  and  each  of  them  endeav- 
oured to  make  a  partisan  of  General  Bonaparte,  who  had  just 
arrived  in  Paris,  and  on  whom  the  hopes  of  France  seemed  at 
that  time  to  depend.    The  General  deceived  Barras,  and  entered 
into  a  conspiracy  with  Sieyes  and  the  more  powerful  mem- 
bers of  the  Council  of  Ancients.     On  the  18th  Brumaire  (Nov. 
9,  1799,)  the  Council  nominated  Bonaparte  commandant  of  the 
troops ;  abolished  the  Directory ;  and  ordered  the  Legislative 
Assembly  to  be  transferred  to  St.  Cloud.     The  meeting  which 
took  place  next  day  was  a  scene  of  great  turbulence.     Bonaparte 
ineffectually  attempted  to  defend  himself  in  the  Council  of  t  ive 
Hundred,  when  tue  Tirmness  of  his  brother  Lucien  and  the  gren- 
adiers of  the  guard  alone  secured  his  safety.     The  Council  was 
dissolved,  and  the  constitution  of  the  year  Three  abolished  i  IN  ov. 
11.)     A  provisional  government  was  established,  consisting  of 


l-V'tfli-'-l'i'i'-'^"-- 


Surope,  Bonaparte 
t  he  was  less  suc- 
9k  against  Syria, 
lay  19,)  after  sus- 
ypi  with  the  feeble 
5,)  A  Turkish  fleet 
f  troops,  who  took 
his  march  against 
!dthem(Juljr25;) 
id  left  him  without 
sation,  he  resolved 
ly  (Aug.  23,)  and 
>ct.  9,  1799.) 
a  state  of  the  most 
indred  was  become 
I  of  new  elections, 
vith  Barras,  Direc- 
The  revolutionary 
icil,  seemed  a  pre- 
law which  author- 
the  relations  of  the 
red  millions,  which 

a  new  insurrection 
the  Counts  de  Frot- 
rbances  had  broken 
alien  into  contempt ; 
of  the  public  mind. 
s  that  this  state  of 
separately,  had  con- 
ich  of  them  endeav- 
parte,  who  had  just 
if  France  seemed  at 
Barras,  and  entered 
lore  powerful  mem- 
8th  Brumaire  (Nov. 
1  commandant  of  the 
Bred  the  Legislative 

The  meeting  which 
julence.     Bonaparte 

the  Council  of  Five 
jucien  and  the  gren- 
'.  The  Council  was 
hree  abolished  (Nov. 
)Ushed,  consisting  of 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 1815. 


451 


Sieves,  Roger  Ducos,  and  Bonaparte.  A  legislative  commission 
of  twenty-five  members  were  charged  to  draw  up  the  plan  of  a 
new  constitution. 

The  new  constitution  was  announced  on  the  22d  of  Frimaire, 
of  the  year  Eight  (13th  Dec.  1799.)  The  republican  forms  were 
preserved ;  and  the  government,  in  appearance,  was  intrusted  to 
a  Council  of  three  persons,  appointed  for  ten  years,  and  decorated 
with  the  title  of  Consuls,  viz.  Bonaparte,  Cambaceres,  and  Le 
Brun  ;  but  in  reality  to  the  first  only,  on  whom  they  conferred  a 
power  truly  monarchical.  The  other  constituted  bodies  were  a 
Conservative  Senate,  contrived  by  Sieyes,  to  be  the  guardian  of 
the  public  liberties ;  a  Tribunal  of  one  hundred  members,  whose 
business  it  was  to  discuss  such  forms  of  law  as  the  government 
laid  before  them  ;  and  a  Legislative  Body  of  three  hundred 
members,  who  gave  their  vote  without  any  previous  debate. 
Bonaparte  seized  the  reins  of  government  with  a  firm  hand.  He 
abrogated  several  of  the  revolutionary  laws,  amalgamated  its 
different  parts  into  a  system,  and  by  degrees  organized  the  most 
complete  despotism.  He  consolidated  his  power  by  quashing 
the  insurrection  in  the  West.  By  his  orders.  Generals  Brune 
and  Hedouville  concluded  a  peace  (Jan.  18,  1800,)  first  with  the 
Vendeans  at  Montfaucjon,  and  afterwards  with  the  Chouans.  He 

fave  a  most  striking  example  of  perfidy,  by  causing  the  brave 
'rotte  to  be  shot  a  few  days  after.  But  he  conciliated  the  af- 
fection of  his  subjects  by  the  restoration  of  religion,  which  he 
established  by  means  of  a  Concordat  with  the  Court  of  Rome, 
(July  15,  1801.) 

Bonaparte  was  no  sooner  placed  at  the  head  of  the  govern' 
ment,  than  he  proposed  to  make  peace  with  England,  by  means 
of  a  letter  (Dec.  26,  1799,)  not  written,  according  to  etiquette, bv 
one  of  his  ministers  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, but  in  his  own  hand,  and  addressed  to  King  George  IIL, 
whom  he  complimented  for  his  patriotic  virtues.  He  stated  the 
necessity  for  peace ;  and  trusted,  that  two  nations  so  enlightened 
as  France  and  Great  Britain,  would  no  longer  be  actuated  by 
false  ideas  of  glory  and  greatness.  This  step,  made  in  so  un- 
usual a  form,  could  not  possibly  have  a  successful  result,  espe- 
cially as  Mr.  Pitt  was  determined  to  employ  all  the  resources  of 
England  to  overthrow  the  revolutionary  despotism  which  the 
First  Consul  was  endeavouring  to  establish  in  France.  That 
great  statesman  endeavoured,  by  the  treaties  of  subsidy  which 
we  have  already  mentioned,  to  repair  the  lo.ss  which  the  coalition 
had  just  suffered  by  the  retirement  of  Paul  I.,  who  being  morti- 
fied with  the  bad  success  of  the  Russian  arms,  which  he  ascribed 


i'     \i 


tfki' 


•#-.jii 


^1 


■%iLi  ,11  HI"  ■»,»»"'■  ,  I'-ipw" 


452 


CHAPTER  X. 


10  the  allies  themselves  had  recalled  his  troops  at  the  beginning 

of  the  year  ISOO.  ■    t    i 

General  Mel.is.who  romnmnded  the  Anstrians  in  Italy,  open- 
ed  the  campaign  of  1800  in  the  most  splendid  manner.     In  con- 
sequence o/  the  victory  which  he  gamed  over  Massena  at  Voltn 
(April  10.)  the  latter  was  obliged  to  throw  himself  into  benoa, 
where  he  sustained  a  siege  of  six  weeks  with  great  courage. 
Melas  made  himself  master  of  Nice  (May  11,)  and  Souchet 
passed  the  Var  on  his  march  to  Provence    But,  in  a  short  time, 
feonaparte,  at  the  head  of  a  new  army  which  collected  a  D  on 
passed  the  Alps,  and  took  possession  of  Milan  (June  2;)  w^ule 
Melas  was  not  yet  aware  that  his  army  was  in  existence,     b  or  • 
tunately  for  the  latter,  Massenawas  obliged  to  surrender  Genoa 
at  that  very  time,  (June  5,)  which  placed  the  corps  of  Genera 
Ott  at  his^disposai.     He  had  found  it  dimcult,  with  his  small 
earrison,  to  preserve   order  among  the   inhabitants,  of  whom 
15.000  are  said  to  have  perished  by  famine  or  disease  during 
the  blockade.     General  Ott  was  defeated  by  Berlhier  at  Monte- 
bello  (June  9.)     Melas  himself  engaged  General  Bonaparte  at 
Marengo  (June  14.)      Victory  was  already  within  his  grasp, 
when  tlie  arrival  of  the  brave  Desaix  with  his  division,  disap- 
pointed him  of  the  triumph.     The  defeat  had  a  most  discourag- 
ing effect  on  General  Melas,  and  cost  Austria  the  whole  of 
Lombardv.     A  truce  which  was  concluded  at  Alessandria  (June 
16,)  put  bonapartc  in  possession  of  that  town  ;  as  well  as  ol 
Tortona,  Turin,  Placentia,  Coni,  Genoa,  &c.     The  Austnans 
retired  beyond  the  Mincio. 

Moreau,  at  the  head  of  a  French  army,  had  passed  the  Rhine 
(April  25,)  and  defeated  Kray  in  several  engagements.  Ihe 
Austrians  then  retired  within  the  Upper  Palatinate.  Moreau 
had  already  made  himself  master  of  Munich,  when  he  received 
the  news  of  the  truce  at  Alessandria.  He  then  concluded  an 
armistice  at  Parsdorf  (July  15.)  The  Count  St  Julien  who 
had  been  sent  by  the  Emperor  Francis  II.  to  Pans,  having 
siened  the  preliminaries  of  peace  without  sufficient  authority, 
the  Court  of  Vienna  refused  to  ratify  them,  as  they  had  engaged 
not  to  make  peace  without  the  consent  of  England.  Hostilities 
were  to  recommence  in  Germany  in  the  month  of  September ; 
but  the  Archduke  John,  who  commanded  the  Austrian  army  m 
Bavaria,  having  requested  that  the  armistice  should  be  prolonged, 
General  Moreau  consented,  on  condition  that  Philipsburg,  Uim, 
and  Ingolstadt,  should  be  given  up  to  him.  This  arrangement 
was  signed  at  Hohenlinden  (Sept.  20.)  and  France  immediately 
demolished  the  fortifications  of  these  two  places  Hostilities 
having  recommenced  about  the  end  of  November,  General  Mo- 


^-jai»i;;itf  JBWtfWtft^i  ^  vriiw.^** 


)sutthe  beginning 

inns  in  Italy,  open- 

mnnner.     In  con- 

Masscna  at  Voltri 

imscif  into  Genoa, 

th  great  courage. 

11,)  and  Souchel 

ut,  in  a  short  lime, 

collected  at  Dijon, 

an  (.June  2;)  while 

in  existence.     For^ 

to  surrender  Genoa 

e  corps  of  General 

cult,  with  his  small 

mbitants,  of  whom 

c  or  disease  during 

Borthierat  Monte- 

enerul  Bonaparte  at 

r  within  his  grasp, 

his  division,  disap- 

id  a  most  discourag- 

ustria  the  whole  of 

It  Alessandria  (June 

own  ;   as  well  as  of 

Sec.     The  Austrians 

ad  passed  the  Rhine 
engagements.  The 
'alatinate.  Moreao 
h,  when  he  received 

then  concluded  an 
int  St.  Julien,  who 
I.  to  Paris,  having 
sufficient  authority, 
[IS  they  had  engaged 
ngland.  Hostilities 
onth  of  September ; 
le  Austrian  army  in 
should  be  prolonged, 
It  Philipsburg,  Ulm, 
This  arrangement 
France  immediately 

places.  Hostilities 
ember.  General  Mo- 


period  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 1815. 


453 


reau  defeated  the  army  of  the  Archduke  John,  at  the  memorable 
baillo  of  Jlohcnlindt'u  (Dec.  3  ;)  after  which  he  marched  in  all 
haste  on  Vienna.  Austria  being  released  from  her  engagements 
by  the  Cabinet  of  London,  then  declared  that  she  was  determined 
to  make  peace,  whatever  might  be  the  resolutions  of  England; 
on  which  a  new  armistice  was  concluded  at  Steyr  {Dec.  25.) 
Braunau  and  Wurtzburg  were  delivered  up  to  the  French. 

General  Brune,  who  commanded  in  Italy,  renewed  the  truce 
of  Alessandria  by  the  convention  of  Castiglione  (Sept.  29,)  and 
thus  gained  time  to  take  possession  of  Tuscany,  which  they  had 
forgot  to  include  in  the  truce.  Being  reinforced  by  the  army  of 
Macdoiiald,  who  had  arrived  in  Lonibardy,  he  passed  the  Brenta ; 
after  traversing,  by  a  perilous  march,  the  lofty  mountain  of  Splu- 
gen.  In  virtue  of  a  new  truce,  signed  at  Treviso,  the  French 
obtained  the  recovery  of  Peschiera,  the  forts  of  Verona,  Legnago 
Fermo,  and  Ancona. 

Meantime,  negotiations  for  peace  had  been  entered  into  at 
Luneville,  between  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Count  Louis  de 
Cobenzl.  The  First  Consul  having  refused  to  ratify  the  armis- 
tice of  Treviso,  because  it  had  left  Mantua  in  the  hands  of  the 
Austrians,  the  Imperial  plenipotentiary  at  Luneville  signed  an 
additional  convention,  by  which  that  place  was  delivered  over  to 
the  French.  Peace  between  Austria  and  France  was  signed  a 
few  days  after  (Feb.  9 ;)  and  Francis  II.,  at  the  same  time,  made 
stipulations  for  the  Empire.  He  ceded  the  Belgic  provinces, 
the  county  of  Falkenstein  and  Frickthal.  In  Italy,  the  frontier 
line  between  Austria  and  the  Cisalpine  Republic  was  traced,  so 
that  the  Adige  should  separate  the  two  States,  and  the  cities  of 
Verona  and  Porto  Legnago  should  be  divided  between  them. 
The  other  conditions  were,  that  the  Grand  Duke  of  Modena 
should  have  Brisgau  in  exchange  for  his  dutchy ;  that  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  should  renounce  his  grand  dutchy,  and  receive 
a  free  and  competent  indemnity  in  Germany  ;  that  the  F  t'-je 
should  give  up  all  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine ;  that  the  here-.u-^^ry 
princes,  who  lost  their  territories  in  consequence  of  these  v  sa- 
sions,  should  receive  compensation  from  the  Empire  ;  and  lastly, 
that  the  Germanic  Body  should  ratify  the  peace  within  the  space 
of  thirty  days.  By  a  secret  article,  Saltzburg,  Berchtolsgaden, 
Passau,  the  bishopric  and  city  of  Augsburg,  Kempten,  and  twelve 
other  immediate  abbeys,  besides  nineteen  Imperial  cities  in 
Swabia,  including  Ulni  and  Augsburg,  were  secured  to  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  The  Empire  showed  great  anxiety 
to  ratify  this  peace,  which  was  the  precursor  of  its  annihilation 

The  English  had  compelled  General  Vaubois  to  surrender  the 
Isle  of  Malta.    After  the  flight  of  Bonaparte  from  Egypt,  Kleber 


■fr      .  } 


tfti!- 


1:^1 


4' 


w  i'-    -'^ 


HMWiWMMi 


mmk^maimfmtfUH^ 


454 


CHArrRn  x. 


hud  taken  the  coinmnnd  of  the  French  army,  which  was  thnn 
reduced  to  12,000  men.     A  convcntiori  was  conchided  at  El 
Ariscli  with  the  Oriuid  Vi/i(!r  who  had  arrived  from  S^ria  at 
tlie  head  of  a  formidable  army,  by  which  the  French  General 
engaged  to  evacuate  the  country.     The  English  government 
having  refused  to  ratify  this  treaty,  unless  Kleber  would  surren- 
der himself  prisoner  of  war,  timt  General  immediately  attacked 
the  Grand  Vizier,  and  defeated  him  at  El  Hanka  (March  20  ;) 
after  which  he  again  subdued  Cairo,  which  had  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  revolt.     The  English  Government  were  willing  to  ratify 
the  convention  of  the  24tli  January  ;  but  General  Menou  having 
succeeded  Kleber  who  had  fallen  by  the  dagger  of  u  Turkish 
fanatic,  was  determined  to  maintain  himself  in  Egypt,  in  spite 
of  an  evident  impossibility.     Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  the  Eng- 
lish commander,  who  arrived  with  a  British  force,  effected  his 
landing  at  Aboukir  (March  8, 1801.)     Menou  was  defeated  in 
the  battle  of  Rahmanieh,  near  Alexandria  (March  21,)  which 
cost  General  Abercromby  his  life.     But  the  French  soon  saw 
themselves  assailed  on  all  hands  by  the  Turks  and  the  English, 
who  had  been  recalled  from  the  East  Indies,  and  had  disem- 
barked on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.     General  Belliard,  who 
had  the  command  at  Cairo,  concluded  a  capitulation  (June  27,) 
in  virtue  of  which  he  was  sent  back  to  France  with  the  troops 
under  his  orders.     Menou  found  himself  obliged  to  follow  his 
example,  and  capitulated  at  Alexandria  to  General  Hutchinson 
(Aug.  30,)  who  consented  to  the  safe  conveyance  of  the  French 
troops  to  their  native  country.     Thus  ended  an   expedition, 
which,  had  it  proved  successful,  must  have  become  fatal  to  the 
British  Empire  in  India,  and  given  a  new  direction  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  world. 

Various  treaties  were  concluded  between  the  peace  of  Lune- 
ville  and  that  of  Amiens,  which  put  an  entire  end  to  the  war. 
(1.)  General  Murat,who  commanded  the  army  in  Italy,  having 
shown  some  disposition  to  carry  the  war  into  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  Ferdinand  IV.  concluded  nn  armistice  at  Foligno  (Feb. 
18,)  which  he  afterwards  converted  into  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Flo- 
rence. He  gave  up  the  State  of  Presidii,  and  his  share  of  the 
island  of  Elba  and  of  the  principality  of  Piombino.  By  a  secret 
article,  he  agreed  that  16,000  French  troops  should  occupy  the 
peninsula  of  Otranto  and  part  of  Abruzzo,  until  the  conclusion 
of  peace  with  England  and  the  Porte.  (2.)  Portugal,  since  the 
year  1797,  had  wished  to  withdraw  from  the  first  coalition,  and 
even  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Executive  Directory  at  Paris 
(Aug.  10 ;)  but  the  English  stjuadron  of  Admiral  St.  Vincent 
having  entered  the  Tagus,  the  Queen  refused  to  ratify  that 


Ifnn iiiB  I 


^ttivit  ■iM^ttUt*''^-  • 


which  was  ihon 
iH  concluiiod  at  El 
v(!il  from  Syria  at 
he  French  General 
nplish  povernment 
el>er  would  surren- 
iincdiately  attacked 
Ianl{a  (March  30  ;) 
lad  raised  the  stand- 
ore  willing  to  ratify 
neral  Mcnou  having 
ugger  of  u  Turkish 
r  in  Egypt,  in  spite 
Hircromby,  the  Eng- 
h  force,  effected   his 
nou  was  defeated  in 
(March  21,)  which 
e  French  soon  saw 
rks  and  the  English, 
ies,  and  had  disein- 
ncral  Belliard,  who 
pituhition  (June  27,) 
mce  with  the  troops 
)bliged  to  follow  his 
General  Hutchinson 
?yance  of  the  French 
ided  an   expedition, 
e  become  fatal  to  the 
direction  to  the  com- 

n  the  peace  of  Lune- 
itire  end  to  the  war. 
rmy  in  Italy,  having 
into  the  kingdom  of 
tice  at  Foligno  (Feb. 
rcaty  of  peace  at  Flo- 

and  his  share  of  the 
}mbino.  By  a  secret 
ps  should  occupy  the 

until  the  conclusion 
)  Portugal,  since  the 
he  first  coalition,  and 
e  Directory  at  Paris 
Admiral  St.  Vincent 
efused  to  ratify  that 


PIRIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815. 


465 


treaty.  Portugal  thus  o  itinued  at  war  with  Franco  until  1801. 
Thf  French  army,  which  was  ulready  in  Spain,  having  shown 
some  disposition  to  enter  Portugal,  peace  was  concluded  at  Ma- 
drid between  Lucion  Bonaparte  and  M.  Freire  (Sept.  29.)  the 
ministers  of  the  two  States  at  the  Court  of  Spain.  Portugal 
shut  her  ports  against  the  English,  and  regulated  the  frontiers 
of  Guiana,  so  as  to  prove  advantageous  to  France.  (3.)  In  Rus- 
sia Bonaparte  had  succeeded  to  a  certain  extent  in  conciliating 
the  good  will  of  the  Emperor  Paul.  Nevertheless,  at  the  death 
of  that  prince  (Oct.  8,  1801,)  there  existed  no  treaty  of  peace 
between  Russia  and  France.  A  treaty,  however,  was  signed 
at  Paris  in  the  reign  of  Alexander,  by  Count  MarkofT  and  Tal- 
leyrand (Oct.  11,)  and  followed  by  a  very  important  special  con- 
vention by  which,  among  other  things,  it  was  agreed :  That  the 
two  governments  should  form  a  mutual  agreement,  as  to  the 
principles  to  be  followed  with  respect  to  indemnifications  in 
Germany ;  as  well  as  to  determine  respecting  those  in  Italy, 
and  to  maintain  a  just  equilibrium  between  the  Houses  of  Aus- 
tria and  Brandeburg :  That  France  should  accept  the  mediation 
of  Prussia,  for  the  pacification  with  the  Porte :  That  the  inte- 
grality of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  should  be  maintained, 
according  to  the  treaty  of  the  28th  March,  1801 ;  and  that  the 
French  troops  should  evacuate  the  country  as  soon  as  the  fate 
of  Egypt  was  decided  :  That  a  friendly  disposition  should  be 
shown  to  the  interests  of  the  King  of  Sardinia ;  and  that  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg  should  be  com- 

fensated  for  their  losses,  by  a  full  indemnity  in  Germany.  (4.) 
mmediately  after  General  Menon  had  signed  the  capitulation 
of  Alexandria,  the  preliminaries  of  peace  between  France  and 
the  Porte  were  concluded  at  Paris  (Oct.  9 ;)  but  they  were  not 
confirmed  into  a  definitive  peace,  until  after  the  preliminaries 
were  signed  at  London  (June  25,  1802.)  The  free  navigation 
of  the  Black  Sea  was  secured  to  the  French  flag. 

When  Mr.  Pitt  had  quitted  the  English  ministry,  France  and 
England  came  to  terms  of  better  accommodation.  The  first  ad- 
vances were  made  on  the  side  of  the  latter  power.  The  preli- 
minaries were  signed  at  London,  between  Lord  Hawkesbury 
and  M.  Otio ;  including  their  respective  allies  (Oct.  1,  180L) 
Of  all  her  conquests.  Great  Britain  was  to  retain  only  the  Island 
of  Trinidad,  and  the  Dutch  possessions  in  Ceylon.  Malta  was 
to  be  restored  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  under  the  protection 
of  a  third  power ;  and  Egypt  was  to  belong  to  the  Porte.  The 
French  troops  were  to  abandon  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  the 
English  to  quit  Porto  Ferrajo.  France  was  to  acknowledge 
the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islands,  which  was  composed  of  Corfu 
and  the  six  other  islands  formerly  belonging  to  the  Venetians 


^■■'W 


AM 


CHAPTRR  Z- 


For  carrying  these  preliminaries  into  execution,  a  ConareM 
was  openoci  at  Ami-ns,  where  Joseph  Bonaparte  appeared  for 
France,  Lord  Comwallis  for  England,  the  Chevalier  Azara  for 
Spain,  and  M.  Schimmelpenninck  for  the  Batavjan  Republ.c. 
Some  unexpected  difficulties  arose  with  regard  to  Malta,  ns  Grea^ 
Britain  had  repented  of  having  given  it  up  in  the  preliminary 
treaty.  They  found  means,  however,  to  remove  these  obstacles , 
and  the  peace  of  Amiens  was  finally  signed  after  a  negotiation 
of  six  months  (March  27,  1802.) 

We  shall  only  take  notice  here  in  what  respects  these  articles 
differed  from  the  preliminaries.  With  vegaA  to  the  stipulation 
respecting  the  surrender  of  Malta  to  the  Knights  of  St  John. 
sevVral  modifications  were  added,  viz.  as  to  the  election  of  a  i^ew 
Grand  Master;  the  suppression  of  the  F';"fJ  ,f "^^  ,^"8^^ 
Langues,  or  class  of  Knights ;  the  institution  of  a  Maltese  hingtu, 
the  time  for  its  evacuation  ;  and  the  future  appointment  of  the 
earrison.  Finally,  it  was  said  in  the  treaty,  that  the  indepen- 
dence  of  that  island  and  its  present  arrangement,  were  placed 
under  the  guaranty  of  France,  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Spain. 
Russia  and  Prussia.  It  may  be  mentioned,  that  Russia  and 
Prussia  declined  to  undertake  that  guarnnty,  unless  certain 
modifications  were  added.  This  refusal  furnished  England  with 
a  pretext  for  refusing  to  part  with  that  island  ;  and  the  war,  as 
we  shall  soon  find,  was  recommenced  rather  than  give  up  that 

'T°ne  Mtide  o^thetreaty  of  Amiens  having  promised  the  Prince 
of  Orange  a  compensation  for  the  losses  he  had  sustained  m  the 
late  Republic  of  the  United  Provinces,  both  in  private  property 
and  exMUses,  another  convention  was  signed  at  Amiens  between 
France  and  the  Batavian  States,  importing  that  that  compensa- 
tion should  in  no  case  fall  to  the  charge  of  the  latter. 

There  is  one  essential  observation  which  we  must  make  on 
the  peace  of  Amiens.  Contrary  to  the  general  practice,  the  for- 
mer treaties  between  France  and  Great  Britain  were  not  renewed 
by  that  of  Amiens.  It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  the  cause  ot 
this  silence.  At  the  time  when  the  peace  of  Utrecht  was  con- 
cluded, Great  Britain  had  an  interest  in  having  the  principle  o. 
free  commerce  for  neutral  States  held  sacred  ;  and  she  hod  con- 
sequently announced  it  in  the  treaty  of  navigation  and  commerce. 
wiJich  was  concluded  in  1713.  All  the  following  treaties,  unt  1 
that  of  1783  inclusive,  having  renewed  the  articles  of  Utpct^t, 
the  silence  on  this  subject  at  Amiens  placed  Great  Britain,  m 
this  respect,  on  the  footing  of  a  common  right,  which,  according 
to  the  system  of  the  English,  would  not  have  been  favourable  to 
the  principle  of  a  free  trade,-a  doctrine  which  it  was  for  their 


tion,  a  Consreu 
arte  appcaroa  for 
levalicr  Azara  for 
ntavian  Republic, 
to  Malta,  ns  Great 
n  the  preliminary 
re  these  obstacles ; 

'ter  a  negotiation 

)ect8  these  articles 
to  the  stipulation 
ights  of  St.  John, 
«  election  of  a  new 
?nch  and  English 
a  Maltese  Langiu; 
ippointment  of  the 
,  that  the  indepen* 
ment,  were  placed 
n,  Austria,  Spain, 
.,  that  Russia  and 
ity.  unless  certain 
shed  England  with 
1 ;  and  the  war,  as 
than  give  up  that 

)romi8ed  the  Prince 
ad  sustained  in  the 
in  private  iiroperty 
at  Amiens  between 
hat  that  compensa- 
[le  latter. 

we  must  make  on 
al  practice,  the  for- 
(1  were  not  renewed 
rceive  the  cause  of 
f  Utrecht  was  con- 
ing the  principle  ol 
1 ;  and  she  had  con- 
tion  and  commerce, 
wing  treaties,  until 
articles  of  Utrecht, 
d  Great  Britain,  in 
t,  which,  according 
■  been  favourable  to 
ich  it  was  for  their 


#l»»jtWWitT*if^. 


PRjimo  IT.     A.  n.  17S9— 1S15. 


467 


huoroft  to  siipprrss,  siiirc  they  liad  then  llir  rnrnmnnd  of  the  rpr>.. 
VVr  Imvo  now  i)rought  down  the  liJMtory  of  the  French  Kev"- 
liilioM,  from  its  cnnimenrornt'nt  to  the  yonr  1802,  when  the 
Fri'iich  power  In-j^'aii  to  prepoiidcrnte  in  Kiiropc  Tho  inflii- 
I'Mi'o  of  the  Hcnnhiic  was  i-rioriiKiusly  ^rrcnt.  Tlu'  Nrthorlnnds 
and  u  floiirisliinp  porliori  of  (ii-rtniuiy.  ns  well  ns  (Jeiievn,  Sii- 
vny,  and  I'ii'dinoiit,  were  ineorjiorMtcd  with  the  territories  whifh 
had  been  governed  by  Louis  XVI.  Tho  Dutch  nnd  the  Cisal- 
pine States,  includiiiir  the  Milaiiois,  a  considernlile  part  of  the 
Venetian  territories,  tho  dntchies  of  Mantua,  Modena  and  Par- 
ma, besides  some  of  the  Ecciesiaslical  provinces,  had  bowed  tli«ir 
neck  to  the  yoke  of  the  First  Coii.'^ii!.  Tho  Swiss,  enslaved  by 
the  Directory,  had  not  been  al)le  to  recover  their  ancient  inde- 
pendence. ^Tuscany  and  tho  Ligurian  Republic  durst  not  pre- 
sume to  dispute  the  will  of  tho  conqueror ;  while  Spain,  forget- 
ful of  her  ancient  dignity,  was  reduced  to  a  state  of  subservient 
and  degraded  alliance.  It  will  be  now  necessary,  according  to 
the  plan  of  this  work,  that  we  take  a  .survey  of  the  more  remark- 
able events  which  happcmod  in  the  course  of  the  preceding  thir- 
teen years,  in  the  other  States  of  Europe. 

Portugal  hail  been  a  ro-partner  in  the  first  coolition  against 
France,  nnd  had  furnished  a  body  of  6000  troops  to  Spain,  ond 
some  ships  of  war  to  England.  We  have  already  related  how 
Mary  I.  was  prevented  from  disengaging  herself  from  the  treaty 
of  1797.  The  Prince  of  Brazil,  who  had  assumed  the  regency 
(July  15,  1799)  in  consequence  of  the  infirm  state  of  his  mother's 
health,  took  a  more  decided  part  in  the  second  coalition,  by  sign- 
ing an  alliance  with  Russia  (Sept.  28.)  This  alliance  drew  him 
into  a  war  with  Spain.  The  Duke  of  Alcudia,  usually  styled 
the  Prince  of  Peace,  seized  several  citi<<!  in  Portugal  without 
much  difficulty  ;  as  her  ormy  was  in  as  bad  condition  as  her  fi- 
nances. A  pence  was  speedily  concluded  at  Badnjos  (,Iune  6, 
1801.)  Portugal  agreed  to  shut  her  ports  against  Engli.sh  ves- 
sels ;  and  ceded  to  Spain  Oliven(ja,  and  the  places  situated  on 
the  Guadiana.  The  engagement  re.specting  English  vessels  was 
renewed  by  the  peace  of  Madrid  (Sept.  29,)  which  reconciled 
Portugal  with  France. 

In  Spain,  Charles  IV.  had  succeeded  his  father  Charles  III. 
(Dec.  13,  1788;)  Philip,  the  eldest  son,  having  been  declared 
incapable  of  reigning,  on  account  of  his  deficiency  of  intellect. 
That  prince,  who  had  no  pleasure  but  in  the  chase,  gave  himself 
up  entirely  to  that  amusement.  He  was  the  jest  of  the  Queen 
and  her  favourites,  to  whom  he  abandoned  the  cares  of  govern- 
ment. In  1790  a  difference  which  had  arisen  with  England 
respecting  the  right  of  property  to  Nootka  Sound  in  North  Ameri- 


*^\ 


^■.^"4 


if 


4  i    ti'' 


n 


m 


ny 


m . 


»  •■ 


■i  -.t 


,,i  , .  -v^-|--;iinii:i-i-r-  :'■>'"  ■-■■>"■"'    f  "  xt-tunn-nn-iMt 


458 


CHAPTER  X. 


ca.  was  on  the  point  of  interrupting  the  repose  of  this  indolent 
monarch.     But  matters  were  adjusted  by  a  convention  signed 
at  the  Escurial  (Oct.  28,  1790,)  by  which  Spam  renounced  her 
rights  over  laat  distant  possession.     The  chief  favourite  since 
1790  had  been  Don  Manuel  Godoy,  created  Duke  of  Alcudia  ; 
a  weak  minister,  under  whom  every  thing  became  venal,  and 
the  whole  nation  corrupt.     The  revolutionary  principles  which 
had  taken  root  there  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  as  sufli- 
cient  care  had  not  been  taken  to  supply  the  place  of  these  fathers 
witii  other  public  instructors  of  youth,  were  readily  propagated 
under  so  vicious  an  administration  ;  especially  after  the  pubhca- 
tion  of  the  famous  Memoir  of  Jovellanos  (1795,)  on  the  improve- 
ments of  agriculture  and  the  Agrarian  La^y ;.  a  work  %yhich  \yas 
composed  by  order  of  the  Council  of  CastiU,.,  and  written  with 
clearness  and  simplicity.     The  author,  no  doubt  deserved  credit 
for  the  purity  of  his  sentiments ;  but  in  his  enthusiasm  tor  the 
objects  which  he  recommended,  he  overlooked  all  existing  laws  ; 
encouraged  the  spoliation  of  the  church,  the  crovyn,  and  the  com- 
munity ;  as  well  as  the  suppression  of  corporations,  and  condi- 
tionariegacies,  or  liferents  ;  in  short,  a  total  and  radical  subver- 
sion of  the  institutions  of  the  country.     This  work  may  be  said 
to  have  produced  a  revohition  in  Spain  ;  for  the  Cortes  of  Cadiz 
did  no  more  than  carry  into  execution  the  schemes  of  Jovellanos. 
If  the  Prince  of  Peace  failed  in  conducting  the  administration 
of  the  interior,  he  was  not  more  successful  in  making  the  crown 
of  Spain  respected  abroad.     By  the  peace  of  Basle  (July  22, 
1795  )  Charles  IV.  renounced  the  Spanish  part  of  St.  Domingo. 
Bv  the  alliance  ofTensive  and  defensive  of  St.  Idletonso  (Aug. 
19    1796,)   Spain  identified  herself  with  the  French  system. 
The  war  with  Great  Britain  ruined  her  marine.     Admiral  Jer- 
vis  defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  (Feb.  14 
1797,)  commanded  by  Admiral  Cordova.     It  was  in  this  engage 
ment  that  Captain  Nelson,  afterwards  so  famous,  established  his 
fame,  by  the  courage  and  conduct  which  he  i>splayed    Admiral 
Hervev  conquered  the  important  island  of  Trinidad  (Feb.  18.) 
General  Stewart  without  much  difficulty  took  possession  of  Mi- 
norca (Nov.  7,  1798.)     The  alliance  of  Spain  with  France  was 
also  the  reason  why  the  Emperor  Paul  de<:lared  war  against 
her  after  his  accession  to  the  coalition  (July  27,  1799.)     ine 
Porte  followed  the  example  of  Russia  (Oct.  1,  1801.)     After  the 
peace  of  Luneville,  a  reconciliation  with  the  former  power  was 
Lned  at  Paris  (October  4.)     The  war  which  Spain  was  obliged 
to  wage  with  Portugal,  procured  her  the  city  of  01iven9a,  which 
was  ceded  by  the  peace  of  Badajos  (June  9.) 

By  the  treaty  signed  at  St.  Ildefonso,  Spam  surrendered  Lou- 


iihiinirinrtiiti 


iiDTiiTm(a-inTiiiiu»ii«ii"il *' 


pose  of  this  indolent 
a  convention  signed 
Spain  renounced  her 
chief  favourite  since 
d  Duke  of  Alcudia  ; 
g  became  venal,  and 
lary  principles  which 
the  Jesuits,  as  sufia- 
plare  of  these  fathers 
re  readily  propagated 
ially  after  the  publica- 
795,)  on  the  improve- 
w  •.  a  work  which  was 
till-*,  and  written  with 
doubt,  deserved  credit 
lis  enthusiasm  for  the 
)ked  all  existing  laws  ; 
le  crown,  and  the  com- 
irporations,  and  condi- 
tal  and  radical  subver- 
Dhis  work  may  be  said 
for  the  Cortes  of  Cadiz 
schemes  of  Jovellanos. 
ting  the  administration 
i\  in  making  the  crown 
■ce  of  Basle  (July  22, 
h  part  of  St.  Domingo, 
of  St.  Idlefonso  (Aug. 
,h  the  French  system, 
marine.     Admiral  Jer- 
St.  Vincent  (Feb.  14 
It  was  in  this  engage 
famous,  established  his 
he  displayed.  Admiral 
of  Trinidad  (Feb.  18.) 
took  possession  of  Mi- 
Spain  with  France  was 
I  declared  war  against 
(July  27,  1799.)     The 
ct.  1,  1801.)     After  the 
the  former  power  was 
hich  Spain  was  obliged 
city  of  Oliven9a,  which 
e9.) 
Spain  surrendered  Lou- 


_ji...ijjjii,,-,a 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.   1789 — 1815. 


459 


isiana  to  Bonaparte  ;  and  eventually  the  Slate  of  Parma  (Ucto- 
ber  1, 1800.)  She  also  surrendered  to  him  five  ships  of  the  line, 
besides  a  considerable  sum  of  money  which  she  paid  him  ;  and 
all  this  on  the  faith  of  his  promising  to  procure  the  Grand  Dutchy 
of  Tuscany,  with  the  title  of  Royalty,  to  the  King's  son-in-law, 
the  Infant  of  Parma.  These  stipulations  were  more  clearly 
established  by  the  treaty  v/hich  Lucien  Bonaparte  and  the  Prince 
of  Peace  afte'rwards  signed  at  Madrid  (March  21,  1801.)  The 
peace  of  Amiens  cost  Spain  no  other  sacrifice  than  the  Island  of 
Trinidad,  which  she  was  obliged  to  abandon  to  England ;  en- 
tirely on  the  decision  of  Bonaparte,  who  did  not  even  ask  the 
consent  of  Charles  IV.  Spain  had  lost  all  sort  of  respect  or 
consideration,  both  from  the  universal  and  contemptible  weak- 
ness of  her  government,  and  because  she  had  voluntarily  placed 
herself  under  dependence  to  France. 

From  the  very  commenccnicnt  of  this  period.  Great  Britain 
had  been  preserved  from  the  influence  of  the  revolutionary  prin- 
ciples, which  had  a  great  many  partisans  in  that  kingdom,  by 
the  firmness  of  her  Prime  Minister,  William  Pitt,  and  the  splen- 
did eloquence  of  Edmund  Burke,  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  Pitt  consolidated  the  system  of  finance,  by  extend- 
ing the  sinking  fund,  which  he  had  created  in  1786.  He  gave 
vigour  to  the  government,  by  obtaining  the  suspension  of  the  Ha- 
heus  Corpus  Act ;  and  by  means  of  the  Alien  Bill  (Jan.  4, 1793,) 
which  allowed  the  magistrate  an  extensive  authority  in  the  sur- 
veillance of  foreigners.  The  greatest  number  of  malcontents 
appeared  in  Ireland,  and  these  consisted  chiefly  of  Catholics  ; 
although  an  act,  passed  in  1793,  had  rendered  the  Catholics 
eligible  to  almost  all  oflicial  employments.  That  island  never- 
theless was  the  theatre  of  several  conspiracies,  the  design  of 
which  was  to  render  it  independent.  Their  leaders  acted  in 
unison  with  the  French,  who  made  attempts  at  different  times 
to  effect  a  landing  in  that  country.  Fifteen  thousand  troops,  ac- 
companied by  eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  embarked  for  that  pur- 
pose from  Brest  harbour  in  the  mor^th  of  December.  But  thi^s 
formidable  armament  had  scarcely  put  '.o  sea,  when  they  were 
overtaken  by  a  storm.  Eight  of  these  vessels  reached  the  Irish 
coast,  and  appeared  ofT  Bantray  Bay ;  but  they  were  forced  from 
that  station  by  another  tempest,  when  they  returned  to  France 
with  the  loss  of  two  ships  of  the  line,  some  frigates  having  nar- 
rowly escaped  falling  in  with  two  squadrons  of  the  English 
navy. 

At  length,  as  a  remedy  for  this  political  mischief,  the  union  of 
Ireland  with  Great  Britain  was  effected,  so  that  both  kingdoms 
should  have  one  and  the  same  Parliament ;  and  George  III.  as- 


Mijiiiiiii .  matmiwi 


"7 


M 


460 


CHAPTER   X. 


sutncd  the  title  of  Kin?  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  (July  2,  1800.)  p    .    „  .; 

Great  Britain  was  the  moving  pr.ncple  of  the  two  first  coah- 
lions  a.rainst  Franco,  although  she  fought  rather  with  money 
than  wUh  troops.     She  succeeded  in  ruining  the  marine  and 
the  commerce  of  both  France  and  Spain;  and  obtained  the  com- 
plete  command  of  the  sea.     A  short  time  before  the  death  of 
kul  I.,  she  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the  powers  of  the  No  th. 
The  resentment  of  that  Prince  against  the  Cabinet  of  London, 
for  refusing  to  put  him  in  possession  of  Malta,  which  the  English 
troops  had  seized,  was  the  true  cause  of  host.hties  ;  althoudi  a 
litigated  question  of  public  right  was  made  the  pretext,      llie 
point  at  issue  was,  whether  the  convoy  granted  to  the  merchant 
shins  of  neutral  states  by  their  sovereign,  protected  them  from 
being  searched  by  those  of  the  belligerent  powers,  or  not     Den- 
mark,  with  whom  the  discussion  first  arose,  inaintained  the  a(  r- 
mative,  and  England  the  negative  ;  although  it  was  not  till  the 
end  of  the  year  1799  that  she  maintained  this  doctrine.     At 
that  time  there  had  been  some  misunderstanding  between  Ad- 
miral Keith,  the  commander  of  the  British  forces  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  Captain  Van  Dockum,  who  was  convoying  a  fleet 
of  Danish  merchantmen.     In  the  month  of  July  following     he 
Danish  frigate  La  Freya,  which  had  attempted  to  defend  her 
convoy  against  a  search  of  the  English  cruisers,  was  taken  and 
carried  into  the  Downs.  .,„,;„„ 

These  acts  of  violence  gave  rise  to  a  very  warm  discussion 
between  the  Courts  of  London  and  Copenhagen.  The  formei 
having  sent  a  fleet  to  the  Sound,  commanded  by  Admiral  Dick- 
son, Denmark  was  obliged  to  yield  to  the  tempest,  but  in  a  man- 
ner very  honourable.  By  a  convention  which  was  signed  at 
Copenhagen  (Aug.  29,  1800,)  ihedecis.on  of  the  question  u-as 
remitted  for  further  discussion.  The  English  Government  re- 
leased the  Freya,  and  the  King  of  Denmark  promised  to  suspend 

''^  ThTaccommodation  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the 
Emneror  Paul.  That  prince,  who  entertained  lofty  ideas,  but 
who  yielded  too  often  to  his  passions,  had  determined  to  revive 
th.)  principles  of  the  Armed  Neutrality,  according  to  the  treaty 
of  1780,  and  to  compel  England  to  acknowledge  them.  He  in- 
vited Denmark  and  Sweden,  in  so  very  peremptory  a  manner,  to 
join  with  him  for  this  purpose,  that  these  States  could  not  refuse 
their  consent  without  coming  to  an  open  rupture  with  him.  1  hi8 
agreement  with  the  courts  of  Copenhagen,  Sweden  and  Berh  r 
was  finally  settled  by  the  conventions  signed  at  St.  Petersburg 
(Dec.  16,  and  18.)    As  Great  Britain  could  not  find  a  more  con- 


JJ 


*><irli»     ■ 


»tmtm 


of  Great  Britain 

le  two  first  coali- 

ther  with  money 

the  marine  and 

obtained  the  com- 

fore  the  death  of 

vers  of  the  North. 

abinet  of  London, 

which  the  English 

lities ;  ahhough  a 

he  pretext.     The 

d  to  the  merchant 

(tected  them  from 

vers,  or  not.    Den- 

aintained  the  affir- 

it  was  not  till  tlic 

this  doctrine.     At 

ling  between  Ad- 

orces  in  the  Medi- 

s  convoying  a  fleet 

uly  following,  the 

pted  to  defend  lier 

ors,  was  taken  uud 

y  warm  discussion 
igen.  The  formei 
i  by  Admiral  Dick- 
npest,  but  in  a  man- 
jch  was  signed  at 
f  the  question  was 
sh  Government  re- 
)romised  to  suspend 

the  approval  of  the 
ned  lofty  ideas,  but 
stermined  to  revive 
ording  to  the  treaty 
jdge  them.  He  in- 
mptory  a  manner,  to 
ites  could  not  refuse 
ure  with  him.  This 
Sweden  and  Berlin 
d  at  St.  Petersburg 
lot  find  a  more  coa- 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  17S9 — 1815. 


461 


venient  occasion  than  that  of  her  maritime  preponderance,  foi 
deciding  those  questions  on  which  she  had  maintained  silenct 
in  1780,  wur  was  declared  ;  and  hostilities  commenced  in  course 
of  a  few  months.  A  body  of  Danish  troops  occupied  Hamburg 
and  Lubec.  The  Prussians  took  possession  of  Bremen  and 
Hanover  (April  3.)  An  English  flee',  consisting  of  seventeen 
sail  of  the  line,  commanded  by  Ad?iiirals  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and 
Lord  Nelson,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Sound  without  sustain- 
ing much  injury  (March  30.)  A  squadron  under  Lord  Nelson 
engaged  the  Danish  fleet  before  Copenhagen  (April  3,)  which 
was  commanded  by  Admiral  Olfart  Fischer.  The  action  was 
spirited  on  both  sides,  and  added  a  new  wreath  to  the  fame  of 
Nelson  ;  and  although  the  Danes  were  obliged  to  yield  to  the 
superiority  of  British  valour,  they  acquitted  themselves  bravely 
and  honourably.  Within  seven  days  after,  an  armistice  was 
concluded. 

Admiral  Parker  continued  his  route  by  the  Baltic  and  arrived 
before  Carlscrona  (April  19,)  where  he  was  on  the  eve  of  com- 
mencing hostilities  against  Sweden,  when  he  was  apjiriscd  of 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Paul.  That  event  dissolved  the  League 
of  the  North,  and  put  an  end  to  the  war.  By  a  convention 
which  the  Emperor  Alexander  concluded  at  St.  Petersburg 
(June  17,)  the  principles  of  maritime  law  which  the  English  had 
professed  were  recognised.  The  other  powers  of  the  North  ac- 
ceded to  this  convention.  The  Danes  evacuated  Hamburg  and 
Lubec ;  but  Prussia  continued  in  possession  of  Hanover  until 
the  conclusion  of  the  peace  between  France  and  England. 

With  regard  to  Holland,  the  twenty  years  which  elapsed  be- 
tween 1795  and  1814  formed  an  era  of  calamities  and  disasters. 
The  Patriots,  who  comprehended  the  middle  class  of  the  Dutch 
community,  had  gained  the  ascendancy  on  the  entrance  of  the 
French  army ;  one  consequence  of  which  was,  the  abolition  of 
the  Stadtholdership.  But  that  party  became  sensible  of  their 
error,  when  they  saw  the  ruin  of  their  country.  The  indepen- 
dence of  their  Republic  was  acknowledged  by  the  treaty  of  the 
Hague  (May  16,  1795,)  which,  by  giving  it  France  for  an  ally, 
subjected  it  in  effect  to  that  power ;  and  reduced  it  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  province, — the  more  neglected,  as  it  was  not  entirely 
united.  The  constitution  which  the  Batavian  Republic  (the 
title  which  it  assumed)  had  adopted,  vacillated  between  two  op- 
posite systems,  the  adherents  of  which  could  rome  to  no  agree- 
ment ; — namely,  that  of  a  United  and  that  of  a  Federal  republic. 
While  these  matters  were  under  debate,  the  English,  who  had 
joined  the  Stadtholder's  party,  stripped  the  Republic  of  its  colo- 
nies ;  destroyed  its  marine,  particularly  in  the  action  which  Ad- 


***afteigWM*'*«*' 


t»»w*f^'^wii'M  (■^ittj'tfMag-^'Mi^ 


462 


CHAPTER  X. 


-4 


miral  Duncan  fou?ht  with  De  Wmter  near  Camperdown  (On 
T    1797")  an<l  annihilated  her  commerce  and  her  navigation 
bv'biockading  her  coasts,-not  excepting  even  her  fisheries. 
^The  overthrow  of  the  ancient  Helvetic  Confederacy,  is  un. 
doubtedW  one  of  the  high  crimes  with  which  history  has  to  re- 
moachUie  Executive  Directory  of  France.     The  constitu  ion 
d  awn  up  by  MM.  Ochs  and  La  Harpe  after  the  model  of  tha 
0  France,  vvhich  excluded  the  federative  system,  was  published 
bv  the  Fr;nch  party  (May  30,  1798,)  in  spite  of  the  modifica- 
JLs  wh  ch  the'^  more  judicious  patriots  had  attempted  to  iiUro- 
duce  ;  and  supported  by  the  French  army  under  General  Schau- 
enbug     To  compel  the  smaller  cantons  to  submit  to  this  yoke 
it  «"?  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  fire  and  sword.     The 
Grons  found  means,  however,  to  evade  it  by  receiving  an  Aus- 
uian  army  among  them,  in  virtue  of  a  convention  which  was 
0,  clud  Jat  Coifo  (Oct.  17  ;)  and  it  was  not  tiU  after  the  -J^^^^ 
tunate  campaign  of  1799,  iliat  ihey  were  ^«'"F"«'*,;\'™Y^^^ 
their  independence..     France  urpropriated  to  herself  the  Swiss 
par  of  the  bishopric  of  Basle,  and  the  ci"cs  ot  Mulhouse  and 
Geneva.     The  terms  of  subjection  on  which  the  Helvetic  Re- 
public  was  to  stand  in  future  with  France  were  determined  by 
an  alliance,  oftcnsive  and  defensive,  concluded  at  Par  s  (Aug. 
iSrSwizerland  henceforth  renounced  that  neutraity  which 
for  centuries  she  had  regarded  as  the  pledge  and  safeguard  of 

''^TKnSosity  which  reigned  between  the  Unionists  and  the 
Federalists,  caused  several  revolutions  in  the  government  of 
that  Republic.  But  as  these  intrigues  were  carried  on,  on  a 
small  scale,  and  have  left  few  traces  behind,  it  is  unnecessary 
hTre  to  ente'rTnto  any  detail.  If  the  Revolution  in  Switzerland 
SS  not  produce  a  single  man  remarkable  for  great  talents,  or  of 
a  commanding  character,  the  religious  spirit  of  the  country,  the 
tnslrucTon  of  the  people,  and  the  diflusion  of  knowledge,  at 
least  preserved  them  from  those  crimes  and  excesses  which 
stained  the  Revolutionists  in  France. 

At  the  peace  of  Amiens  all  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  a  part 
of  the  Venetian  territory  which  was  unUed  to  Ajtna  \ad 
yielded  to  the  dominion  of  France.  The  King  of  the  Two  Si 
cilica  alone  had  still  maintained  a  sort  of  independence.  In 
no  country  had  the  revolutionary  principles  of  the  eighteen  h 
century  found  more  abettors  among  the  higher  classes  than  m 
Piedmont.  The  King  of  Sardinia  was  the  fi'^«4««^"«'g"  "'j^^ 
throne  was  undermined  by  their  influence.  Scarcely  had  Vic- 
to/Amadeus  III.,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1773,  joined  the 
Wuragainst  France  (July  25,  17920  when  the  Republican 


Jmii 


mmmtinnm 


adrtiiliiiliil* 


mimiuitiKmtmmi 


1 1  •rai|ir"i'"'iiii^" 


!amperdovvn  (O-l 
nd  her  navigation 
1  her  fisheries, 
jnfederacy,  is  un« 
history  has  to  re- 
The  constitution 
the  model  of  thai 
:em,  was  published 
e  of  the  modifica- 
attempted  to  intro- 
ler  General  Schau- 
ubmit  to  this  yoke, 
and  sword.     The 
y  receiving  an  Aus- 
mention  which  was 
till  after  the  unfor- 
ipelled  to  renounce 
)  herself  the  Swiss 
i  of  Mulhouse  and 
h  the  Helvetic  Re- 
vere determined  by 
led  at  Paris  (Aug. 
lat  neutrality  which 
je  and  safeguard  of 

le  Unionists  and  the 
the  government  of 
sre  carried  on,  on  a 
[id,  it  is  unnecessary 
ation  in  Switzerland 
ir  great  talents,  or  of 
t  of  the  country,  the 
m  of  knowledge,  at 
and  excesses  which 

le  exception  of  a  part 
ited  to  Austria,  nad 
{ing  of  the  Two  Si- 
f  independence.  In 
les  of  the  eighteenth 
gher  classes  than  in 
first  sovereign  whose 
.  Scarcely  had  Vic- 
e  in  1773,  joined  the 
vhen  the  Republican 


PEniou  IX.     A.  D.  \ns9 — 1815. 


463 


armies  attacked,  and  made  an  easy  conquest  of  Savoy  and  Nice. 
Great  Britain  granted  him,  by  the  treaty  of  London  (April  25, 
1793,)  subsidies  for  carrying  on  the  war  with  vigour.  We 
have  related  above  the  disasters  which  he  met  with  in  the  war 
against  France.  The  pence  of  Paris  cost  him  the  sncriliin  of 
two  provinces.  In  vain  did  his  son  Charles  Emanuel  IV.  hope 
to  save  the  remainder  of  his  estates,  by  becoming  an  ally  of  the 
French  Directory  at  the  treaty  of  Turin,  (April  5,  1797.)  His 
political  influence  was  lost ;  they  knew  they  could  commnnil  any 
thing  from  that  ally.  Their  first  request  was  the  .surrender  of 
the  city  of  Turin,  by  the  convention  of  Milan  (June  28,  1798.) 
The  Directory  afterwards  declared  war  against  that  prince  with- 
out any  grounds ;  and  he  could  not  obtain  permission  to  retire 
to  Sardinia,  except  by  signing  a  kind  of  abdication  (Dec,  9 ;) 
against  which  he  afterwards  protested.  Piedmont  was  thus 
governed  entirely  according  to  the  pleasure  of  France ;  and 
immediately  after  the  peace  of  Amiens,  it  was  definitively  an- 
nexed to  her  territories. 

Austrian  Lombardy  (with  the  exception  of  Mantua,)  the 
dutchy  of  Modena,  the  three  Legatines  ceded  by  Pius  VI.,  and 
a  part  of  the  Venetian  territory,  formed  the  Cisalpine  Republic, 
which  Bonaparte  declared  independent,  by  the  preliminaries  of 
Leoben  (June  29,  1797.)  He  soon  after  (Oct.  22,)  added  to  it 
the  Valteline,  Chiavenna,  and  Bormio,  which  he  had  taken  from 
the  Grisons ;  and  at  a  later  period  (Sept.  7,  1800,)  he  added  a 
part  of  Piedmont,  viz.  the  Novarese,  and  the  country  beyond  the 
Sesia.  Mantua  was  likewise  annexed  to  this  Republic  at  the 
peace  of  Luneville.  Its  connexions  with  France  had  been  de- 
termined by  the  alliance  of  1798,  which  were  more  servile  than 
those  in  which  the  Batavian  Republic,  and  afterwards  that  of 
Switzerland,  were  placed.  In  this  pretended  Republic,  France 
exercised  an  absolute  power;  she  changed  its  constitution  at 
pleasure,  appointed  and  deposed  its  highest  functionaries  as  suit- 
ed her  convenience.  The  victories  of  Suwarow  put  an  end  for 
some  time  to  the  existence  of  that  State  ;  but  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  matters  were  replaced  on  their  ancient  footing. 

The  Republic  of  Genoa,  distracted  by  innovations  at  home, 
and  threatened  from  abroad  by  England  and  Fiance,  hesitated 
for  some  time  as  to  the  system  which  they  should  adopt.  But 
after  the  French  had  become  masters  of  the  Bocchetta,  the 
Senate  consented,  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Paris  (Oct.  9,  1796,) 
to  give  them  a  sum  of  money,  and  shut  their  ports  against  the 
English.  After  the  preliminaries  of  Leoben,  this  Republic  ac- 
cepted a  democratic  constitution  from  the  hand  of  Bonaparte, 
according  to  the  treaty  of  Montebello  (June  6,  1797.)     It  paid 


^\'\ 


V 

.*/'' 


464 


CHAPTER  X. 


nea^    oue'rs ;  b"?t  during  his  l.ricf  reign,  he  was  more  a  vassal 
of  Bonaparte  than  an  independent  sovereign. 

Pius  VI.  had  protested  against  the  spoliation  of  the  .^Jvircn, 
vvh;.  the  Const  luenl  AsstMnbly  of  France  had  committed,  by 
he  il  of  Av  mo"  and  the  County  of  Venaissin  to  the  Re- 
the  union  01  Avi  no"  that  time  he  was  treated  as  an 

?n"em;  ^  Th^ tce'oVLTogna:  (June  23, 1796,)  cost  him  twenty- 
Te  n  Ulions  of  francs,  and'many  of  the  fi"-t  jci-ns  o  a  t 
H,.rnnscnted  that  such  statues  and  pictures  as  might  be  seleciea 
WcZ  i^sbners  appointed  for  that  purpose  Bh°«ljbe  conveyed 
S  the  French  capitS.     Finding  U  .mpjsible  u.  ^b^-^rhe 

nnd  I  e  CS  of  Venaissin.      In  consequence  of  a  tumul 

Government  was  vested  in  five  consuls,  thirty-two  senators,  and 
f^m  vTwo  tribunes,  called  the  Representatives  of  the  people^ 
pTus  VI.  was  carried  captive  to  France,  and  died  at  Valence 
fiu.  29,  1799.)  The 'conclave  assembled  at  Vemce-and 
itSed  Cardinal  Chmrajnte  i^    is  P  a^^^^^^^^^ 

First  Consul,  Slowed  him  to  enjoy  the  rest  of  his  estates  m 

^^Towards  the  end  of  1792,  a  French  fleet,  cornmanded  by  Ad- 
niimlLa  Touche,  appeared  off  the  port  of  Naples,  and  obliged 
Jhl  Kinff  to  acknowledge  that  first  of  all  sovereigns,  the  French 
LuWif  ThisdTd  not  prevent  him  from  entering  into  the  coa- 
KepuDiic     1111  V  ^jjj^^^g  ^jjh  England, 

is  w^^colfflaXl-.  'Aft.r  the  success  of  %on«. 


J 


he  Imperial    fiefH 

en  took  the  name 

[avu  aiieady  men- 

unjustly  deprived 

the  treaty  of  St. 

na,  son-in-law    to 

s  proclaimed  King 

il  by  all  the  Euro- 

vas  more  a  vassal 

on  of  the  Church, 
had  committed,  by 
snaissin  to  the  Re- 
e  was  treated  as  an 
6,)  cost  him  twenty- 
st  specimens  of  art. 
.3  might  be  selected 
should  be  conveyed 
e  to  obtain  an  equi- 
300  men,  which  he 
a  native  of  Austria ; 
lis  Holiness  to  con- 
which  cost  him  fif- 
es of  Bologna,  Fer- 
same  time  Avignon 
qucncc  of  a  tumult 
ncli  General  Duphot 
Jorthicr,  entered  that 
lan  Republic ;  which, 
ral  existence.  The 
ly-two  senators,  and 
ttives  of  the  people, 
ind  died  at  Valence 
3led  at  Venice,  and 
B,  (March  13,  1800,) 
within  a  short  time 
naparte,  then  elected 
est  of  his  estates  in 

,  commanded  by  Ad- 
Naples,  and  obliged 
vereigns,  the  French 
entering  into  the  coa- 
iance  with  England, 
he  success  of  Bonn* 


Bonaparte  crossing  the  Alps.    P.  452. 


Fall  of  Kosciuszko.    P.  473. 


<•*■; 


.fe^ 


\0' 


i»aaifawSaii<iiiiJ^>^itf>*Tr-- " 


■^■i«y*^.-iM 


irKKT-tinmrOTi;  t  fpn"' "»»' 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.   17S9 — 1S15. 


4GS 


parte  in  Lombard/,  Ferdinand  IV.  avertcU  the  storm  which 
threatened  him,  by  signing  first  a  suspension  of  arms  at  Brescia 
(June  5  1798,)  and  the  peace  of  Paris  a  few  months  after, 
which  he  obtained  on  honourable  conditions.  We  have  already 
mentioned,  that  he  was  one  of  the  first  sovereigns  who  entered 
into  the  second  coalition  against  France ;  and  that  the  precip- 
itancy with  which  he  then  commenced  hostilities,  proved  pre- 
judicial to  the  success  of  the  war,  as  well  as  disastrous  to^  him- 
self. He  did  not  regain  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
till  after  the  retreat  of  Macdonald  in  1799 ;  and  he  purchased 
pence  (March  28,  1800)  at  the  expense  of  receiving  into  his 
kingdom  16,000  French  troops,  who  remained  there  until  the 
conclusion  of  the  treaty  between  Alexander  and  Bonaparte. 

The  combined  fleets  of  Turkey  and  Russia  had  subdued  th« 
islands  that  formerly  belonged  to  the  Venetians,  viz.  Corfu, 
Zante,  Cephalonia,  St.  Maura,  Ithaca,  Paxo,  and  Cerigo.  Ac- 
cording to  a  convention  concluded  at  Constantinople  between 
Russia  and  the  Porte  (March  21,  1800,)  these  islands  were  to 
form  an  independent  State,  although  subject  to  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, under  the  name  of  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islandt 
This  Republic,  was  acknowledged  in  subsequent  treaties  by 
France  and  Great  Britain. 

By  the  peace  of  Basle,  Germany  had  been  divided  into  two 
parts;  the  North,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Prussia;  and  the 
South,  where  Austria  had  the  predominancy,  in  consequence  ot 
her  armies,  and  by  the  favour  of  the  ecclesiastical  Princes ;  for 
the  secular  States  abandoned  her  as  often  as  they  could  do  so  with 
impunity.     By  a  convention  which  Prussia  concluded  at  Basle 
with  France  (May  17,  1795,)  the  neutrality  of  the  North  of 
Gennany  was  recognised,  on  conditions  which  the  Princes  situ- 
ated beyond  the  line  of  demarcation  were  anxious   to  fulfil. 
Prussia  afterwards  concluded  arrangements  with  these  States 
for  establishing  an  army  of  observation.     This  defection  created 
no  small  animosity  between  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  Vienna, 
which  the  French  dexterously  turned  to  their  own  advantage  ; 
especially  during  the  sitting  of  the  Congress  at  Rastadt.     In 
vain  did  the  Emperor  Paul,  who  had  determined  to  make  war 
against  the  Republic,  attempt  to  restore  harmony  between  these 
two  leading  States.     He  was  equally  unsuccessful  m  his  pro- 
ject of  drawing  Prussia  into  the  coalition.     Although  Frederic 
II.  had  been  deceived  by  France,  who,  after  having  promised 
him,  in  a  secret  convention  concluded  at  Berlin  (August  5, 
1798,)  a  compensation  proportioned  to  the  loss  which  he  had 
flusiamed  by  ceding  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  entered  into  en- 
gagements directly  opposite,  by  the  secret  articles  in  the  treaty 

30 


r  I 


T 


!/, 


I: 


1!p^' 


i  ( 


_^ . ...-  k. 


■11 


466 


CHAPTER  X. 


;si'uy^tc,:tr.i:i"ti  p™i." «-»- "p^™"'' •» 

their  '^^-XT^^AfZrlnZ  S'ei  was  assembled  at  War- 
to  avoid  the  i«co,.vea.ences  of  jjf/''*^;^^;;;;,,  of  Russia 

enter  mto  an  f '"^^«  «S7J.VJ;',i,;;vho,  in  consequence  of  his 

^"tSs  resohuion  of  the  Diet  could  not  but  displease  the  Em- 
ores  VRusia,  who  remonstrated  against  .t  as  a  d.reci  mfrac- 
E  of  the  ar  tides  agreed  between  her  and  the  Republic  in 
?;«;  The  p£,  who  thus  foresaw  that  the  changes  which 
thev  had  in  view  wLd  embroil  them  with  that  princess,  ought 
tS  h^aJe  consi^e^d.  in  the  first  place,  how  to  put  themselves  in  o 
a  good  state  of  defence.     But  instead  of  P^o^^^l^l^L^l^^Z 

Sg  S;  r;;?;  it  th?cUtution  which  had  Wn  submit- 


»iiiwiiWIMIIIWi.lWWI! 


PKnioD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 1»16. 


467 


William  III.,  who 
ainud  rnithful  to  a 
inances  appeared  to 

transplanted  into 
en  on  a  soil  well 

root.     By  the  peace 

the  loft  bank  of  the 
id  the   momeni  was 

nfall  of  the  German 
1  with  a  strange  ma- 
fi  their  very  founda- 
csi'cs    which  appear 

u  the  North  another 
by  their  neighbours, 
luthority  of  the  laws, 
go  of  a  foreign  yoke. 
,t  while  the  forces  of 
and  the  Turks,  as  we 
3ft  at  liberty  to  alter 
to  the  government  of 
as  assembled  at  War- 
onfcderation,  in  order 
mm  Veto,  and  of  the 
he  Empress  of  Russia 
o  engage  the  Poles  to 
le  was  thwarted  in  her 
in  consequence  of  his 
eftbrt  to  instigate  the 
lem,  by  offering  them 
lir  government,  which 
ommittee  of  Legisla- 
sioned  to  draw  up  the 
lew  energy  to  the  Re- 
but displease  the  Ern- 
st it  as  a  direct  infrac- 
r  and  the  Republic  in 
lat  the  changes  which 
th  that  princess,  ought 
to  put  themselves  into 
roviding  for  the  melio- 
my  of  the  Republic  on 
nsidcrablo  time  in  dis- 
^hich  had  been  submit- 


ted to  them.  The  assurance  of  protection  from  Prussia,  which 
hnil  been  officially  ratified  to  them,  rendered  the  Poles  too  con- 
fident ;  and  the  treaty  of  alliance  which  the  King  of  Prussia  had 
in  effect  concluded  with  the  Republic  (March  29,  1790,)  began 
to  lull  them  into  a  profound  security.  Stanislaus  Augustus, 
after  having  long  hesitated  as  to  the  party  he  ought  to  espouse, 
at  length  voluntarily  joined  that  party  in  the  Diet  who  wished 
to  extricate  Poland  fronj  that  state  of  degradation  into  which  she 
had  fallen.  The  new  constitution  was  accordingly  decreed  by 
acclamation  (May  3,  1791.) 

However  imperfect  that  constitution  might  appear,  it  was  in 
unison  with  the  state  of  civilization  to  which  Poland  had  arriv 
ed.  It  corrected  several  of  the  errors  an<l  defects  of  former  laws ; 
and  though  truly  renublican,  it  was  free  from  those  extravagant 
notions  which  the  French  Revolution  had  brought  into  fashion. 
The  throne  was  rendered  hereditary  in  favour  of  the  Electoral 
House  of  Saxony ;  they  abolished  the  law  of  unanimity,  and  the 
absurdity  of  the  Liherum  Veto;  the  Diet  was  declared  perma- 
nent, and  the  Legislative  body  divided  into  two  Chambers.  One 
of  these  Chambers,  composed  of  Deputies  whose  functions  were 
to  continue  for  two  years,  was  charged  with  di-scussing  and 
framing  the  laws  ;  and  the  other,  consisting  of  a  Senate  in  which 
the  King  presided,  were  to  sanction  them,  and  to  exercise  the 
Veto :  the  executive  power  was  intrusted  to  the  King,  and  a 
Council  of  Superintendence  consisting  of  seven  members  or  re- 
sponsible ministers.  The  inhabitants  of  the  towns  were  allow- 
ed the  privilege  of  electing  their  own  Deputies  and  Judges,  and 
the  burgesses  had  the  way  laid  open  to  them  for  attaining  the 
honours  of  nobility.  The  latter  were  maintained  in  all  the 
plenitude  of  their  rights  and  prerogatives  ;  the  peasantry,  who 
had  been  In  a  state  of  servitude,  were  placed  under  the  imme- 
diate protection  of  the  laws  and  the  government ;  the  constitu- 
tion sanctioned  before-hand  the  compacts  which  the  landed  i)ro- 
prietors  might  enter  into  with  their  tenantry  for  meliorating 
their  condition. 

The  efforts  which  the  Poles  had  made  to  secure  their  inde 
pendence,  excited  the  resentment  of  Russia.  The  Empress  had 
no  sooner  made  peace  with  the  Porte,  than  she  engaged  her  par- 
tisans in  Poland  to  form  a  confederacy  for  the  purpose  of  over- 
turning the  innovations  of  the  Diet  at  Warsaw,  and  restoring 
the  ancient  constitution  of  the  Republic.  This  confederation, 
which  was  signed  at  Targowica  (May  14,  1792,) was  headed  by 
the  Counts  Felix  Potochi,  Rzewuski,  and  Branicki.  In  support 
of  this  confederacy,  the  Empress  sent  an  army  into  Poland,  to 
wage  war  against  the  partisans  of  the  new  order  of  things.  The 


^f^i 


,     v.«^ 


M  »« 


I 


%^ 


[iiniiinif— "' 


*V 


4G8 


CnAPTBK  X. 


Poles  had  never  till  then  thought  seriously  of  auopting  vigoroun 
measures  The  Diet  decreed,  tluit  an  unny  «  iho  line  should 
rnuneEely  take  the  field  ;  u.ul  that  n  Icv^  ^houUl  be  nmde  of 
.Tvero  corJs  of  light  iroop..  A  lo«n  of  thrrty-lhroo  HuU.ons  of 
norins  P» Led  wiilmut  the  l.aM  opposition;  but  the  FrusHmn 
mi  ier  having  been  .-ailed  upon  to  give  some  explanation  a  to 
Sc  subsidies  which  th..  King  his  muster  had  promised  to  the 
Republic  by  the  treaty  of  alliance  of  1790.  he  nmde  an  evasive 
.nswer.  which  discouraged  the  whole  patriotic  party. 

The  rXal  of  the  Polish  Diet  to  accede  to  a  mercanti  e 
scheme,  by  which  Dantzic  and  Thorn  were  to  be  abandoned  to 
he  King  of  Prussia,  had  di^afTected  that  monarch  towards  Po. 
and  U  was  not  difficult,  therefore,  for  the  Empress  of  Russia 
0  obtain  his  consent  to  a  dismemberinent  of  that  kingdom. 
The  aTersiin  which  the  sovereigns  of  Eurote  ctertained  for 
every  thing  that  resembk-d  the  French  Revo  ut.on,  with  which, 
Cver.  tL  events  of  Poland  where  the  King  and  the  nation 
weTeacingin  concert  had  nothing  in  common  except  appear- 
rnces'had  «  powerful  effect  upon  the  Court  of  Berlin ;  and 
pjoved  he  cause  of  their  breaking  those  «"B<»&'^.'P''»'^J,»''^»; 
Key  had  contracted  with  that  Republic.  t  was  then  that  the 
Poles  fully  comprehended  the  dangi-r  of  their  situation  The  r 
first  ardour  cooled,  and  the  whole  Diet  were  thrown  into  a  state 
of  the  utmost  consternation.  .    ji     •  .    .•.„ 

Abandoned  to  her  own  resources,  and  convulsed  by  intestine 
divisions,  Poland  then  saw  her  utter  inability  to  0PP«««  ^^'If^" 
my  so  powerful  as  the  Russians.     The  campaign  of  1792  turned 
out  entirely  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Palriolic  party.     After 
a  successful  career,  the  Russians  advanced  on  W"^/'^^ ;  J^f" 
Stanislaus,  who  was  easily  intimidated.  «f.«;^' .^^^  ^°  ^'jf/jfjj^" 
racy  of  Targowica.  by  renouncing  the  constitution  of  the  3d  May, 
in/the  actf  of  the  revolutionary  Diet  of  Warsaw.     1  hat  prince 
even  subscribed  (Aug.  25,  1792)  to  all  the  conditions  which  the 
Empress  thought  proper  to  dictate  to  him.     A  suspension  of 
arms  was  agreed  to,  which  stipulated  for  the  reduction  of  the 
Polish  army      In  consequence  of  the  arrangements  entered  mto 
oetween  Russia  and  Prussia,  by  the  convention  of  St  Petew- 
burg  (Jan.  23.  1793.)  the  Prussian  troops  entered  Poland,  and 
Sad  over  the  country  after  the  example  of  the  Russians. 
Aoclamalions  were  issued  by  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, by  which  they  declared  the  districts  of  Poland  which 
their  trSops  had  occupied,  incorporated  with  their  own  domin- 
ions.    The  adoption  of  the  constitution  of  1791,  and  the  propa- 
gation  of  the  Somocratic  principles  of  the  French,  were  the 
causes  ot  tais  new  dismemberment  of  Poland. 


}{ adnpting  vigorous 

of  tho  lino  should 

tiliuuM  he  made  of 

ty-throo  inillioii;  of 

|i ;  hul  the  F'ru«niun 

DO  explanation  as  to 

lad  promiMcd  to  the 

he  iniide  nn  evasive 

)tic  party. 

;de  to  u  mercantile 

tu  Im>  abandoned  to 

lonarch  towards  Po- 

;  Empress  of  Russia 

It  of  that  kingdom. 

iroi,c  entertained  for 

rolution,  with  which, 

Cing  and  the  nation 

mon  except  appcar- 

ourt  of  Berlin ;  and 

engagements  which 

It  was  then  that  the 

cir  situation.     Their 

re  thrown  into  a  state 

onvulsed  by  intestine 
lity  to  oppose  an  ene- 
npaign  of  1792  turned 
'atriotic  party.  Af\er 
1  on  Warsaw  ;  when 
xcded  to  the  confede- 
itution  of  the  3d  May, 
I'^arsaw.  That  prince 
conditions  which  the 
n.  A  suspension  of 
the  reduction  of  the 
igemenls  entered  into 
ention  of  St.  Peters- 
entered  Poland,  and 
pie  of  the  Russians. 
)f  Berlin  and  St.  Pe* 
icts  of  Poland  which 
ith  their  own  domin- 
1791,  and  the  propa* 
the  French,  were  the 
ind. 


1 


PKnionix.     A.  p.  1789— lRf/5- 


469 


Prni'sia  Iruik  |>oh»es9io«  of  the  \ntgPT  pfirl  of  Great  Poland.  In* 
cluiiint,'  tlie  cilicH  of  Dantzic  and  Thorn  ;  l\w  f^>wn  of  CzeiistO' 
fhowii  in  Little  Poland  was  also  ndjiidged  to  her,  with  its  fron- 
tier exiondiiig  to  the  rivers  Piiicrt,  Sterniewka,  Jezowka,  nnd 
Bziira.  The  loft  bank  of  thoso  rivers  was  assigned  to  Prussia, 
and  the  right  ros'.«rved  to  Poland.  The  portion  awarded  to  the 
fornier,  t-ontaiiioi'.  ono  thousand  and  sixty-one  Oertnt'in  srpiaro 
miles,  and  one  iniliion  Uvo  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  Rus- 
sia got  nearly  tlvo  half  nf  Lithuania,  including  the  Palatinates  of 
Podolia,  Pololsl'  aiul  Minsk,  n  part  of  the  Palatinate  of  Wilna, 
with  the  half  of  Novogrodok,  Brzo.sf,  and  Volhynia ;  in  all,  four 
thousand  five  hundred  and  fifiy-lhroe  Gorman  square  milcf  and 
containing  threo  millions  of  inhabitants. 

The  Poles  were  obliged  to  yield  up,  by  treaties,  those  pro- 
vinces which  the  two  powers  had  seized.  The  treaty  between 
Poland  and  Russia  was  signed  at  the  Diet  of  Grodno  (July  13, 
1793.)  But  that  v/ith  the  King  of  Prussia  met  with  the  most 
decided  opposition  ■  and  it  was  necessary  to  use  threats  of  com- 
pnl'iion  before  it  was  consunnnutod.  On  this  occasion,  these 
tv/o  powers  renounced  anew  the  rights  and  pretensions  which 
they  might  still  have  against  the  Republic  under  any  denomina- 
tion whatsoever.  They  agreed  to  acknowledge,  and  if  it  should 
be  required,  uIro  to  guarantee  the  constitution  which  should  be 
established  by  ih'.'  Diet  with  the  free  consent  of  the  Polish  nation. 

After  these  treaties,  came  a  treaty  of  alliance  and  union  be- 
tween Russia  and  Poland  (October  16,  1793,)  the  third  article 
of  which  guaranteed  their  mutual  assistance  in  case  of  attack ; 
the  direction  of  the  war  was  reserved  to  Russia,  as  well  as  the 
privilege  of  sending  her  troops  into  Poland,  and  forming  maga* 
vcines  there,  when  she  might  judge  it  necessary  ;  while  Poland 
agreed  to  enter  into  no  connexion  with  foreign  powers,  and  to 
make  no  (^Ii^nge  in  her  constitution,  except  with  the  approbation 
of  Russia  The  portion  that  was  left  to  the  Republic,  either 
in  Poland  or  Lithuania,  contained  three  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  three  square  miles,  with  somewhat  more  than  three  mil- 
lions r.f  inhabitants.  This  State  was  divided  into  eighteen 
palatinates,  ten  of  which  were  in  Poland,  and  eight  in  Lithua- 
nia. To  each  of  these  palatinates  were  assigned  two  senators, 
\  palatine,  a  castellain,  and  six  deputies  to  sit  in  the  Diet. 

These  diflerent  treaties,  and  the  grievances  of  which  the 
Poles  had  just  cause  to  complain,  threw  the  public  mind  into  a 
ftate  of  agitation,  which  in  the  following  year  broke  out  into  a 
general  insurrection.  A  secret  association  was  formed  at  War- 
saw ;  it  found  numerous  partisans  in  the  army,  which  was  to 
have  been  disbanded  according  to  the  arrangements  with  Rus- 


r*.! 


rt  iSi   I   ' 


H  »* 


^_.:».       _ 


470 


CHAPTER  X 


sia  The  conspirators  chose  Thaddeus  Kosciuszko  for  theii 
chief,  in  this  projected  insurrection  against  Russia.  That  gen- 
eral had  distinguished  himself  in  the  American  war  under 
Washington  ;  he  had  very  recently  signalized  his  bravery  in  the 
campaign  of  1792 ;  and  after  the  unfortunate  issue  of  that  war, 
he  had  retired  into  Saxony  with  a  few  othei^  patriots,  who  were 
ready  to  exert  their  energy  in  the  cause  of  freedom.  The  in- 
surgents reckoned  with  confidence  on  the  assistance  of  Austria, 
who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  last  dismemberment  of  Poland , 
they  flattered  themselves  that  Turkey  and  Sweden  would  not 
remain  mere  spectators  of  the  eflbrts  which  they  were  making 
to  regain  their  liberty  and  their  independence. 

Kosciuszko  :md  wished  that  they  should  postpone  the  execu- 
tion of  their  plan,  in  order  to  gam  more  time  for  preparation  ; 
especially  as  a  suspicion  was  excited  among  the  Russians.  He 
even  retired  into  Italy,  where  he  remained  until  one  of  his  ac- 
complices, who  had  been  ordered,  as  a  propagator  of  sedition,  to 
banish  Aimself  from  the  Polish  territories,  informed  him  that 
his  countrymen  wished  him  to  appear  among  them  without  de- 
lay, as  a  better  opportunity  might  not  soon  arise.  Madalinski, 
who  commanded  a  brigade  of  cavalry  under  the  new  govern- 
ment, when  summoned  to  disband  them,  refused  ;  and  throwing 
ofl*  the  mask,  gave  the  sigt.al  for  insurrection.  He  suddenly 
quitted  his  station,  crossed  the  Vistula,  and  after  having  dis- 
persed some  detachments  of  Prussians,  whom  he  encountered 
m  his  route,  he  marched  directly  to  Cracow,  where  he  erected 
the  standard  of  revolt.  The  inhabitants  took  arms,  expelled 
the  Russian  troops  who  were  quartered  in  that  city,  and  pro- 
claimed Kosciuszko  their  General.  A  sort  of  dictatorship  was 
conferred  upon  him  (March  24, 1794,)  which  was  to  continue  so 
long  as  their  country  was  in  danger.  He  took  an  oath  of  fidel- 
ity to  the  nation,  and  of  adherence  to  the  principles  stated  in 
the  act  of  insurrection,  by  which  war  was  declared  against  the 
invaders  of  their  rights  and  liberties. 

The  Russians  and  Prussians  immediately  despatched  their 
troops  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  insurrection.  The  defeat  oi 
a  body  of  Russians  near  Raslavice,  by  Kosciuszko,  inspired  the 
insurgents  with  new  courage.  The  inhabitants  of  Warsaw 
rose  in  like  manner  against  the  Russians,  who  had  a  garrison 
there  of  10,000  men,  under  the  command  of  General  Igelstrom. 
It  was  on  the  night  of  the  17th  April  that  the  tocsin  of  revoh 
was  sounded  in  the  capital ;  the  insurgents  seized  the  arsenal, 
and  distributed  arms  and  ammunition  among  the  people.  A 
brisk  cannonade  took  place  between  the  Russians  and  the  Poles. 
The  combat  continued  for  two  successive  days,  in  which  several 


•ifgit'iiit-'rWiiT 


siOL- 


iKosciuszko  for  theii 
Russia.  That  gen- 
merican  war  under 
|zed  his  bravery  in  the 
late  issue  of  that  war, 
le'  patriots,  who  were 
)i  freedom.  The  in- 
assistance  of  Austria, 
fnberment  of  Poland , 
d  Sweden  would  not 
h  they  were  making 
ence. 

d  postpone  the  execu< 

time  for  preparation ; 

ng  the  Russians.    He 

■d  until  one  of  his  ac- 

opagator  of  sedition,  to 

es,  informed  him  that 

long  them  without  de- 

)n  arise.     Madalinski, 

under  the  new  govern- 

refused  ;  and  throwing 

rection.     He  suddenly 

and  after  having  dis- 

whom  he  encountered 

:ow,  where  he  erected 

ts  took  arms,  expelled 

in  that  city,  and  pro- 

)rt  of  dictatorship  was 

lich  was  to  continue  so 

>  took  an  oath  of  fidel- 

le  principles  stated  in 

IS  declared  against  the 

ately  despatched  their 
•ection.  The  defeat  oi 
osciuszko,  inspired  the 
ihabitants  of  Warsaw 
,  who  had  a  garrison 
I  of  General  Igelstrom. 
at  the  tocsin  of  revolt 
Its  seized  the  arsenal, 
mong  the  people.  A 
lussions  and  the  Poles, 
days,  in  which  several 


FERIOO  IX.     A.  D.  i7£M — 1816. 


471 


thousands  of  the  Russians  perished,  while  4S00  were  made  pri- 
•oner".  Igulslrom  escaped  from  the  city  with  about  3000  men. 
The  same  insurrection  broke  out  at  Wilna,  from  whence  it  ex- 
tended ever  all  Lithuania.  Several  Polish  regiments  who  had 
entered  into  the  service  of  Russia,  changed  sides,  and  enlisted 
under  the  banners  of  the  insurgents. 

In  spite  of  their  first  success,  it  was  soon  perceived  tha^ 
Poland  was  deficient  in  the  necessary  resources  for  an  enter- 
prise of  such  a  nature  as  that  in  which  they  were  engaged. 
The  great  body  of  the  citizens  were  neither  sufHciently  numer- 
ous nor  sufficiently  wealthy,  to  serve  ns  a  centre  for  the  revolu- 
tion which  they  had  undertaken ;  and  the  servitude  in  which 
the  peasantry  were  kept,  wns  but  ill  calculated  to  inspire  them 
with  enthusiasm  for  a  cause  in  which  their  masters  only  were 
to  be  the  gainers.  Besides,  the  patriots  were  divided  in  opin- 
ion ;  and  the  King,  although  he  appeared  to  approve  their  ef 
forts,  inspired  so  much  mistrust  by  his  weakness  and  timidity, 
that  he  was  even  accused  of  secretly  abetting  the  interests  of 
Russia.  Lastly,  the  nobles  who  alone  ought  to  have  shown 
courage  and  energy,  were  found  but  little  disposed  to  give  any 
effectual  support  to  the  cause  of  liberty.  Every  contribution 
appeared  to  them  an  encroachment  on  their  prerogatives  ;  and 
they  were  as  much  averse  to  a  levy  en  masse  as  to  the  raising 
of  recruits,  which  deprived  them  of  their  tenantry.  They  were, 
moreover,  afraid  of  losing  those  rights  and  privileges  which  they 
exclusively  enjoyed. 

Under  these  considerations,  Kosciuszko  was  convinced  that  it 
was  inipossible  for  him  to  organize  an  armed  force  equal  to  that 
of  the  Russians  and  the  Prussians,  who  were  acting  in  concert 
to  defeat  the  measures  of  the  insurgents.  After  some  inferior 
operations,  an  important  engagement  took  place  on  the  confines 
of  the  Palatinates  of  Siradia  and  Cujavia  (June  8,  1794,)  where 
he  sustained  a  defeat ;  in  consequence  of  which  the  King  of 
Prussia  made  himself  master  of  Cracow.  That  prince,  supported 
by  a  body  of  Russian  troops,  undertook,  in  person,  the  siege  of 
Warsaw.  The  main  forces  of  the  insurgents  were  assembled 
under  the  walls  of  that  city.  They  amounted  to  about  22,000 
combatants,  while  the  enemy  had  more  than  50,000.  The  siege 
of  Warsaw  continued  nearly  two  months,  when  a  general  msur 
rection,  which  had  spread  from  Great  Poland  into  Western  Pros 
sia,  obliged  the  King  to  retire,  that  he  might  arrest  the  progress 
of  the  insurrection  in  his  own  dominions. 

The  joy  of  the  insurgents,  on  account  of  this  incident,  was 
but  of  short  duration.  The  Court  of  Vienna,  which  till  then 
had  maintained  a  strict  neutrality,  resolved  also  to  despatch  on 


•  1 "«' 


•^- 


i^^- 


472 


CHAPTER  X. 


army  into  Poland.     This  army  was  divided  into  two  columns, 
one  of  which  marched  on  Brzesci,  and  the  other  on  Dowhno. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Russians  under  the  command  of  Suwo- 
row,  advanced  into  Lithuania,  and  pursued  u  body  of  the  m««ur- 
gents,  who  were  commanded  by  Sirakowski.     Kosciuszko.  whc 
now  saw  the  great  superiority  of  the  enemy,  made  a  last  effort 
to  prevent  the  junction  of  the  army  of  Suwarow  with  that  of 
Baron  de  Fersen,  the  Russian  General.     Directing  his  march 
towards  the  latter,  he  fought  a  bloody  battle  with  him  near 
Matchevitz  (Oct.  10, 1794.)     The  action  continued  from  sunrise 
till  beyond  mid-day.     Six  thousand  of  the  Polish  army  perishet* 
on  the  field,  and  the  test  were  made  prisoners.     Kosciuszko  was 
himself  dangerously  wounded,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
conqueior.     He  had  endeavoured  to  escajpe  by  the  swiftness  of 
his  horse,  but  was  overtaken  by  some  of  the  Cossacs;  one  of 
whom,  without  knowing  him,  run  him  through  the  back  with 
his  lance.     Falling  senseless  from  his  horse,  he  was  carried  to 
a  monastery ;  when  it  was  intimated,  by  one  of  his  officers,  that 
he  was  the  Commander-in-chief.     Surgical  aid  was  immediately 
administered  to  him,  and  he  was  soon  after  conveyed  to  St. 

Petersburg.  ,     „  i        tu  • 

This  disaster  quite  dejected  the  courage  of  the  Poles.    Their 
Generals,  Dombrowski  and  Madalinski,  who  were  carrying  on 
the  war  in  Prussia  and  Great  Poland,  abandoned  these  provinces, 
and  marched  with  their  troops  to  the  relief  of  Warsaw.     Suwa 
row  likewise  directed  his  march  towards  that  capital,  and  was 
there  joined  by  a  considerable  body  of  Prussians,  under  Dorfel- 
den  and  Fersen,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  commenced  the 
blockade  of  that  city  (Nov.  4.)     The  Russians,  who  amounted 
to  22,000  men,  prepared  for  an  attack  of  the  entrenchments  of 
Praga,  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Warsaw.     The  Poles,  who  had  a 
body  of  between  eight  and  ten  thousand  men,  made  a  courage- 
ous defence ;  but  nothing  could  withstand  the  ardour  and  im- 
petuosity of  the  Russians,  who  were  burning  with  rage  to  avenge 
the  blood  of  their  countrymen  who  were  massacred  at  Warsaw. 
Three  batteries  had  Seen  erected  in  the  night;  and  the  two 
first  divisions,  though  harassed  by  a  vigorous  fire  in  every  direc- 
tion except  the  rear,  bravely  surmounted  every  obstacle.    In  the 
apace  of  four  hours,  they  carried  the  triple  entrenchment  of  Pra- 
ga by  main  force.     Rushing  into  tae  place,  they  pursued  their 
adversaries  through  the  streets,  put  the  greater  part  of  them  to 
the  sword,  and  drove  one  thousand  into  the  Vistula.     In  this 
scene  of  action,  a  regiment  of  Jews  made  an  obstinate  defence, 
and  at  length  were  totally  extirpated.     Thirteen  thousand  of  the 
Poles,  it  IS  said,  were  left  dead  on  the  spot ;  two  thousand  were 


into  two  columns, 
other  on  Dowhno. 
ommand  of  Suwa- 

budy  of  the  in«iir- 
KoRciuszko.  who 

made  a  last  eflbrt 
rarow  with  that  of 
irecting  his  march 
tie  with  him  near 
inued  from  sunrisp 
)lish  army  perishe<' 
Kosciuszico  was 

the  hands  of  the 
by  the  swiftness  of 
le  Cossacs;  one  of 
>ugh  the  back  with 
,  he  was  carried  to 
of  his  ofRcers,  that 
lid  was  immediately 
ler  conveyed  to  St. 

f  the  Poles.    Their 

0  were  carrying  on 
ned  these  provinces, 
f  Warsaw.     Suwa 
lat  capital,  and  was 
sians,  under  DorfeU 

he  commenced  the 
ians,  who  amounted 
le  entrenchments  of 
i  Poles,  who  had  a 
'n,  made  a  courage- 
the  ardour  and  im- 
with  rage  to  avenge 
ssacred  at  Warsaw, 
night;  and  the  two 

1  fire  in  every  direc- 
ry  obstacle.  In  the 
itrenchment  of  Pra- 

they  pursued  their 
iter  part  of  them  to 
le  Vistula.  In  this 
1  obstinate  defence, 
een  thousand  of  the 
two  thousand  werr 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 18i6 


473 


drowned  in  the  Vistula,  and  between  fourteen  and  fifteen  thou- 
sand were  made  prisoners.  The  suburb  of  Praga  was  pillnired, 
and  razed  to  the  foundation.  Terror  seized  the  inhabitants  of 
Warsaw,  aod  they  determined  to  capitulate.  Suwnrow  made 
his  triumphant  entry  into  that  capital,  and  was  prc-enterl  with 
the  keys  of  the  city  (Nov.  9.)  The  Polish  troops  laid  cJotvu 
their  arms  ;  the  insurrection  was  quelled ;  and  the  greaterpari 
of  those  who  had  distingiiishcd  themselves  in  it,  were  arrested 
by  the  Russians.  The  Kingr  of  Poland  retired  to  Grodno  ;  and 
the  final  dismemberment  of  that  country  was  agreed  upon  by  the 
three  allied  powers. 

The  Court  of  Berlin  having  signified  their  intention  of  retain- 
ing Cracow  and  the  neighbouring  country,  of  which  their  troops 
had  just  taken  possession,  Austria,  who  was  also  desirous  of  pro- 
curing that  part  of  Poland,  took  advantage  of  the  distontent 
which  the  conduct  of  Prussia  during  the  campaign  o(  1794,  and 
her  retreat  from  the  ensuing  coalition,  had  excited  in  the  Em 
press  of  Russia,  and  entered  into  a  separate  negotiation  with  the 
Court  of  St.  Petersburg.  They  arranged  privately  between 
themselves,  as  to  the  shares  which  were  to  fall  to  each.  An  act. 
in  form  of  a  declaration,  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg,  between 
these  two  courts  (Jan.  3,  1795,)  purporting,  that  the  Cabinet  of 
Berlin  should  be  invited  to  accede  to  the  stipulations  therein 
contained;  in  consideration  of  the  offer  which  the  two  courtfi 
made  to  acquiesce  in  the  reunion  of  the  remainder  of  Poland 
with  the  Prussian  monarchy,  and  the  engagement  which  they 
entered  into  to  guarantee  that  acquisition. 

A  negotiation  was  afterwards  set  on  foot  with  the  Court  of 
Berlin,  which  was  protracted  to  a  great  length  ;  as  that  Court, 
who  were  ignorant  of  the  engagement  which  Catherine  had  come 
under  to  secure  Cracow  to  Austria,  had  always  entertained  the 
hopo  of  being  able  to  retain  it  themselves.  It  was  only  when 
the  act  of  the  3d  January  was  communicated  to  them,  that  they 
agreed  to  a'  special  convention  with  the  Court  of  Vienna,  which 
was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg  (Oct.  24,  1796.)  The  city  of  Cra 
cow  was  abandoned  to  Austria,  who,  on  her  side,  resigned  in 
favour  of  the  King  of  Prussia  a  portion  of  the  territory  which  the 
declaration  of  the  3d  January  preceding  had  secured  to  her.  It 
was  settled,  that  the  limits  of  the  Palatinate  of  Cracow  should 
be  regulated  between  these  two  powers,  under  the  mediation  of 
the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg.  Stanislaus  had  then  no  other  al- 
ternative left,  than  to  resign  his  crown  into  the  hands  of  the  Em- 
press of  Russia.  The  act  of  his  abdication  was  dated  at  Grodno 
(Nov.  26,  1795.) 

It  WHS  bv  these  dificxent  conventions,  that  Russia  obtained  hU 


If 


4"* 


*i- 


IM 


■p^ 


,  * 


itm 


■  ^^\tt 


'*t4t3^pMWH@HIM^- 


--■^v:-  ■■'m-t^f^ 


474 


CHAPTER  X. 


that  remained  of  Poland  and  Lithuania,  as  far  as  the  Niemen 
nna  the  confines  of  Brzesci  and  Novogrodek.  bhe  likewise 
ined  the  greater  part  of  Samogitia,  with  the  whole  of  Cour- 
oDtainea  '"^  o      ,      r  .    ^  ^  gijgg    „  Little  Poland,  that 

t'  oT  thf  tS  y  of  Ihelm  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
C  and  the  remaUer  of  Volhynia;  in  «- containing  about 
two  thousand  square  miles,   with  one   million   two   hundred 

^^AtSi^rrassigned.  in  addition  to  the  principal  part  of 
Cracow  the  whole  Palatinates  of  Sendom  r  and  Lublin,  with 
part  0    the  district  of  Chelm.  and  the   Pa  aUnates  of  B"e«c., 

whfch  Hes  on  this  side  of  the  Niemen,  as  well  as  the  small  dis- 
uSn  L  tt"e  Poland,  making  part  of  the  Palatinate  of  Cracow ; 
h:':hr:onsisting  of  abSu?  one  thousand J^erman  «jua^^^^ 
miles  with  a  population  of  one  million.  Finally,  by  a  suDse 
^uen  convendo.1  which  was  concluded  at  St.  Pfrsburg  {Jan. 
^'mh  the  three  co-participant  Courts  arranged  among  them- 
sSves  as  to  the  manneJ  of  discharging  the  debts  of  th^  KHig 
and  the  Republic  of  Poland.  They  »g^««<i  by  this  same  ccjj 
vention  to  allow  the  dethroned  monarch  an  annuity  of  200.000 

"^"iTthe  commencement  of  this  period,  it  was  not  yet  perceived 
of  what  importance  it  was  for  Russia  to  get  possession  of  the 
Crimea    3  it  was  not  until  the  agriculture  and  industry  of 
fhrcountry  had  begun  to  prosper  under  a  wise  administration, 
tha  Jhev  Sgin  to  apprehend  it  might  one  day  have  a  powerful 
XlS  on^the  balance  of  trade      The  Empress  Cayenne, 
who  had  been  flattered  in  her  youth  by  the  eulogies  of  the  phi- 
tesophe«   so  aTto  become  a 'disciple  of  their  new  doctrines, 
was  the  first  to  perceive  this  danger.     She  then  declared  her- 
Sf  amost  implacable  enemy  to  the  French  Revolution,  and 
would  dad  y  have  armed  all  feurope  to  "'"'"J"-^^  f «  ^fc 
He       iSevertheless,  she  did  not  take  up  arms  herself,  and  onhr 
oined  the  first  coalition  in  an  indirect  manner,  and  by  conclud- 
Weaties  purely  defensive,  such  as  that  of  Drontningholm 
S Tweln'  (Ocl  19.  1791)  and  that  of  St    Pet^sburg  with 
the  Kinir  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  (July  U,  17fcK,)  w^a  mat 
wSich  was  concluSZlAug.  7.)  in  the  same  c.ty  with  Pmssja. 
Nevertheless,  when  Frederic  had  retired  from  the  list,  she  re- 


ar  as  the  Niemen 
ek.  She  likewise 
the  whole  of  Cour- 
Little  Poland,  that 
e  right  bank  of  the 
,  containing  about 
llion   two  hundred 

the  principal  part  of 
r  and  Lublin,  with 
atinates  of  Brzesci, 
>ft  bank  of  the  Bug ; 
thirty-four  thousand 
an  of  inhabitants, 
latinates  of  Masovia 
the  Bug  ;  in  Lithu- 
ki  and  of  Samogitia 
rell  as  the  small  dis- 
alatinate  of  Cracow; 
ind  German  square 
Finally,  by  a  subse- 
St.  Petersburg  (Jan. 
rranged  among  them- 
e  debts  of  the  King 
ed  by  this  same  con- 
1  annuity  of  200,000 

was  not  yet  perceived 
ret  possession  of  the 
ture  and  industry  of 
L  wise  administration, 
!  day  have  a  powerful 

Empress  Catherine, 
e  eulogies  of  the  phi- 

their  new  doctrines, 
lie  then  declared  her- 
ench  Revolution,  and 
^terminate  the  Repub- 
irms  herself,  and  only 
nner,  and  by  conclud- 
at  of  Drontningholm 
r  St.  Petersburg  with 
y  12,  1782,)  and  that 
me  city  with  Prussia. 

from  the  list,  she  re« 


PRHioD  IX.     A.  u.  17c(a — 1816. 


475 


■oived  to  send  into  the  field  the  sixty  thousand  men  ivhich  Eng' 
land  waR  to  take  into  pay.  The  treaty  was  on  the  eve  of  being 
signed,  when  the  Empress  was  suddenly  cut  off  by  death 
{Nov.  17,  1796.) 

Paul,  her  successor,  refused  to  sanction  that  treaty.  We  have 
already  noticed  the  active  hand  which  that  monarch  took  in  the 
war  of  1799  against  France ;  and  we  have  already  mentioned 
the  unsuccessful  attempt  which  he  made  to  revive  the  principles 
of  the  armed  neutrality.  This  Emperor,  who  wanted  stead- 
iness and  consistency,  published  at  his  coronation  (April  5, 1797,) 
a  fundamental  law  regarding  the  order  of  succession  to  the 
throne.  This  law,  intended  to  prevent  those  revolutions  which 
the  unsettled  state  of  the  throne  had  produced  in  Russia,  es- 
tablished a  mixed  lineal  succession,  agreeably  to  the  order  of 
primogeniture ;  admitting  females  only  in  case  of  the  total 
extinction  of  the  male  descendants  oi  the  male  line  of  Paul ; 
and  defining  with  the  most  scrupulous  exactness,  the  order  in 
which  females  and  their  descendants  should  succeed  to  the 
throne.  But  being  weak  and  narrow-minded,  and  incapable  of 
discharging  his  imperial  functions,  he  entailed  upon  himself  the 
Hatred  of  both  the  nobility  and  the  people.  He  met  with  a 
violent  death,  having  been  murdered  by  a  party  of  daring  con- 
spirators (March  24,  1801.) 

Alexander,  who  succeeded  his  unfortunate  father,  lost  no  time 
in  restoring  peace  to  his  dominions,  by  entering  into  an  arrange- 
ment with  Great  Britain  (June  17,)  by  which  he  abandoned  the 
principles  of  free  trade  for  neutral  vessels ;  admitting  that  even 
a  convoy  should  not  protect  these  from  being  subjected  to  a 
search  or  visitation,  when  ordered  by  the  Captain  of  a  vessel 
belonging  to  the  public  navy  of  a  belligerent  state.  He  like- 
wise concluded  peace  with  France  and  Spain  (Oct.  4, 8.) 

Sweden  had  extricated  herself  without  loss  from  the  war 
which  Gustavus  III.  had  imprudently  commenced.  That 
Prince  had  succeeded  in  extending  the  royal  prerogative,  and 
making  the  Diet  adopt  the  fundamental  act  of  union  and  secu- 
rity (March  29,  1792,)  vesting  in  himself  the  right  of  making 
war  and  peace,  which  according  to  the  former  order  of  things, 
he  could  only  exeicise  with  the  concurrence  of  the  States.  Be- 
ing endowed  with  an  ardent  and  heroic  character,  he  had  pro- 
potied  to  march  at  the  head  of  the  armies  which  Louis  XVI. 
nad  set  on  foot ;  but  he  fell  the  victim  of  a  conspiracy  formed 
by  the  discontented  nobles,  leaving  his  son  a  minor. 

The  Regency  of  the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  during  the  minor- 
ity of  Gustavus  IV.,  was  infested  by  jealousies  and  intrigues ; 
while  the  finances,  which  were  under  bad  management,  fell 


..'M 


%* 


x'hl 


■U  . 


II I  triifii'iiiff  iif  TllTr- 


470 


OHAfTBB  XI. 


gradually  mlo  a  state  of  disorder.  The  policy  of  the  Re^en. 
Tva-s  decidedly  f..r  the  maintenance  of  peace.  The  vourg  King 
hi  n.elf  assumed  the  reins  of  government  (Nov^-^'  ^^  ^^^^^^^^ 
Althoujrh  he  had  e  .tered  into  the  league  of  the  INorih,  tormea 
bv  Pau!  I  for  the  maintenance  ..f  the  mant.me  rights  of  neu- 
ril  State  L  acceded  shortly  after  to  the  opposite  systen.,  to 
M  Alexander  1.  had  declared  h.mself  favourable 

Christian  VII.  had  reigned  m  Denmark  «'"^«  ™ '  ^^^^^^^^^ 
the  last  twenty  years,  the  Prince  Royal  and  Count  Bernstorr 
had  Ken  at    L\ead  of  his  councils.     Under  their  adm.nistra- 
!;;JX"  kingdom  nourished  in  P-f-d  pea^  jv^^^^^^^^^ 
for  an  instant  been    nterrupled,  except  in  1800,  by  i"^  ^^xauou 
.Jeatment  which  the  Danish  ships  had  met  with  on  the  part  of 
il%Z.     Denmarkwasthefirs^of  the  European  powers  that 
abolished  the  African  slave  trade  (May  16,  179b.) 


CHAPTER  XI- 


PERIOD  IX. 


The  Military  Preponderarue  of  Prameunderthe  mayofNa 
poleon  Bonaparte,     a.  d.  1802—1810. 

In  the  period  on  which  we  are  now  entering,  and  which  com- 
orehends^eight  years,  we  shall  find  Napoleon  Bonaparte  devot- 
rnThis  unremitting  efforts  to  a  threefold  project,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  secure  for  himself  the  empire  of  the  world.     The 
first  of^hese  was  to  render  the  monarchical  government  hered,. 
Ty  in  his  family,  preparatory  to  the  introduction  of  a  unjveml 
dominion;  the  next  was  to  extend  the  boundaries  ot  Fnn^e, 
and  The  last  to  surround  that  country,  not  with  a  multitude  of 
Slnublics  as  the  Directory  had  done,  but  with  a  number  of 
J^t^^mTnar^w':,  the  exisSnce  of  which  should  be  -  amal^J 
Sited  with  his  own  dynasty,  that  they  must  stand  or  faU  wiA 
it      We  shall  find  him  keeping  these  projects  incessantly  in 
view,  so  that  every  step  whicn  he  took  towards  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  one.  was  calculated  at  the  same  time  to  advance  the 

"^BctiTethe  end  of  the  year  1801.  a  council,  composed  of  450 
deputies  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  was  assembled  at  Ly«ns,  "> 
order  to  deliberate  as  to  the  changes  to  be  made  m  the  cons  tu 
t;on.  which  was  assimilated  more  and  "-o'^to  the^-^'Xc  '^ 
forni.     In  the  mean  time,  the  Presidency  of  'he  u-pubhc  xvas 


llc^ 


cy  of  the  Receni 
The  vourg  King 

ovembijr  1,  1796.) 

the  North,  formed 
time  rights  of  neu- 
opposite  system,  to 
trourable. 

since  1766  ;  but  for 
d  Count  Bernstorf 
er  their  administra- 
euce  which  had  not 
DO,  by  the  vexatious 

with  on  the  part  of 
ropean  powers  timt 
1796.) 


tider  the  sway  of  Na 
1—1810. 

ring,  and  which  com- 
mon Bonaparte  devot- 
project,  the  object  of 
B  of  the  world.  The 
il  government  heredi- 
luction  of  a  universal 
undaries  of  France ; 
with  a  multitude  of 
It  with  a  number  of 
should  be  so  amalga* 
lust  stand  or  fall  with 
rojects  incessantly  in 
irards  the  accomplish- 
e  time  to  advance  the 

icil,  composed  of  450 
lembled  at  Lyons,  in 
made  in  the  constitu- 
re  to  the  monarchii-al 
of  'he  aI ^public  wa« 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810. 


477 


conferred  on  Bonaparte  (January  26,  1802,)  under  the  title  of 
(he  Italian  Republic. 

Notwithstanding  the  easy  triumph  which  the  constitution  oi 
the  year  Eight  had  gained,  by  dissolving  the  Legislative  Body 
of  France,  dissension  was  not  long  in  breaking  out  among  its 
member? ;  and  an  opposition  was  formed  which,  coiulomnpd  n, 
silence,  had  no  other  means  of  manifesting  itself,  than  by  secret- 
ly thwarting  the  views  of  the  government.  There  was,  liowcver, 
another  opposition  which  appeared  among  the  members  of  the 
tribunate,  and  which  greatly  irritated  Bonaparte,  by  openly  at- 
tacking his  projects  of  legislation.  The  period  had  now  arrived, 
wnen  one-fifth  part  of  the  members  of  these  two  bodies  were  to 
retire.  But  the  new  convention,  in  settling  this  partial  altera- 
tion, were  divided  as  to  the  mode  of  proceeding ;  or  rather  it 
was  the  general  opinion,  that  the  ex-members  should  be  deter- 
mined by  lot.  This  temporary  vacancy  furnished  Bonaparte 
v/ith  a  pretext  for  getting  rid  of  all  those  whose  pre.sence  had 
laid  him  under  any  sort  of  restraint.  A  decree  of  the  Conser- 
vative Senate,  of  the  22d  Ventose,  in  the  year  Ten  (March  13, 
1802,)  turned  out  twenty  of  the  tribunes,  and  sixty  of  the  le- 
gislators ;  and  supplied  their  places  with  members  taken  from 
the  lists  formed  by  the  Electoral  Colleges  of  the  Departments. 
Having  thus  discovered  what  advantages  might  accrue  to  him 
from  an  institution  which  Sieycs  had  contrived  for  balancing 
the  authority  of  the  government,  from  that  moment  he  convert- 
ed the  Senate  into  an  instrument  for  sanctioning  his  own  mea- 
sures. 

A  notification  from  the  French  ambassador  in  Switzerland 
announced  that  the  Valais>hould  henceforth  form  an  Independ- 
ent Republic  (April  3.)  The  inhabitants  had  not  requested  this 
favour ;  it  was  granted  to  them  because  Bonaparte  wished  to 
get  possession  of  the  Simrlon,  preparatory  to  the  union  of  that 
country  with  France.  The  second  decree  of  the  New  Consti- 
tution of  the  6th  Floreal  (April  26,)  granted  a  general  amnesty 
to  all  emigrants  who  should  return  within  the  space  of  three 
months,  and  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  All  their  property  that 
remained  unsold  was  restored  to  them,  except  the  forests.  About 
a  thousand  individuals  were  excepted  from  this  act  of  justice, 
which  strengthened  the  authority  of  Bonaparte  by  conciliating 
the  public  opinion  in  his  favour. 

Immediately  after  this,  Bonaparte  submitted  to  the  Tribunate 
and  the  Legislative  Body  a  plan  for  the  institution  of  a  Legion 
of  Honour  (May  10.)  This  Legion  was  to  be  composed  of  fif- 
teen cohorts  of  Dignitaries  for  life.  The  First  Consul  was  the 
Chief  of  the  Legion ;  each  cohort  was  to  be  composed  of  seven 


(It 


)'! 


m 


r  \rm(.llnt^arf»Wmi^fTlmf 


478 


CHAPTER  XI. 


Grand  Officers,  twentj  Commandants,  thirty  Officers,  and  three 
hundred  Logionarifis.  The  object  of  Bonaparte  evidently  wns 
to  esinblii^h  n  new  aristocracy.  But  the  minds  of  the  Council 
were  so  little  prepared  for  this  proposition,  and  so  contrary  was 
it  10  the  republican  ideas  with  which  they  were  still  imbued,  thm 
it  passed  but  by  a  very  small  majority,  and  the  First  Consul 
thouirhi  proper  to  delay  carrying  it  into  execution. 

For  some  time  the  First  Consul  had  been  in  negotiation  with 
Pope  Pius  VII.  nn  the  affairs  of  religion.  He  had  adjusted  a 
Concordat  with  liis  Holiness,  subjecting  public  worship  to  the 
superintendence  of  ten  prelates  of  the  highest  rank,  and  fifty 
bishops.  This  famous  Concordat  was  signed  at  Paris  (July  15.' 
and  ratified  at  Rome  (Aug.  15,)  1801.  It  was  afterwards  sub- 
mitted for  the  acceptance  of  the  French  nation,  and  adopted  by 
a  very  great  majority.  The  Sabbath  and  the  four  grand  festi- 
vals were  restored ;  and  from  this  date  the  government  ceased 
to  follow  the  decennary  system.  This  was  the  first  abandon- 
ment of  the  Republican  calendar.  Bonaparte  hoped  to  attach 
to  liimself  the  sacerdotal  party,  the  order  most  disposed  for  pas- 
sive obedience ;  and  in  this  manner  to  balance  the  clergy  against 
the  Royalists,  and  the  Pope  against  the  interests  of  the  Coali- 
tion. The  Concordat  was  ratified  with  great  pomp  in  the  church 
of  Notre  Dumo  by  the  Senate,  the  Legislative  Body,  the  Tri- 
bune, and  the  public  functionaries.  The  First  Consul  appeared 
in  tlic  ancient  court  carriage,  with  all  the  circumstances  and  eti- 
quette of  royalty. 

Another  law  of  the  Constitution  of  the  30th  of  Floreal  (May 
20,)  sanctioned  the  Slave  Trade  in  the  colonies  restored  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  and  in  the  French  colonies  sit- 
uated beyond  the  Cfape  of  Good  Hope.  By  this  law,  however, 
slavery  was  not  restored  in  St.  Domingo.  That  colony  was  un- 
der the  dominion  of  the  Negroes,  who,  after  having  massacred 
the  Whites,  and  committed  barbarities  which  surpass  even  those 
of  the  French  Revolution,  had  succeeded  in  establishing  their 
independence.  After  the  preliminaries  signed  at  London,  Bo- 
naparte had  sent  an  expedition  to  that  Island,  having  on  board 
40,000  men,  commanded  by  his  brother-in-law  General  Le  Clerc. 
On  their  arrival  at  St.  Domingo,  the  French  took  possession  of 
the  town  of  Cape  Francois,  which  was  the  seat  of  government, 
as  well  as  of  several  other  places.  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  ori- 
ginally a  slave,  and  raised  to  be  the  Chief  of  the  Blacks,  sub- 
mitted to  the  French  ;  but  General  Le  Clerc,  having  afterwards 
arrested  him,  had  him  conveyed  to  France  where  he  died.  This 
circumstance  excited  the  Blacks  to  a  new  revolt  under  the  com- 
mand of  Christophe,  the  relative  and  friend  of  Toussaint ;  and 


'i>l>ii|l|.M"HIHWll 


li) 


Officers,  and  three 
mrie  evidently  wpm 
irids  of  the  Council 
lid  so  contrary  was 
re  still  imbued,  thm 
the  First  Consul 
ution. 

in  negotiation  with 
He  had  adjusted  a 
ublic  worship  to  the 
lest  rank,  and  fifty 
d  at  Paris  (July  15/. 
was  afterwards  sub- 
tion,  and  adopted  by 
the  four  grand  festi- 
government  ceased 
the  first  abandon- 
irte  hoped  to  attach 
lost  disposed  for  pas- 
ice  the  clergy  against 
iterests  of  the  Coali- 
nt  pomp  in  the  church 
ntivc  Body,  the  Tri- 
'irst  Consul  appeared 
:ircumstances  and  eti- 

30th  of  Floreal  (May 
colonies  restored  to 
e  French  colonies  sit- 
Jy  this  law,  however, 
That  colony  was  un- 
fter  having  massacred 
ich  surpass  even  those 
I  in  establishing  their 
gned  at  London,  Bo- 
and,  having  on  board 
law  General  Le  Clerc. 
rich  took  possession  of 
e  seat  of  government, 
aint  L'Ouverture,  ori- 
ef  of  the  Blacks,  sub- 
erc,  having  afterwards 
where  he  died.  This 
revolt  under  the  com- 
nd  of  Tnussaint ;  and 


•SRIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802—1810. 


479 


after  a  bloody  war,  France  lost  this  valnnble  colony,  togethei 
with  a  numerous  nrmy  and  many  commcrciiil  ndvanlnges. 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  ponco  of  Amiens,  the  Tribunate, 
purpd  of  its  Republican  members,  signified  a  wish  that  some 
pledge  of  national  gratitude  should  be  offered  to  General  Bona- 
parte. The  Conservative  Senate  then  nominated  him  First 
Consul  for  ten  years.  When  this  decree  of  the  Senate  was  an- 
nounced to  him,  he  could  not  conceal  his  chagrin  ;  and  that  he 
might  not  be  compelled  to  accept  a  favour  which  he  disdained, 
he  demanded  that  the  decision  of  the  Senate  should  be  submitted 
for  the  sanction  of  the  people.  The  two  other  Consuls  were  re- 
solved to  consult  the  nation  (and  this  was  the  only  occosion  in 
which  they  ever  acted  on  their  own  authority,)  not  ns  to  the  de- 
cree of  the  Senate,  but  on  the  question  whether  Bonaparte 
should  be  elected  Consul  for  life.  Out  of  .1,577,379,  of  which 
the  primary  Assembly  was  composed,  3,66S,885  voted  in  the 
affirmative,  and  only  8,494  in  the  negative.  Agreeable  to  this 
expression  of  the  public  voice,  the  Senate  proclaimed  Bonaparte 
First  Consul  for  life  (August  2,  1802.) 

Two  days  after,  the  third  decree  of  the  Senate  of  the  16tb 
Thermidor,  brought  the  government  still  nearer  the  monarchical 
form,  by  granting  to  the  First  Consul  great  influence  over  th<? 
Electoral  Assemblies,  with  the  power  of  ratifying  treaties,  grant- 
ing pardons,  nominating  senators  without  presentation,  appoint- 
ing the  Presidents  of  the  Electoral  Assemblies,  adding  to  the 
number  of  their  members,  and  even  proclaiming  his  own  suc- 
cessor. The  Tribunate,  which  still  appeared  somewhat  formi- 
dable, was  reduced  to  fifty  members. 

Such,  in  the  space  of  two  years,  was  the  progress  of  arbitrary 
power.  In  the  course  of  1802,  the  union  of  three  diflferent 
countries  to  France  was  either  accomplished,  or  in  a  state  of 
preparation.  The  first  was  that  of  the  Island  of  Elba,  of  which 
the  Kings  of  Naples  and  Sardinia  had  resigned  their  rights  ; 
the  second  was  that  of  Piedmont,  which  France  had  occupied 
since  9th  December  1798 ;  and  lastly,  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Parma,  his  estates  were  taiten  possession  of  by  France, 
as  having  devolved  to  her  in  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  Madrid  (Mar. 
21,  1801,)  although  they  were  not  annexed  to  that  country  till 
1808.  These  acquisitions  were  made,  on  the  political  principle 
avowed  by  Bonaparte,  which  allowed  every  thing  to  be  done 
that  treaties  did  not  expressly  forbid. 

The  Peace  of  Campo  Formic  and  Luneville  had  recognised  the 
right  of  Switzerland  to  form  a  constitution  for  herself;  and  Aloe's 
Reding  happening  to  be  in  Paris  aliout  the  end  of  1801,  had  ob- 
tained the  consent  of  the  Pirst  Consul  for  the  re-establishment 


\¥'' 


i''  ■■'i 


480 


CHAl^RR  XI. 


ro<'c  who  had  long  been  kept  uown  uy  i"i      .  it-:™:,!-  or 

thought  proper  to  reckon  all  »»« .'''«'*"^'^''^  "T,;  «\  „,  ifaving 
nn<l  Uiencw  constitulon  was  iniroduced  (July  J,)  as  navnig 

M  1  .SrWeitz  restored  the  ancic.it  confedcratim,  to  which 
SI  fSocrntm"  acceded.  The  central  government, 
havng  no  other  supp.)rt  than  the  new  cantons,  a"d  seeing  t^^^^^^ 
JSves^ttacUed£in  their  ow^^ 

&Ztof  Mediation.     Switzerland  thu.  became  a  federauve 

RepubUc,  ciposed  of  nineteen  --^-S"  .^'""^hc  equ^lUy 
stitStion  of  each  was  more  or  le.s  ^crat  c,  but  Ihc  equamy 
of  the  citizens  formed  the  bas<is  of  them  all.  "n.^?  ^  >  ^''. " 
Diet  was  to  assemble  in  one  of  the  six  prmc.pal  c.t  es  n  Sw  t 

Louis  d'Affrv.  was  nominated  by  Bonaparte. 

"'^XuttiTnSgtt^^^  details  of  these  negcjijio-. 
we  shaU  merely  observefthat  the  ma  n  <>b8t«<=l« '^h'";!  »>«^ 'r; 
Tded  the  negotiations  of  Ratisbon  being  removed  ^y  the  treatu^s 
which  France  concluded  on  this  occasion,  tje  deputation  came 
w  a  final  conclusion,  known  by  the  name  of  the  -Recess  (or  R- 


mt  time  two  partie* 
! ;  and  Switzerland 
!h  the  Unionists  or 
nooratic,  alternate!) 
istilution,  mott  aria- 
le  approbation  of  the 
ns,  and  rejected  by 
hcd  a  right  to  vote, 
he  Helvetic  Senate 
imong  the  a'-ceptors ; 
(July  3,)  as  having 
)Ie.  Bonaparte  had 
icd  on  their  willing- 
Helvetic  povernmeni 
t  invitat  'VI,  he  with- 
.)  Thtfi  <vas  the  sig- 
ins,  who  ^vtre  asgem- 
ifcdcratirn,  to  which 

central  government, 
ons,  and  seeing  them- 
)ries,  importuned  the 
army,  under  the  com- 
-established  the  gov- 
First  Consul.  Bona- 
•n  the  two  parties,  and 

(Feb.  19,  1S03,)  and 
[1,  known  by  the  name 
us  became  a  federative 
n  cantons.  The  con- 
ratic  ;  but  the  equality 
1  all.  Once  a  year,  a 
irincipal  cities  in  Swit- 
mman,  or  chief  magis- 
;  first  Landamman,  M. 
ir»e. 
in  the  negotiations  for 

a  part  or  the  whole  of 
eft  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
nder,  was  the  principal 

s  of  these  negotiations, 
Dbstacle  which  had  im- 
removed  by  the  treaties 
m,  the  deputation  came 
»e  of  the  Recess  (at  Re- 


■it 


.ti-r,'\i   .  ..^  ^ 


D..th  of  PriDC.  PonLtowiki  in  puting  tl«  EUUr.    P.  W. 


Polytechnic  Scholars  joining  the  people.    P.  603. 


gUieEUler.    P.  5ftl. 


I  people.    P.  603. 


rEiiioo  IX.    A.  0.  1802—1810. 


481 


•oliition!*)  of  the  Deputation  (Feb.  25,  1803,)  bv  which  ihe  ar- 
ranfj^nine  .1  reffarJiRj^  indomnitiua  and  lerritorial  exchanges  waa 
broiifftit  to  a  (Tctermination. 

The  war  between  France  and  Great  Britain  wan  renewed  in 
180.')  Public  opinion  in  Englund  had  declared  avainn  Ui* 
peace  of  Amiens,  which  was  by  no  means  favourable  tu  her. 
concidoring  the  sacrifices  which  she  bad  made.  The  liritiith 
ministry  repented  having  oRreed  to  the  surrender  of  Malta  unJ 
ihp  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  They  delayed  the  restoration  of  Miilla 
under  pretext  that  the  guarantees  had  not  been  sranted  without 
restriction.  The  arbitrary  and  violent  acts  which  Bonaparte 
had  committed  since  the  peace ;  and  above  all,  the  annexation 
ol  Piedmont  to  France,  furnished  a  second  motive  for  not  ••■  acu- 
ating  an  island  so  important  from  its  position.  After  a  very 
spirited  negotiation.  Great  Britain  olferod  to  restore  Malta  to 
its  own  inhabitants,  and  to  acknowledge  it  as  an  independent 
State ;  only  for  the  term  of  ten  years,  however,  and  on  condition 
that  the  Kmg  of  Naples  would  cede  Lampedosa.  The  French 
troops  were  to  evacuate  the  Batavian  and  Swiss  Republics.  On 
these  terms  England  would  recognise  the  Italian  and  Ligurian 
Republics,  and  the  King  of  Etruria.  His  Majesty  of  Sardinia 
was  to  receive  an  adequate  territorial  provision  in  Italy.  Th« 
Rml  Consul  having  rejected  thif  ultimatum,  war  waa  declared 
(May  18,  1803,)  and  all  the  English  who  were  travelling  or  re- 
siding in  France,  arrested  and  detained  as  hostages. 

Charles  IV.  King  of  Spain,  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso,  had 
ceded  Louisiana  to  France.  When  this  news  arrived  in  Amer- 
ica, it  spread  consternation  in  the  Republic  of  the  United  States. 
President  Jeflerson  felt  great  reluctance  hi  consenting  to  oppose, 
by  It  military  force,  the  entry  oi  the  French  into  a  country  which 
would  give  them  tlie  command  of  the  Mississippi.  To  prevent 
this,  and  from  other  motives,  be  directed  the  American  minister 
in  Paris  to  enter  into  a  negotiation  with  the  French  government 
for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  which  waa  eflected  at  Paris  (Sept. 

30,  im.) 

A  French  army,  which  was  assembled  in  the  Batavian  Re- 
public under  the  command  of  General  Mortier,  was  despatched 
immediately  after  the  declaration  of  war,  to  occupy  the  Electo- 
rate of  Hanover,  the  patrimonial  dominions  of  the  King  of  Great 
Britain.  The  Government  of  that  country  concladed  a  capitu- 
lation at  Suhlinffen  (June  3,)  in  virtue  of  which  the  native  troopa 
retired  beyond  the  Elbe,  while  the  French  army  were  to  occupry 
the  country  and  its  fortresses,  and  be  nwintained  by  the  inhabi- 
tants. They  likewise  took  possessios  of  Cuxhaven  and  Retze- 
butel,  belonging  to  the  city  of  Hamburg.    The  German  Empire 

31 


mm 


482 


CHAPTER    ZI. 


which  had  the  mortification  of  seeing  its  interests  regulated  by 
two  foreign  powers,  did  not  even  protest  against  this  violation  o( 
its  '.errirory.  Bonaparte,  deceived  in  his  expectation  of  rendering 
the  Cabinet  of  London  compliant,  annulled  the  capitulation  of 
Suhlingen,  and  ordered  Mortier  to  attack  Count  Walmoden,  who 
commanded  the  Hanoverian  army.  The  latter,  however,  laid 
down  their  arms,  in  consequence  of  a  convention  which  was 
signed  at  Artlenberg  (July  5.)  After  these  proceedings,  the 
mouths  of  the  Elbe  and  Weser  were  immediately  blockaded  by 
an  English  squadron,  which  prevented  ttie  invaders  from  bene- 
fiting by  the  navigation  of  those  rivers. 

England  had  g<^  nerously  offered  to  acknow.edge  the  neutrality 
of  Holland,  provided  she  could  get  the  French  troops  to  evacu- 
ate her  territory.  This  measure,  however  proved  clisastrnus  in 
its  result  for  the  Republic.  Bonaparte  laid  them  under  obliga- 
tion to  maintain  a  body  of  34,000  men,  both  French  and  Bata- 
vians  ;  and  to  furnish  five  ships  of  war  and  five  frigaief,  with  a 
number  of  transports  and  sloops  of  war,  for  conveying  to  Eng- 
land 61,000  mon  and  4000  horses.  After  the  conclusiim  of  peace 
with  the  Emperor  of  Russia  (Oct.  8,  1801,)  Bonaparte  had 
withdrawn  his  troops  from  the  kingdom  of  Naples ;  but,  by  a 
forced  interpretation  of  the  treaty  of  Florence,  he  pretended  that 
he  had  a  right  to  send  them  back  whenever  he  should  happen 
to  be  at  war  with  England.  Ferdinand  IV.  was  obliged  to  suc- 
cumb ;  and  in  consequence  of  an  arrangement  with  General  St. 
Cyr  (June  25,  1803,)  the  French  again  took  possession  of 
Abruzzi. 

The  loss  of  Trinidad,  and  the  selling  of  Louisiana  to  the 
United  States  of  America,  had  created  no  small  coolness  between 
the  Court  of  Madrid  and  Bonaparte.  Already  had  he  brought 
an  army  near  to  Bayonne,  which,  under  the  command  of  Gen- 
eral Augereau,  threatened  Spain.  She,  however,  succeeded  in 
evading  the  storm.  As  it  was  of  much  importance  for  hor  to 
avoid  war  with  England,  and  on  the  other  hand,  as  Bonaparte 
had  more  need  of  money  than  of  ships,  especially  considering 
the  nature  of  the  attack  which  he  meditated  upon  England,  it 
was  agreed  by  a  secret  treaty  signed  at  ]\Iadrid  (Oct.  30,)  that 
Charles  IV.  should  substitute  money,  instead  of  the  succoun" 
which  the  nature  of  his  former  engagement  l>ound  him  to  fur- 
nish. Theamount  of  this  subsidy  is  not  officially  known.  The 
hopes  which  this  Monarch  had  entertained  of  escaping  from  the 
war  were  sadly  disappointed.  He  was  dragged  into  it  towards 
the  end  of  the  following  year. 

Portugal  likewise  purchased  her  neutrality,  by  a  convention 
which  was  signed  between  General  Lannca,  Bonaparte's  minis 


nterests  regulated  by 
inst  this  violatiop  o( 
pectation  of  rendering 
d  the  capitulation  of 
bunt  Walmoden,  who 
latter,  however,  laid 
onvention  which  was 
ese  proceedings,  the 
lediately  blockaded  by 
le  invaders  from  bene- 

ow.edge  the  neutrality 

rench  troops  to  evacu- 

r  proved  disastrous  in 

(lid  them  under  obliga- 

)oth  French  and  Bata- 

nd  five  frigates,  with  a 

for  conveying  to  Eng- 

the  conclusiiin  of  peace 

1801,)  Bonaparte  had 

1  of  Naples  ;  but,  by  a 

ence,  he  pretended  that 

lever  he  should  happen 

IV.  was  obliged  to  suc- 

sment  with  General  St. 

ain  took  possession  of 

ig  of  Louisiana  to  the 
>  small  coolness  between 
Already  had  he  brought 
r  the  command  of  6en- 
,  however,  succeeded  in 
1  importance  for  her  to 
her  hand,  as  Bonaparte 
,  especially  considering 
itated  upon  England,  it 
Jladrid  (Oct.  30,)  that 
nstead  of  the  succoun* 
ncnt  iKiund  him  to  fur- 
t  officially  known.  The 
ed  of  escaping  from  the 
dragged  into  it  towards 

trality,  by  a  convention 
nes,  Bonaparte's  minis 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.   1802—  1S1C. 


483 


ter  at  Lisbon,  and  Don  Manuel  Pinto ;  the  contents  of  which 
are  not  known  with  certainty. 

From  the  breaking  of  the  peace  of  Amiens  to  the  second  war 
with  Austria,  Bonaparte  had  employed  himself  about  a  project 
for  effecting  a  landing  in  England,  for  which  he  had  made  im 
inense  preparations.  All  the  ship-carpenters  throughout  France 
were  put  in  requisition  for  the  equipment  of  a  flotilla  intended 
to  convey  the  armies  of  the  Republic  to  the  English  shores.  A 
multitudinous  army,  called  the  Ar-my  of  England,  was  assem- 
bled on  the  coasts,  extensive  camps  were  formed,  and  convoys 
prepared  for  protecting  the  transportation  of  these  invaders.  In 
England,  under  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Pitt,  vigorous  measures  of 
defence  were  adopted,  by  setting  on  foot  a  regular  army  of 
180,000  men.  The  English  Admirals  frequently  harassed  the 
French  shipping,  and  bombarded  the  towns  situated  upon  the 
coasts.  But  from  this  th^re  did  not  happen  any  result  of  im- 
portance. 

St.  Lucia,  St.  Peter,  Miquelon,  and  Tobago,  as  also  the 
Dutch  colonies  of  Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1803. 
General  Rochambeau,  who  had  succeeded  Le  Clerc,  concluded 
a  capitulation  at  St.  Domingo,  with  Dc^salines  the  B'ack  Chief, 
for  the  evacuation  of  Cape  Franjois  ;  but  as  the  English  Ad- 
miral Duckworth  blockaded  it  by  sea,  he  was  obliged  to  sur- 
render with  his  whole  army,  which  was  transported  to  Eng- 
land. Dessalines,  thus  relieved  from  the  French,  proclaimed 
the  independence  of  St.  Domingo,  or  the  island  of  Hayti,  of 
which  he  assumed  the  government,  under  the  title  of  Governor- 
General,  for  life. 

Meantime,  the  plan  of  Bonaparte  for  disengaging  himsel 
from  those  political  restraints  which  fettered  his  ambition,  was 
growing  to  maturity.  Three  parties  divided  France — the  Roy- 
alists, the  Systematic  Republicans,  and  the  Jacobins.  Of  the 
two  first,  the  one  had  always  entertained  hopes  that  Bonaparte 
would  recall  the  Bourbons  ;  and  the  other,  that  the  moment  was 
approaching  when  true  liberty  would  take  the  place  of  despotism. 
General  Moreau  was  regarded  as  the  head  of  this  party,  if  his 
character  had  at  all  made  him  a  proper  person  to  play  an  active 
game  in  public  affairs.  Bonaparte,  who  desired  neither  King 
nor  Republic,  was  convinced  that  he  could  only  arrive  at  his  pur- 
pose by  attaching  to  himself  the  Jacobin  party.  In  order  to  in- 
spire them  with  confidence,  lie  felt  that  i'  was  necessary  to  give 
them  a  pledge ;  this  was,  to  be  continually  at  variance  with  the 
other  two  parties,  which  they  equally  detested. 

Bonaoarte  resolved  to  ruin  Moreau,  whom  he  mistrusted 


i.*i1 


'•w 


m* 


*? 


OHAPTBRXl. 


484 

Pichepru.  Georges.  Cadoiulal,  and  other  Royalist  Chiefs,  se- 
cretly en  ered  France,  believinij  that  the  t.me  was  now  como 
for  reestablishing  royalty,  and  that  Moreau  wou  d  place  h.m- 
self  at  the  head  of  the  enterprise.  Pithegrn  twice  saw  his  old 
friend  Moreau,  who  refused  to  take  any  part  m  a  plot  agajns 
he  Government;  but  he  was  reluctant  to  betray  th»  excelent 
man,  whom  Bonaparte  hated,  and  who  had  been  excepted  by 
name  from  the  general  amnesty.  His  silence  was  sufficient  to 
eSgle  him  in  a  pretended  conspiracy,  with  which  the  tnbu- 

"■^PicTegm  tpt  himself  secreted  in  Paris  for  some  days,  but 
through  the  treachery  of  a  friend  he  was  at  length  discovered 
arrested,  and  committed  to  prison,  where  he  was  found  dead,  on 
Tmoniing  of  April  7th.,  'a  black  handkerchief  being  twisted 
around  his  neck,  and  tightened  by  the  twisting  of  "^  f  J^  ^o 
proof  appeared  against  Moreau  of  takin?  n.^'  part  m  the  con^ 
SDiracv  ;  but  his  own  confession,  that  he  had  seen  Pichegru 
E  was  deemed  sufficient  by  his  judges  to  justify  his  con- 
dTmnaUon,  for  a  high,  although  not  capital  crime  ;  he  was  sen- 
fenced  to  t'wo  years'imprison^ent,  which,  by  J*-  ."tercession  d 
his  friends  was  commuted  for  the  same  period  of  ex  le.  Ihis 
distinguished  General  made  choice  of  America,  as  his  place  of 

^''Auhis  time  another  occurrence  took  phce,  which  imist  ever 
'orm  the  darkest  chapter  in  the  history  of  Bonnparte-the  arrest, 
condemnation,  and  execution  of  the  Duke  d'Engh^en     Jh  s 
Drince  was  living  in  retirement  in  the  castle  of  Ettenheim,  in 
fh"  Dutchy  of  Baden,  a  neutral  territory.     On  the  evening  of 
ihe  14th  of  March,  a  troop  of  French  soldiers  passed  Hje  'jon- 
tier,  surrounded  the  castle,  and  seized  the  P""<^|' *"'[';"  J"  "^j 
tendants.     He  was  immediately  conveyed  to  Strusburgh,  and 
from  thence  after  a  confinement  of  three  days  to  Pans,  where  he 
was  kept  for  a  few  hours  in  the  Temple,  and  then  removed  to 
,he  nefghbouring  castle  of  Vincennes^    ?\-*'h  r±J  Hd- 
20th  he  was  charged  by  a  military  cx,urt,  of  which  General  Hul- 
lin  was  president,  with  having  fought  against  France,  being  .n 
the  pay  of  England,  plotting  against  the  nternul  and  externa 
safely  of  the  Republic,  and  having  conspired  against  the  1'^  of 
the  chief  Consul.     The  court  pronounced  him  ?"dty  ;  the  de- 
cision  was  immediately  despatched  to  B«""P«"«' «"{. '^'^  f  "'j 
•ence  "  condemned  to  def  h,"  which  was  written  on  the  back  of 
it.  carried  into  execution  .t  six  o'clock  the  following  mornmg. 
The  charges  alleged  against  him  were  unsupported  by  any 
eviSence    but  he  persevered  in  declaring,  that  her"ld  ever 
in  the  rights  of  his  family,  and  that  as  a  Condc,  he  could 
n«ver  enter  France,  b'lt  with  arm.^  in  his  hand. 


H' 


Royalist  Chiefs,  se- 
ime  was  now  como 
u  would  place  him- 
ni  twice  saw  his  old 
part  in  a  plot  against 
betray  this  excellent 
lad  been  excepted  by 
nee  was  sufficient  to 
ith  which  the  tribu- 

i»  for  some  days,  but 

at  length  discovered 

e  was  found  dead,  on 

erchief  being  twisted 

sting  of  a  stick.     No 

any  part  in  the  con- 

c  had  seen  Pichegru 

res  to  justify  his  con- 

tl  crime  ;  he  was  sen- 

by  the  intercession  ol 

eriod  of  exile.      This 

fjerica,  as  his  place  of 

Ince,  which  must  ever 
Bonaparte — the  arrest, 
ke  d'Enghien.  This 
stle  of  Ettenheim,  in 
^  On  the  evening  of 
dicrs  passed  the  fron- 
prince,  and  all  his  at- 
[}d  to  Strusburgh,  and 
lays  to  Paris,  where  he 
and  then  removed  to 
On  the  night  of  the 
of  which  General  Hul- 
linst  France,  being  in 
interniil  and  external 
ired  against  the  life  of 
d  him  guilty  ;  the  de- 
[)naparte,  and  the  sen- 
written  on  the  back  of 
le  following  morning, 
unsupported  by  any 
g,  that  he  would  ever 
as  a  Cond6,  he  could 
hand. 


I-KRIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802 — 1810. 


485 


This  last  act  paved  the  way  for  Bonaparte  to  ascend  the 
throne.  France  had  scarcely  recovered  from  the  slupor  in  which 
she  had  been  plunged  by  the  judicial  murder  of  a  Bourbon, 
when  the  Conservative  Senate,  who  had  perceived  that  the  best 
way  to  please  Bonaparte  was  not  to  wait  till  he  should  make  bi» 
wishes  known  to  them,  presented  an  address,  inviting  hini  tc 
complete  the  institutions  necessary  for  tranquillizing  the  State 
(March  27.)  At  this  signal  of  flattery,  many  of  the  Orders  of 
the  State  were  eager  to  express  their  desire  that  the  power 
which  was  vested  in  Bonaparte,  should  bu  conferred  en  him  by 
a  hereditary  title.  One  month  was  allowed  to  elapse,  for  pre- 
paring the  public  mind  for  the  result.  It  was  then  that  the  First 
Consul,  in  replying  to  the  address  of  the  Senate,  desired  these 
Orders  to  e-xplain  themselves  more  clearly.  The  Tribunate 
took  the  merit  of  anticipating  this  explanation,  by  voting  the  re- 
establishment  of  hereditary  monarchy  in  favour  of  Bonaparte 
and  his  family  (April  30.)  The  Senate,  not  wishing  to  be  be- 
hind in  complaisance,  acceded  to  the  desire  ;  and  a  decree  of 
that  Body  declared  Bonaparte  Emperor  of  the  French  (Ma^ 
18;)  conferring  on  him  the  Imperial  dignity,  to  be  hereditary 
in  himself,  and  his  lawful  or  adopted  sons,  to  the  exclusion  of 
his  daughters  ;  and  failing  the  males,  to  his  brothers  Joseph  and 
Louis,  and  their  male  descendants. 

The  same  decree  of  the  Senate  made  several  important 
changes  in  the  constitution,  with  the  view  of  rendering  it  per- 
fectly monarchical.  Bonaparte  accepted  the  dignity  which 
had  been  conferred  on  him.  He  only  asked,  that  the  nation 
should  be  consuK.  J  upon  the  question  of  hereditary  right. 
Wishing  to  legalize  this  attempt  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  ;  he 
invited  the  sovereign  Pontiff  to  Paris  to  crown  him.  This  ce- 
remony took  place  in  the  Church  of  Notre-Dame  (Dec.  2, 1804 ;) 
and  contrary  to  the  general  custom,  Bonaparte  put  the  crown 
on  his  own  head,  after  which  he  placed  it  upon  that  of  his 
spouse.  Some  weeks  afterwards,  in  opening  the  Session  ol 
the  Legislative  Body,  he  solemnly  declared,  that,  as  he  was  sati» 
fied  with  his  grandeur,  he  would  make  no  more  additions  to 
the  Empire. 

The  base  transaction  of  21st  March  was  followed  up  by  an 
exchange  of  ver^violent  letters,  between  the  Russian  amkissador 
at  Paris,  and  the  minister  of  Bonaparte.  In  addition  to  the  indig- 
nation which  that  event  had  excited  in  Alexander,  and  which 
the  prevailing  tone  of  the  notes  of  the  French  minister  were  not 
calculated  to  diminish ;  there  was  a  dissatisfaction,  on  account 
of  the  non-execution  of  many  of  the  conditions  agreed  to  in  the 
Ueaty  of  10th  October  1801.     Alexander  demanded,  that  the 


m 


r 

I 


\<n 


mH 


486 


'CHAPTER  XI. 


French  troops  should  be  withdrawn  f'om  ihe  kingdom  of  Napics . 
that  Bonaparte  should  concert  with  him  as  to  the  Drinciples  upon 
which  the  atTairs  of  Italy  were  to  be  regulated  ;  that  without  de- 
lav  he  should  indemnify  the  King  of  Sardinia,  and  evacuate 
tfanover  (July  27,  1804.)     To  these,  Bonaparte  only  replied  by 
recriminations,  when  the  two  Courts  recalled  their  respective 
ambassadors.    The  Emperor  had  not  waited  for  this  opportunity 
to  employ  means  for  setting  bounds  to  the  ambition  of  Bona- 
parte.    By  the  declarations  interchanged  betwixt  the  Courts  ol 
St.  Petersburg  and  Berlin  (May  3,  and  24,)  it  was  agreed,  that 
thev  should  not  allow  the  French  troops  in  Germany  to  go  be- 
yond the  frontier  of  Hanover  ;  and  that  should  this  happen,  each 
of  these  two  Courts  should  employ  40,000  men  to  repel  such  an 
attempt.     The  Prussian  declaration  added,  moreover,  that  there 
should  be  no  dispute  as  to  the  countries  situated  to  the  west  of 
the  Weser.     Not  content  with  having  thus  provided  for  the  se- 
curity of  the  North  of  Germany,  the  Emperor  Alexander  imme- 
diately concerted  measures  with  Austria,   with   the  view  of 
opposing  a  barrier  to  the  usurpations  of  Fran-e.     Declarations, 
in  the  shape  of  a  convention,  were  exchanged  between  these  two 
Courts  before  the  end  of  the  year ;  and  they  agreed  to  set  on  toot 
an  armv  of  350,000  men.  ,.         ,       i       . 

The  maritime  war,  like  that  of  1803,  was  limited  to  threats, 
and  immense  preparations  on  the  part  of  Bonaparte,  and  on  the 
part  of  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  to  attempt  preventing  the  union  of 
the  French  fleet,  or  for  burning  their  shipping  in  their  own  ports. 
The  English  took  possession  of  the  Dutch  colony  of  Surinam 
(May  4 ;)  and  towards  the  end  of  the  year  commenced  hostilities 
against  Spain. 

The  first  six  months  of  the  year  1805  were  marked  by  new  ag- 
erandizements  on  the  part  of  Bonaparte  in  Italy.  1.  A  decree  of 
the  Estates  of  the  Italian  Republic  assembled  at  Pans  (Mar.  18.) 
proclaimed  Napoleon  Bonaparte  King  of  Italy ;  and  it  was  stipu- 
lated that  he  should  remit  that  crown  to  one  of  his  legitimate  or 
adopted  sons,  so  soon  as  the  foreign  troops  should  have  evacuated 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  (where  there  were  no  foreigners  except 
the  French  troops,)  the  Seven  Islands  and  Malta;  and  that 
henceforth  the  crowns  of  France  and  Italy  should  never  be  united 
in  the  same  person.  Bonaparte  repaired  to  Milan  (May  26,) 
where  he  was  crowned  with  the  iron  crown  of  the  Emperors  of 
Germany,  who  were  kings  of  Italy.  Eugene  Beauharnais,  the 
son  of  the  Empress  Josephine,  was  appointed  his  viceroy.  2.  He 
conferred  the  principality  of  Piombino,  under  the  title  of  a  here- 
ditary fief  of  the  French  empire,  on  Eliza  Bacciochi  his  sister, 
uid  her  male  descendants  (May  25.)  This  completed  the  spolia- 


kingdom  of  Naiiies . 

0  the  principles  upon 

ted  ;  that  without  dc- 

dinia,  and  evacuate 

parte  only  replied  by 

lied  their  respective 

for  this  opportunity 

ambition  of  Bona- 

betwixt  the  Courts  of 

,)  it  was  agreed,  that 

n  Germany  to  go  be- 

>uld  this  happen,  each 

men  to  repel  such  an 

,  moreover,  that  there 

ituated  to  the  west  of 

IS  provided  for  the  se- 

ror  Alexander  imme- 

1,    with   the  view  of 

'ran:"e.     Declarations, 

jed  between  these  two 

jy  agreed  to  set  on  foot 

was  limited  to  threats. 
Bonnparte,  and  on  the 
3venting  the  union  of 
ling  in  their  own  ports, 
ch  colony  of  Surinam 
commenced  hostilities 

ere  marked  by  new  ag- 
1  Italy.  1.  A  decree  of 
)led  nt  Paris  (Mar.  18,) 
[taly ;  and  it  was  stipu- 
me  of  his  legitimate  or 
should  have  evacuated 
e  no  foreigners  except 
and  Malta;  and  that 
should  never  be  united 
d  to  TVlilan  (May  26,) 
vn  of  the  Emperors  of 
^eiic  Bcauharnais,  the 
ted  his  viceroy.  2.  He 
der  the  title  of  a  here- 
:a  Bacciochi  his  sister, 
s  completed  the  spolia* 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802— ]S10. 


487 


tion  ot  the  House  of  Buoncompagni,  to  whuin  that  title  and  en* 
tTite  belonged,  together  with  the  greater  part  of  the  Isle  of  Elba. 
3.  The  Senate  and  people  of  the  Ligurian  Republic  demanded 
voluntarily,  as  is  said,  to  be  united  lu  the  French  Empire.  Their 
request  was  agreed  to  (June  5;)  and  the  territory  of  that  Repub- 
lic was  divided  into  three  departments.  4.  The  Republic  of 
Lucca  demanded  from  Bonaparte  a  new  constitution,  and  a  prince 
of  his  fcmily.  By  a  constitutional  statute  (June  23,)  that  Repub- 
lic was  erected  into  a  principality,  under  the  protection  of  France ; 
anc]  conferred  as  a  hereditary  right  on  Felix  Bacciochi,  and  his 
wife  Eliza  Bonaparte.  5.  The  States  of  Parma  seemed  destined 
to  be  given  up  by  way  of  compensation  to  the  King  of  Sardinia, 
together  with  the  territory  of  Genoa ;  but  Bonaparte,  finding 
himself  involved  with  the  Emperor  Alexander,  caused  them  to 
oe  organized  according  to  the  system  of  France. 

It  was  impossible  for  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  not  to  unite 
against  a  conqueror  who  seemed  to  apply  to  politics  that  maxim 
of  the  civil  law,  which  makes  every  thing  allowable  that  the 
laws  do  not  forbid.  We  have  already  seen  that  Russia  and 
Austria  had  concerted  measures  for  setting  bounds  to  these  usur- 
pations. But  it  was  William  Pitt,  who  was  restored  to  the 
British  ministry  in  the  month  of  May  1804,  that  conceived  the 
plan  of  the  third  coalition.  Disdaining  the  petty  resources  which 
the  preceding  ministry  had  employed  for  harassing  France,  he 
conceived  the  idea  of  a  grand  European  League,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rescuing  from  the  dominion  of  Bonaparte  the  countries 
which  France  had  subdued  since  1792,  and  for  reducing  that 
kingdom  within  its  ancient  limits.  With  regard  to  the  territories 
which  were  to  be  taken  from  France,  he  proposed  arrangements, 
by  means  of  which  they  might  form  a  barrier  against  her  future 
projects  of  aggrandizement ;  and  finally,  to  introduce  into  Europe 
a  general  system  of  public  right.  In  fact,  the  plan  of  Mr.  Pitt, 
which  was  communicated  to  tlic  Russian  government  (June  19, 
1805,)  was  the  same  as  that  which,  ten  years  afterwards,  was 
executed  by  the  Grand  Alliance.  If  this  plan  failed  in  1805,  it 
was  only  because  they  calculated  on  the  participation  of  Prussia, 
as  an  indispensable  condition ;  which  *hey  did  not  give  up  when 
that  power  had  declared  her  resolution  >  >  preserve  her  neutrality. 

By  the  treaty  of  April  1 1th,  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain, 
it  was  agreed  that  the  Emperor  Alexander  should  make  another 
attempt  for  arranging  matters  with  Bonaparte,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  war.  M.  de  Novosilzoff,  one  of  the  Russian  ministers,  was 
•ent  to  Paris.     On  his  arrival  at  Berlin,  he  received  the  pass- 

Eorts  which  the  cabinet  of  Prussia  had  procured  for  him  at  F'aris  ; 
ut  Hi  the  same  time,  he  received  an  order  from  St.  Petersburg 


ri7ilf,r 


488 


CHAFTBK  XL 


not  to  continue  his  journey.  The  annexation  of  the  Ligunan 
Republic  to  France,  at  the  moment  when  they  were  making  con- 
ciliatory overtures  lo  Bonaparte,  appeared  too  serious  an  outrage 
for  the  Emperor  to  prosecute  farther  negotiations.  War  was 
consequently  resolved  on.  ,„,...  u 

The  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  England  had  been  ear- 
ned on  for  some  time  with  extraordinary  vigour.     Every  thing 
•eemed  to  announce,  that  Bonaparte  meant  lo  attempt  that  peril- 
ous enterprise.     Part  of  his  troops  had  already  embarked  (Aug 
27  ^  when  all  of  a  sudden  the  camp  at  Boulogne  was  broken  up. 
and  the  army  directed  to  move  towards  the  Rhine,  which  it  pass- 
ed within  a  month  after.     Austria  had  set  on  foot  three  armies. 
The  Archduke  Charles  commanded  that  of  Italy,  where  it  was 
expected  a  decisive  blow  was  to  be  struck ;  the  second  army, 
under  the  command  of  the  Archduke  John,  was  stationed  m  the 
Tyrol,  to  maintain  a  communication  with  the  third  army  on  the 
Inn,  which  was  commanded  nominally  by  the  Archduke  Fer- 
dinand the  Emperor's  cousin,  but  in  reality  by  General  Mack. 
The  first  Russian  army  under  the  command  of  General  Kutusoff 
had  arrived  in  Gallicia,  and  was  continuing  its  march  m  all 
haste.    It  was  followed  by  another  under  Michelson.    The  Rus- 
sian  troops  in  Dalmatia  were  to  attempt  a  landing  m  Italy. 

The  army  of  Mack  passed  the  Inn  (Sept.  8.)     They  had 
reckoned  on  the  co-operation  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria ;  but  that 
prince,  who  was  always  distrustful  of  Austria,  abandoned  the 
cause  of  the  allies,  and  retired  with  his  troops  into  Franconia. 
The  Electors  of  Wurtemberg  and  Baden  were  desirous  of  con- 
cluding treaties  of  alliance  with  Bonaparte,  after  he  had  passed 
the  Rhine  ;  these  treaties  were  signed  at  Ludwigsburg  and  Et- 
tingen  (Oct.  4,  and  10.)     The  plan  of  Bonaparte  was  to  cut  ofl 
the  army  of  Mack  who  had  entered  into  Swabia,  from  that  of 
Kutusoff  which  was  marching  through  Austria.    In  this  he  suc- 
ceeded, by  presuming  to  violate  the  Prussian  territory.     Mar- 
mont  who  had  come  by  way  of  Mayence,  and  Bemadotte  who 
had  conducted  the  army  into  Franconia,  where  they  were  joined 
by  the  Bavarians,  traversed  the  country  of  Anspach,  and  came 
thus  on  the  rear  of  the  Austrian  army  (Oct.  6.)     From  that  date 
scarcely  a  day  passed  without  a  battle  favourable  to  the  French. 
Several  divisions  of  the  Austrians  were  obliged  to  lay  down 
their  arms.     Mack,  who  had  thrown  himself  mto  Ulm,  lost  all 
resolution,  and  signed  a  capitulation  (Oct.  17,)  by  which  he  pro 
mised  to  surrender  if  assistance  did  not  arrive  withm  eight  days. 
He  did  not,  however,  wait  for  this  delay.  By  a  second  capitulation 
two  days  after,  he  surrendered  on  the  spot  with  25,000  men. 
The  army  of  Mack  was  totally  destroyed,  except  6000  caval- 


jtion  of  the  Lignrian 
»y  were  making  con- 
serious  an  outrage 
siiations.     War  was 

gland  had  been  car- 
igour.     Every  thing 
to  attempt  that  peril- 
;ady  embarked  (Aug 
logne  was  broken  up. 
Rhine,  which  it  pass- 
on  foot  three  armies, 
f  Italy,  where  it  was 
k  ;  the  second  army, 
,  was  stationed  in  the 
the  third  army  on  tlio 
the  Archdulce  Fer- 
ity by  General  Mack, 
d  of  General  Kutusoif 
ling  its  march  in  all 
Vlichelson.    The  Rus- 
landing  in  Italy. 
Sept.  8.)     They  had 
)r  of  Bavaria ;  but  that 
ustria,  abandoned  the 
roops  into  Franconia. 
were  desirous  of  con- 
e,  after  he  had  passed 
Ludwigsburg  and  Et- 
naparte  was  to  cut  ofi 
Swabia,  from  that  of 
istria.    In  this  he  suc- 
sian  territory.     Mar- 
,  and  Bernadotte  who 
here  they  were  joined 
f  Anspach,  and  came 
t.  6.)     From  that  date 
mrable  to  the  French, 
obliged  to  lay  down 
self  into  Ulm,  lost  all 
17,)  by  which  he  pro 
ive  within  eight  days. 
r  a  second  capitulation 
t  with  25,000  men. 
d,  except  6000  caval- 


I'ERIOC  IX.       A.  D. 


1802— ISIO. 


489 


ry,  with  which  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  had  opened  himxelf  a 
passage  through  Franconia  ;  and  20,000  others  with  which  Kien- 
muyer  had  retired  to  Biaunau,  where  he  was  met  by  the  van- 
Fuard  of  Kutusoif.  The^e  two  generals  continued  their  retreat. 
The  Russian  army  repassed  the  Danube  rieur  Grein  (Nov.  9,) 
and  directed  their  march  towards  '.he  Morau.  A  few  days  after 
(Nov.  J3,)  Viennii,  the  capital  of  Austria,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  French.  They  passed  the  Danube  near  that  city,  and  pur- 
sued the  Russians.  In  the  meantime  General  Buxhovvden  with 
the  second  Russian  army,  having  joined  KutusoHTat  Olmutz,  on 
the  same  day  that  the  EJinperor  Alexander  arrived  in  the  camp, 
they  conceived  themselves  strong  enough  to  encounter  the  ene- 
my, and  immediately  discontinued  their  retreat.  The  battle  of 
Austerlitz,  which  Bonaparte  fought  (Dec.  2,)  with  the  combi- 
ned army  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  decided  the  campaign 
in  his  favour. 

Meantime  Bonaparte  found  himself  in  a  position  which  might 
become  dangerous.  When  the  Archduke  Charles  had  perceived 
that  the  French  had  concentrated  their  forces  on  the  Danube,  he 
sent  supplies  to  General  Mack,  and  commenced  his  retreat  from 
Italy,  that  he  might  be  nearer  the  centre  of  hostilities.  This 
retreat  he  could  not  effect,  e.\cept  by  hazarding  several  engage- 
ments with  Massena,  who  continued  the  pursuit.  When  near 
Cilley  he  formed  a  junction  with  the  Archduke  John,  who  had 
retreated  from  the  Tyrol  (Nov.  27.)  The  united  armies  of  these 
two  princes  amounted  to  80,000  men,  with  whom  they  marched 
towards  Vienna;  while  the  Hungarians  rose  en  masse  to  defend 
their  sovereign.  The  next  day  after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  the 
Russian  army  received  a  reinforcement  of  12,000  men.  An 
army  composed  of  Prussians,  Saxons,  and  Hessians  were  on  the 
point  of  penetrating  into  Franconia ;  and  some  corps  of  Prus- 
sians, Russians,  Swedes,  Hanoverians,  and  English,  had  joined 
a  second  army  in  the  north  of  Germany,  ready  to  invade  Bel- 
gium. Moreover,  the  English  and  the  Russians  were  preparnig 
to  effect  a  landing  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

It  was  in  this  critical  moment  that  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna 
signed  an  armistice  at  Austerlitz,  by  which  they  engaged  to  send 
back  the  Russian  army,  and  to  quell  the  insurrection  in  Hun- 
gary. Within  twenty  days  after,  peace  was  signed  at  Presburg 
between  Austria  and  France  (Dec.  26.)  The  former  acknow- 
ledged all  the  claims  of  Bonaparte,  ana  ceded  to  him,  to  form  a 
Eart  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  the  ancient  states  of  Venice,  with 
talmatia  and  Albania ;  and  tc  his  allies,  the  Elector  of  Baden 
and  the  new  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  VVurtomberg,  the  Tyrol  and 
all  her  hereditary  possessions  in  Swabia. 


iSl 


I  V'M 


IK 


m 


^1,^ 


490 


CIUPTER  XI. 


The  violation  of  the  Prussian  territor_y  in  Franjonia,  had  M- 
'iled  Ihe  most  lively  indignation  nt  Ben.n.     The  King  resolved.    | 
:^.rd  in  hand,  to  Jvenge  thi.  mUrnge  "g-'-^^Xl?  ncf  S    I 
The  Prussian  troops  occupied  Hanover,  which  the  French  had    | 
ju't  evacuated  ;  an^d  thatUuntry  was  restored  to  |^^«  leg. Uma^ 
tovereiffn.     A  hody  of  Russians,  for  who.n  they  had  till  then 
vallv  demanded  a  passage  through  S.les.a.  ohtained  permisMon 
to  traverse  that  province  to  jmn  the  ""'^  "f  ^u  J«o»r.     The 
Emperor  Alexan-Ur  had  himself  arrived  at  Berhi.    0=^26.)  as 
well  as  the  Archduke  Anthony,  Grand-Master  of  the  Teutomc 
Kni..hts.     A  convention  was  cone  uded  at  Po  sdam  (Nov.  3 ) 
J^tween  Alexander  and  Frederic  HI.  of  Prussia      This    atter 
nrince  joined  the  coalition,  with  the  reservation  of  a  prelim.na.7 
St    mp  to  obtain  the  assent  of  Bonaparte  to  conditions  extre^nely 
equitable.     In  case  these  were  re  ected,  Frederic  promised  to 
ta1<e  the  field  with  180,000  men,  wfio  in  fact,  were  put  in  a  con- 
d^.ion  to  march  at  the  earliest  notice.     Coun    HaugAVitz,  who 
had  been  sent  to  Vienna  as  the  bearer  of  overtures  of  peace  to 
Bonaparte,  accompanied  with  an  energetic  declaration,  took  it 
E  h^is  head  that  it  would  be  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  Prus- 
^a  were  he  to  press  the  object  0/  his  coinniission  ;  he  resolved, 
therefore,  to  wait  the  course  of  events.     After  the  truce  of  Aus- 
te  litz,  he  took  it  upon  him  to  change  the  system  of  his  govern- 
meat.     Without  having  any  sort  of  authority,  he  concluded  an 
Sliance  with  Bonaparte  at  Vienna  (Dec    15,)  for  the  guarantee 
of  tlieir  respective  states,  and  for  those  of  Bavaria  and  the  Porte. 
Prussia  was  to  cede  the  principality  of  Anspach  to  Bavaria, 
that  of  Neufchatel  to  France  ;  and  tlint  of  Cleves  to  a  pnnce  of 
the  Empire,  whom  Bonaparte  might  name.     In  return  Prussia 
was  to  get  possession  of  the  Electorate  of  Hanover. 

When  Count  Haugwitz  arrived  at  Berlin  with  the  treaty, 
Frederic  at  first  was  inclined  to  reject  it ;  but  the  minister  having 
represented  to  him  the  danger  to  which  this  would  expose  him 
in  the  present  state  of  affairs,  the  King  r.  .ctantly  consented  to 
ratify  the  treaty  ;  provided  a  clause  woa  aa  .d,  that  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  provinces  mutually  ceded  should  only  be  announced 
as  provisional,  until  the  King  of  England  should  give  his  assent 
by  a  future  treaty,  to  the  cession  of  Hanover.  It  was  in  th» 
manner  that  Prussia,  in  effect,  got  possession  of  that  Electorate 
(Jan  27, 1806.)  Meantime,  Count  Haugwitz,  who  had  reimired 
to  Paris,  found  it  impossible  to  obtain  the  acceptance  of  Bona- 
parte  to  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  so  modified.  He  then 
signed  a  second  convention  (Feb.  15.)  by  which  Prussia  enga- 
ged to  declare  the  occupation  of  Hanover  definitive  ;  and  to  shut 
the  rivers  in  the  North  of  Germany  against  the  English.      1  ht 


Frarconia,  had  ei- 

The  King  resolved. 

si  hif  royal  dignity. 

ch  the  French  had 

red  to  its  legitimatfe 

I  they  had  till  then 

obtained  permission 

of  Kutusotr.     The 

Berlin  (Oct.  25,)  as 

ster  of  the  Teutonic 

Potsdam  (Nov.  3.) 

russia.     This  latter 

ion  of  a  preliminai'y 

:onditions  extremely 

rederic  promised  to 

t,  were  put  in  a  con- 

juiit  Hatigwitz,  who 

)vertiires  of  peace  to 

declaration,  took  it 

the  interests  of  Priis- 

lission  ;  he  resolved, 

ter  the  truce  of  Aus- 

ystcm  of  his  govern- 

ity,  he  concluded  an 

5,)  for  the  guarantee 

nvnrin  and  the  Porte. 

Lnspach  to  Bavaria ; 

Cleves  to  a  prince  of 

!.     In  return  Prussia 

Hanover. 

rlin  with  the  treaty, 
t  the  minister  having 
is  would  expose  him 
ictantly  consented  to 
'-id,  that  the  occupa- 
d  only  be  announced 
liould  give  his  assent, 
ver.  It  was  in  this 
9n  of  that  Electorate 
itz,  who  had  repaired 
acceptance  of  Bona- 
modified.  He  then 
ivhich  Prussia  enga- 
tfinitive  ;  and  to  shut 
t  the  English.     Tht 


I  m 


PRRIOD  IX.       A.  D.   190S2   -1810. 


491 


King  of  Prussia,  who  had  already  disbanded  Ins  army,  found 
himself  in  a  situation  that  obliged  him  to  ratify  that  urraiigement. 

Bonaparte  had  made  prodigious  efTorts  to  revive  the  French 
marine.  The  fleet  at  Rocheiort,  commanded  by  Admiral  Mis- 
siessi,  had  taken  the  opportunity  of  sailing  from  that  port  (Jan. 
11,  1805.)  They  had  .xet  out  with  the  intention  of  levying  con- 
tributions in  the  Little  Antilles,  belonging  to  the  English  ;  and 
after  throwing  in  supplies  to  General  Ferrand  who  still  kept 
possession  of  St.  Domingo,  they  had  returned  without  accident 
to  Rochefort.  The  fleet  at  Toulon,  consisting  of  fourteen  ves- 
sels of  the  line,  commanded  by  Admiral  Villeneuve,  and  hav- 
ing on  board  troops  under  the  command  of  General  Lauriston, 
probably  destined  for  Ireland,  had  repaired  to  Cadiz  (April  9,) 
where  they  were  joined  by  the  Spanish  fleet  under  Admiral 
Gravina.  Next  day  the  two  combined  fleets  sailed  from  that 
port,  but  afterwards  separated.  That  under  Villeneuve  had 
proceeded  to  Martinico ;  but  being  apprised  of  the  arrival  of 
Lord  Nelson  at  Bnrbadoes,  Villeneuve  again  joined  the  Span- 
ish Admiral,  when  the  fleet  returned  to  Europe.  An  engage 
ment  took  place  nc!^r  Cnpe  Finistorre  (July  22,)  which  was 
honourable  to  Sir  Robert  Culder,  the  English  Admiral,  who 
captured  two  ships  of  the  line.  Being  soon  after  considerably 
reinforced,  and  amounting  to  thirty-five  ships  of  the  line,  they 
set  sail  for  Cadiz,  where  a  partial  blockade  was  maintained  for 
some  time  by  Calder  and  Collingwood.  But  Nelson,  who  had 
been  invested  with  the  command  of  the  English  fleet,  induced 
the  enemy,  by  means  of  a  pretended  retreat,  to  leave  their  sta- 
tion. An  engagement  took  place  ofTCape  Trafalgar  (Oct.  21,) 
which  cost  the  English  Admiral  his  life,  but  which  ruined  the 
combined  fleet.  Villeneuve  was  made  prisoner,  and  Gravina 
fled  towards  Cadiz  with  ten  ships.  This  glorious  victory  se- 
cured to  England  the  command  of  the  sea. 

When  Bonaparte  had  made  preparations  for  marching  against 
Austria,  he  resolved  to  reinforce  his  army  in  Italy  by  the  troops 
which  occupied  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  To  ingrati- 
ate himself  with  Ferdinand  IV.,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  that 
prince  'Sept.  21,)  by  which  the  latter,  on  obtaining  the  evacua- 
tion 01  his  own  states,  promised  to  remain  neutral.  He  did  not 
depend,  however,  on  that  monarch's  fulfilling  his  promise.  It 
was  a  part  of  the  plan  of  the  allies,  that  the  Russian  and  Eng- 
lish armies  should  land  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  ;  the  one  by 
'he  way  of  Corfu,  and  the  other  from  Malta.  The  plan  was 
carried  into  execution,  and  the  foreign  troops  were  received  as 
friends.  A  decree  of  Napoleon,  dated  from  Schoenbrun  (Dec. 
27,)  had  declcred  that  the  dynasty  of  the  Bourbons  had  censed 


mtf 


492 


OHAPTRR  XI. 


to  reign  at  Naples.  Aftor  the  battle  of  Auster  .tz,  the  Ruswan. 
and  En-rlisl.  nluHuloned  Italy  ;  and  Ferdinand  IV.  found  h.m- 
sclf  witiicut  defeno..,  exposed  to  a  French  army,  who  were  ap- 
proarhi..^'  his  capil.il.  He  embarked  for  Sicily,  when  the  French 
Lnlered  Naples  (Jan.  1S0«5 )  and  Joseph  B«""P^.''«';*;';,^™l^jf; 
of  Napoleon,  was  created  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (March  30,) 
although  his  sway  never  extended  farther  than  the  kingdom  ol 

"'fhose  are  probably  in  a  mistake,  who  imagine  they  find  in 
the  conduct  of  Bonaparte,  the  gradual  development  of  a  great 
plan,  conceived  before-hand;  and  springing  from  his  head,  so 
lo  speak,  like  the  fabled  Minerva  from  the  brain  of  Jupiter. 
The  circumstances  in  which  he  was  placed,  the  success  of  his 
arms,  and  the  weakness  of  foreign  Cabinets,  suggested  to  him 
one  idea  after  another.  It  was  when  he  was  on  his  march 
against  the  Russians,  that  he  received  the  news  of  the  bat  le  ot 
Trafalgar,  which  hud  completely  destroyed  the  labour  of  three 
years,  and  annihilated  his  hopes  of  reducing  England  by  plant- 
Ing  his  standard  on  her  soil.  His  imagination  then  conceived 
the  plan  of  opposing  one  combination  of  strength  to  another, 
and  surrounding  France  with  a  number  of  states,  [ndependent 
in  appearance,  but  subject  to  the  direction  of  the  head  ol  the 

Tfler'  the  peace  of  Presburg,  he  had  repaired  to  Munich, 
where  he  adopted  his  stepson,  Eugeue  Beauharnais,  and  de- 
clared him  his  successor  in  the  kingdom  of  taly.  In  announ- 
cing this  elevation  to  the  Senate,  (Jan.  12,  1806.)  he  declared 
that  he  reserved  to  himself  the  right  of  determining  the  cominon 
tie  which  was  to  unite  all  the  States  composing  the  Federatwe 
System  of  the  French  Empire.  This  was  the  first  time  that 
thts  system  was  spoken  of.  In  a  short  time  after,  he  declared, 
that  the  whole  peninsula  of  Italy  made  part  of  the  Grand  brn- 
Dire  Finally,  a  constitutional  statute  of  the  Imperial  family, 
which  he  published  at  that  time  (March  30,)  may  be  regarded 
as  the  fundamental  law  of  the  Federative  System  he  had  lately 
announced.  That  statute  granted  to  the  Emperor  of  the  French 
an  absolute  supremacy  over  all  the  sovereigns  of  his  family  ;  and 
he  no  doubt  had  great  hopes,  that  the  time  would  arrive  when 
no  others  would  be  found  in  any  of  the  adjacent  states. 

In  annexing  the  Venetian  provinces  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
Bonaparte  detached  from  them  Massa-Carrara  and  Carfagnaua, 
which  he  bestowed  on  the  Prince  of  Lucca.  At  the  same  time, 
he  created  within  these  provinces  twelve  dutchies,  as  hereditary 
liefs  of  the  Empire,  and  three  within  the  states  of  Pnrinu  ;  all 
of  which  he  disposed  of  in  favour  of  his  generals  and  ministers. 


lerlitz,  the  Ru8HianH 
iiul  IV.  found  liim- 
riny.  who  were  ap- 
when  the  French 
tinpariu,  ihe  brother 
Sicilies  (March  30,) 
han  the  kingdom  of 

naginc  they  find  in 
elopment  of  a  great 
^  from  his  head,  so 
lie  brain  of  Jupiter, 
d,  the  success  of  his 
ts,  suggested  to  him 
>  was  on  his  march 
news  of  the  battle  of 
I  the  labour  of  three 
ig  England  by  plant- 
lation  then  conceived 
strength  to  another, 
f  states,  independent 
n  of  the  head  of  the 

repaired  to  Munich, 
Beauharnais,  and  de- 
)f  Italy.  In  announ- 
l,  1S06,)  he  declared 
ermining  the  common 
posing  the  Federative 
IS  the  first  time  that 
ne  after,  he  declared, 
irt  of  the  Grand  Em- 
the  Imperial  family, 
30,)  may  be  regarded 
System  he  had  lately 
Imperor  of  the  French 
^s  of  his  family  ;  and 
le  would  arrive  when 
Ijacent  states, 
the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
'rara  and  Carfagnana, 
t.  At  the  same  time, 
lutchies,  as  hereditary 
states  of  Parmu  ;  all 
enerals  and  ministers. 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — ISin. 


498 


The  dutchy  of  Cleven,  ceded  by  Prusitia,  as  well  as  that  of 
Berg  which  Imd  born  ceded  to  him  by  the  Kiiii,'  of  Bavaria, 
were  conferred,  together  with  the  hereditary  diirniiy  of  Admiral 
of  France,  on  hid  brother-in-law  Jonchiin  Miirat  (Munh  HO.) 
Alexander  Berthier  was  crented  Prince  of  Neiirchiiti.'l  (June  5.) 
At  a  la'er  iMriod,  hv  granted  the  diitcliy  >'f  Henevento  to  M. 
Talleyrand  rerigord,  under  the  title  of  Sovereiy;!!  I'riniipniity  ; 
-and  the  principality  of  Poiitecorvo  to  Jean  Biipti-le  Beriiiulotte, 
the  brother-in-law  of  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He  ior)k  these  twt)  ter- 
ritories from  the  States  of  the  Church,  under  the  pretext  that 
their  sovereignty  was  an  object  of  litigation  between  the  Courtk 
of  Rome  and  Naples  ;  an  allegation  which  was  not  true. 

The  continuation  of  the  History  of  Bonaparte  presents  us 
with  a  series  of  new  usurpations  and  aggrejisioiiK.  Towards 
the  end  of  January,  the  French  troops  entered  into  the  free  city 
of  Frankfort,  where  they  levied  four  millions,  to  punish  the  in- 
habitants for  their  connexion  with  the  English.  Bonaparte  was 
living  at  that  time  in  the  most  perfect  peace  witii  the  German 
Empire  to  which  that  city  belonged,  aiicl  which  could  not  protect 
it.  By  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  the  Bocca  di  Cattaro,  in  Dalma- 
tia,  was  to  be  restored  to  the  French ;  but  the  Russians,  whose 
fleet  was  cruising  off  these  coasts,  immediately  took  possession 
of  that  place  (Feb.  4,)  at  the  moment  when  the  Austrians  were 
about  to  surrender  it  to  the  French.  Bonaparte  made  this  a 
pretext  for  refusing  to  give  up  to  the  Court  of  Vienna  the  for- 
tress of  Braunau,  which  he  was  to  evacuate  according  to  the 
stipulations  of  that  same  treaty,  and  for  leaving  a  part  of  his 
army  in  Germany.  He  did  more ;  he  ordered  General  Lauris- 
ton,  who  commanded  the  French  army  in  Dalmatia,  to  occupy 
Ragusa  (May  27,)  a  Republic  placed  under  the  protection  of  the 
Porte,  with  whom  there  subsisted  a  treaty  of  peace.  It  was  not, 
however,  until  the  13th  August  1807,  that  Ragusa  was  formally 
united  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

The  Elector  of  Baden  and  the  Princes  of  Nassau  were  oblig- 
ed to  make  cessions  to  France.  The  former  surrendered  Kehl, 
nnd  the  latter  Cassel  and  Kostheim,  opposite  Mayence.  Wesei, 
a  fortress  in  the  dutchy  of  Cleves  was  likewise  occupied  by  the 
French  troops.  All  these  were  so  many  violations  of  the  peace 
of  Luneville,  and  the  treaty  of  Vienna  in  1805. 

In  order  to  promote  this  federative  system,  the  States-General 
of  the  Batavian  Republic  received  a  hint  to  ])etttion  Bonaparte 
for  a  King.  A  treaty  was  in  consequence  concluded  at  Paris 
(March  24,)  by  which  Louis,  the  brother  of  Napoleon,  was  cre- 
ated Hereditary  and  Constitutional  King  of  Holland  ;  the  title 
to  descend  to  his  male  issue.     That  young  man  accepted  with 


i':^ 


f*i' 


401 


CHAPTKR    XI. 


'»..■ 


rclMct»tic(!  u  iTowii  which  he  had  never  coveted,  and  which  h« 
wnro  with  iiiiuli  dififnity. 

William  Pitt,  whom  history  would  have  been  proud  to  call  the 
Grout  Pitt,  had  shn  not  already  given  that  title  to  his  father,  hnd 
died  about  the  b<>^rinnin^r  of  the  year  (Jan.  23.)  Charles  Fox, 
hin  forrnor  onta^fonist,  succofilfd  him  in  the  niinixtry.  He  im« 
nuMliatoly  t'liton-d  into  negotiations  for  peace  between  Francn 
and  Knglaiid.  This  comuiission,  on  the  part  of  the  latter,  wai 
intrusted  lirst  to  Lord  Yarmouth  and  afterwards  to  Lord  Lau- 
derdale.  After  the  death  of  Fox  (Sept.  13,)  the  negotiations 
ended  without  having  produced  any  change  in  the  relations  be- 
tween France  and  England  ;  nnvertheless  they  deserve  to  be 
placed  among  the  important  events  of  that  year,  as  they  were 
the  immediate  cau.<e  of  the  war  with  Prussia,  as  we  sh.iU  have 
occasion  to  mention. 

The  Emperor  Alexander  likewise  made  an  attempt  for  a  re- 
conciliation with  Bonaparte.  He  sent  M.  U'Oubril  to  Paris, 
who,  after  a  negotiation  of  ten  days,  concluded  a  treaty  with 
General  Clarke,  the  French  plenipotentiary,  (July  20,  1866,)  by 
which  it  was  agreed  that  the  Russian  troops  should  evacuate 
the  Bocca  di  Cattaro,  and  the  French  troops  cpiit  Kagusa;  that 
the  independence  of  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islands  should  be 
acknowledged,  ns  well  as  the  independence  and  integrity  of  the 
Porte  ;  that  in  three  months  the  French  troops  should  evacuate 
Germany;  that  the  two  parties  should  use  their  joint  influence 
to  procure  a  cessation  of  the  war  between  Prussia  and  Sweden; 
that  Bonaparte  should  accept  the  mediation  of  Russia,  in  nego- 
tiating a  maritime  peace.  A  secret  article  secured  to  Ferdi- 
nand IV.  the  Balearic  Isles,  in  compensation  for  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  It  thus  appeared  that  the  King  of  Sardinia  was  the 
greatest  sulTerer.  The  Emperor  Alexander  refused  to  ratify 
this  treaty,  whether  it  was  that  he  considered  the  terms  not  alto- 
gether honourable,  or  that  he  was  displeased  with  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  which  took  place  at  this 
time. 

The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  was  undoubtedly  the  most 
important  conseauence  of  the  peace  of  Prcsburg.  That  event 
which  entirely  changed  the  state  of  Germany,  and  placed  so 
large  a  portion  of  that  Empire  under  obedience  to  Bonaparte, 
was  prepared  by  the  article  of  the  peace  which  recognised  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurlemberg,  and  the 
Elector  of  Baden  ;  as  well  as  by  several  other  irregular  transac- 
tions which  took  place  after  that  time.  Such  was  the  conduct 
of  the  Elector  Arch-Chancellor,  in  arrogating  to  himself  the 
right  of  appointing  his  own  successor  ^  and  nominating  Cardinol 


voted,  ftnd  which  he 

lj«eii  proud  to  call  th« 
iIb  to  his  father,  hnd 
23.)  Charles  Fox, 
10  niini»try.  He  im- 
ace  between  France 
(art  of  the  latter,  wa» 
^rwards  to  Lord  Lau- 
13,)  the  negotiations 
^e  in  the  relations  be- 
is  they  deserve  to  be 
t  year,  as  they  were 
isia,  M  we  8h.\ll  have 

;  an  attempt  for  n  re- 
/I.  D'Oubril  to  Paris, 
K-luded  a  treaty  with 
ry,  (July  20,  1806.)  by 
roops  slioiiid  evacuate 
(psiptit  Kngiisa;  that 
won  Islands  should  be 
ce  and  integrity  of  the 
troops  should  evacuate 
se  their  joint  influence 
Prussia  and  Sweden ; 
ion  of  Russia,  in  nego- 
icle  secured  to  Ferdi- 
lion  for  the  kingdom  of 
g  of  Sardinia  was  the 
inder  refused  to  ratify 
ered  the  terms  not  alto- 
eased  with  the  conclu- 
vhich  took  place  at  this 

undoubtedly  the  most 
'resburg.  That  event 
rmany,  and  placed  so 
Kidietice  to  Bonaparte, 
!  which  recognised  the 
Wurlemberg,  and  the 
other  irregular  transac- 
Su(;h  was  the  conduct 
jgating  to  himself  the 
id  nominating  Cardmal 


IKRIOU  IX.      A.  D.   IHO'J— ISIO. 


49S 


Fesch  ns  such,  who  was  Bonaparte's  iinrK'.  The  Conft-dcra* 
lion  of  the  Rhine  was  concluded  at  Pnris  (July  12,  180H,)  Iw 
twpon  IJonnpurtp  and  sixteen  of  the  Oermiin  prim'i-s,  iiiciudiiiij 
thi"  Duke  of  CIt'ves,  who  sepnralod  frnni  the  Germanic  Kin- 
pire,  and  formed  a  particular  union  among  themselves,  under 
th«M»rotection  of  Bonaparte. 

The  declarations  which  the  minister  of  France  and  those  of 
the  Confederated  Estates,  remitted  on  the  same  day  to  the  Diet 
of  Ratisbon,  intimated  to  that  assembly,  that  the  German  Em- 
pire had  ceased  to  exict.  The  Chief  of  the  Gcrmonic  body,  who 
had  been  kept  ignorant  of  all  these  measures,  then  published  a 
spirited  declaration  (An>(.  6,)  by  which  he  resigned  a  crown 
which  could  only  oppenr  valuable  in  his  eyes  so  long  ns  he  was 
able  to  fulfil  the  duties,  and  exercise  the  prerogatives  which 
were  attached  to  it. 

This  transaction,  which  put  an  end  to  the  German  Empire, 
had  been  kept  a  secret  from  Prussia.  Bonaparte,  in  announcin 
to  Frederic  William  the  result  which  it  had  produced,  invitei 
him  to  form  a  similar  confederation  in  the  North  of  Germany  ; 
but  at  the  same  time,  he  negotiated  privately  with  the  Electors 
of  Hesse  and  Saxony,  to  prevent  them  from  entering  into  that 
union  ;  and  declared,  that  he  could  never  permit  the  cities  of 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Lubec,  to  become  parties  to  it.  In  his 
negotiations  with  England,  he  proposed  to  make  over  these  ci- 
ties to  Ferdinand  IV.  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  He  carried 
ni.s  stratagems  even  farther.  He  several  times  oflfcred  to  the 
English  plenipotentiaries  the  same  Electorate  of  Hanover  which, 
a  few  months  before,  he  had  almost  compelled  Prussia  to  claim 
as  her  own  ;  and  he  offered  to  the  Elector  of  Hesse  the  princi- 
pality of  Fulda,  which  had  been  granted  to  the  House  of  Orange, 
then  in  strict  alliance  with  that  of  Brandeburg.  All  these  un- 
derhand man«Euvres  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Cabinet  of  Berlin, 
which  immediately  resolved  to  declare  war.  Unfortunately  for 
Prussia,  she  commenced  hostilities  without  waiting  the  arrival 
of  the  supplies  which  Russia  owed  her,  in  virtue  of  the  alliance 
between  the  two  States  by  the  treaty  of  PeterhofT  (July  2S, 
1800;)  and  she  had  to  take  the  field  against  an  active  enemy, 
whoso  warlike  troops  were  already  in  the  heart  of  Germany. 

General  KnobelsdorfT,  whom  the  King  of  Prussia  had  sent  to 
Paris,  gave  in  the  demands  which  were  to  be  considered  as  his 
ultimatum  : — Bonaparte  treated  his  propositions  as  extravagant 
and  insulting,  and  accordingly  commenced  hostilities.  The 
campaign  was  decided  by  the  battle  of  Jena,  or  rather  by  two 
battles  which  were  fought  on  the  same  day  (Oct.  14,  1806.) 
Bonaparte  in  person  gained  the  one  near  Jena  over  Prince  Ho> 


1 


fc 


AwM 


496 


CHAPTER    XI. 


■\*i^ 


henlohe ;  Marshal  Davoiist  gained  the  other  near  Auerstadt 
over  thej)ukc  of  Brunswick,  Commander-in-chief  of  the  Prus- 
sian army.  The  rout  was  complete.  For  a  siiort  time  the 
troops  retired  without  confusion.  The  approach  of  the  enemy's 
cavalry,  however,  extinguished  all  remains  of  order,  and  the 
most  precipitate  dispersion  of  the  vanquished  army  ensued. 
About  20,000  were  killed  and  wounded  in  the  battle  and  piir- 
suit ;  and  the  prisoners  formed  at  least  nn  equal  number.  The 
scattered  remains  of  the  troops  who  united  after  the  action,  were 
either  defeated  or  obliged  to  surrender  as  prisoners  of  war.  The 
King,  with  the  wreck  of  his  aruiy,  marched  hack  to  Prussia. 
Berlin,  his  capital,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  The 
carelessness,  the  unskilfulness,  or  the  treachery  of  their  com- 
inanders,  and  the  want  of  means  of  defence,  were  the  causes 
why  several  fortresses,  and  whole  battalions  of  troops,  surren- 
dered after  a  slight  resistance.  There  were  some  who  were 
even  obliged  to  capitulate  in  spite  of  their  bravery.  At  Erfurt, 
Field-Marshal  MellendorfT  capitulated  with  14,000  men  (Oct. 
Ifi.)  Spandau  fell  on  the  same  day  that  the  enemy  entered  into 
Berlin  (Oct.  2f5.)  Prince  Hohenlohe,  after  a  brave  defence, ca- 
pitulated at  Prentzlau  (Oct.  29,)  with  a  corps  originally  consist- 
mg  of  16,000  infantry,  and  sixteen  regiments  of  cavalry.  Stettin 
and  Custrin  opened  their  gates  after  a  slight  resistance  (Nov.  1.) 
At  Lubec,  21,000  men,  with  General  Blucher,  laid  down  their 
arms  (Nov.  7.)  Magdeburg  capitulated  next  day  with  22,000 
men. 

Immediately  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  Bonaparte  took  posses- 
sion of  the  principality  of  Fulda.  He  also  sent  a  message  to  the 
old  Duke  of  Brunswick,  that  none  of  his  family  should  ever  reign 
after  him.  That  prince  died  of  the  woimds  he  had  received  at 
Auerstadt ;  and  his  lifeless  body  was  not  permitted  to  be  deposi- 
ted among  the  asiies  of  his  ancestors.  The  Elector  of  Hesse, 
who  had  remained  neutral,  was  declared  an  enemy  to  France, 
and  his  territories  seized.  Bonaparte,  in  return,  granted  neu- 
trality to  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  whose  troops  had  fought  against 
him  at  Jena. 

The  King  of  Prussia  had  tried  to  allay  the  £.torm  which  threat- 
ened his  monarchy.  The  Marqui«  de  Lucchesini  and  General 
Zastrow  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  Marshal  Duroc  at  Char- 
lottenburg  (Oct.  30.)  Bonaparte  refused  to  ratify  the  prelimi- 
naries which  were  signed  there,  because  the  idea  had  occurred 
to  him  in  the  meantime  of  exciting  the  Poles  to  insurrection. 
An  armistice  was  then  signed  (Nov.  16,)  on  conditions  extremely 
rigorous,  by  which  Breslau,  Glogau,  Colbei^,  Graudentz  ana 
Dantzic,  were  delivered  up  to  the  French.     Frederic,  who  luid 


-*»;»-rt»«iiwiJw«HiiaB»»iaJB 


!i.a»a 


other  nenr  Auerstadt 

in-chief  of  the  Prus- 

or  a  sliort  time  the 

proiuh  of  the  enemy's 

ns  of  order,  and  the 

uished  army  ensued. 

in  the  battle  and  pjir- 

equal  number.     The 

after  the  aciion,  were 

prisoners  of  war.  The 

ched  back  to  Prussia. 

the  conqueror.     The 

reachery  of  their  com- 

rciice,  were  the  causes 

ions  of  troops,  surren- 

were  some  who  were 

ir  bravery.     At  Erfurt, 

vith  14,000  men  (Oct. 

the  enemy  entered  into 

fter  a  brave  defence,  ca- 

corps  orifjinally  consist- 

lents  of  cavalry.  Stettin 

jjht  resistance  (Nov.  1.) 

Ilucher,  laid  down  their 

i  next  day  with  22,000 

Bonaparte  took  posses- 
Iso  sont  a  message  to  the 
family  should  ever  reign 
jnds  he  had  received  at 
t  permitted  to  be  deposi- 
The  Elector  of  Hesse, 
cd  an  enemy  to  France, 
in  return,  granted  neu- 
roops  had  fought  against 

'  the  itorm  which  threat- 
Lucchesini  and  General 
Marshal  Duroc  at  Char- 
ed to  ratify  the  prelimi- 
e  the  idea  had  occurred 
[le  Poles  to  insurrection, 
on  conditions  extremely 
[JolbeiW.  Graudentz  ana 
ch.     Frederic,  who  hiid 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802 — 1810. 


497 


resolved  to  throw  himself  on  Russia,  whose  forces  were  approach- 
ing in  all  haste,  rejected  that  armistice.  From  Berlin  Bona* 
parte  repaired  to  Posnania,  where  he  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  Elector  of  Saxony  (Dec.  11.)  That  prince  then  assumed 
the  title  of  King,  joined  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  go* 
possession  of  the  Circle  of  Cotbus,  belonging  to  Prussia.  By  a 
treaty  signed  at  the  sRme  plaf;e  (Dec.  15,)  the  Dukes  of  Sax- 
ony, of  the  race  of  Ernest,  weie  likemse  received  into  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine. 

A  Russian  army  of  90,000  men  had  arrived  in  Prussia  in  the 
month  of  Novembier.  Frecieric  William,  on  his  side,  formed  a 
new  army  of  40,000  men.  Several  actions  took  place  without 
any  decisive  result;  but  after  the  battle  of  Pultusk  (Dec.  26,) 
where  the  victory  was  claimed  both  by  the  French  and  Rus-* 
sians,  each  party  retired  to  winter  quarters. 

During  Bonaparte's  stay  at  Berlin,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
the  Continental  System ;  or  at  least  reduced  its  elements  into 
shape.  The  purport  of  this  system  was  to  ruin  the  commerce, 
and  by  consequence,  the  prosperity  of  England,  by  excluding 
from  the  Continent  of  Europe  the  importation  not  only  of  her 
own  manufactures,  but  the  productions  of  her  colonies  ;  the  use 
of  which  had  become,  through  long  habit,  one  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  to  all  the  nations  of  Europe ;  and  for  which,  moreover, 
no  substitute  could  be  found  in  home  manufactures.  This  chi- 
merical scheme,  and  the  Federative  System,  which  we  have 
already  mentioned,  were  the  two  scourges  which  Bonaparte  in- 
flicted on  the  Continent  of  Europe.  The  abuse,  it  was  alleged, 
which  the  English  made  of  their  superiority  by  sea,  had  provo- 
ked Bonaparte  to  this  measure.  The  right  of  blockade,  that  is, 
the  right  of  a  belligerent  power  to  station  a  force  before  a  hostile 
port  sufficient  to  prevent  any  neutral  vessel  from  entering,  is 
founded  in  principle.  But  England  pretended,  that  if  a  port 
were  declared  to  be  under  blockade,  it  must  be  considered  as 
actually  blockaded  ;  and  accordingly,  she  had  declared  all  the 
ports  between  Brest  and  the  Elbe  under  blockade  (May  16.) 
An  order  issued  by  Bonaparte,  known  by  the  name  of  the  De- 
cree of  Berlin,  declared  the  whole  British  Islands  in  a  state  of: 
blockade,  by  way  of  reprisals  (Nov.  21.)  He  commanded  ail 
British  subjects  to  be  arrested,  who  might  be  found  in  the  coun- 
tries occupied  by  his  troops,  or  those  oi  his  allies.  He  ordered 
their  property,  and  every  article  of  British  or  colonial  produce 
on  the  Continent  to  be  confiscated  ;  and  excluded  from  his  ports 
all  vessels  which  should  come  directly  from  Britain,  or  any  of 
its  dependencies.  The  development  of  this  system  we  saall 
notice  afterwards. 

32 


m 


^es- 


II 


■  «»■ 


.1 


s^ 


t 


498 


CHAPTER  XI. 


The  repose  of  the  armies  did  not  continue  longer  than  a  month. 

Genera  fienn.-sen,  who  had  the  chief  command  of  the  Russmm 

and  Prussians:  undertook  to  relieve  the  cities  of  Grauden  z 

DantHc  and  Colberg.     After  a  number  of  petty  engagements 

SS  daTm'no  parti'cular  notice,,  tb^  campaig^  was  grmina  ed 

bv  the  battle  of  Eylau  in  Prussia  (i  eb.  8,  1807.)    .**°"»P°"«' 

o?rather  Davoust.  was  successful  against  the  left  wmg  and  thfl 

centre  of  the  allie;;  but  Lestocq,  the  Prussian  General,  having 

arrived  on  the  field  of  battle,  near  the  right  wmg  of  the  Prus- 

l"s  which  had  never  been  engaged,  marched  instanly  to  s^- 

nort  the  left  win-T  which  was  giving  way,  and  snatched  he  vie 

forv  rom  thJTands  of  Davoust.     Bennigsen  who  was  m  want 

of  ammTnition,  retired  towards  Koningsberg  leaving  Bonapane 

nn  the  field  of  battle,  wh  ch  was  covered  with  JU.UUU  ot  me 

Frpnch  slain    and  12,000  wounded.     The  Russians  had  lost 

n  000  men      After  this  carnage,  Bonaparte  announced  that  he 

ild  defeated  the  Russians,  and  retired  behind  the  Passarge. 

Hostilities  were  then  suspended  for  some  months. 

"rSe  month  of  FebrWry,  negotiat  ons  f-  Pe-V^  f  J^ 

newed.     Bonaparte,  who  was  at  Osterode,  sent  General  Bertrand 

Sh  was  on  y  a  mancuvre  of  Bonaparte,  who  merely  wished 
o  gaTn  timeto  repair  his  losses.    The  negotiations,  accordingly, 
wefe  broken  off.     Baron  Hardenberg,  who  had  been  placed  by 
r/S  of  Prussia  at  the  helm  of  foreign  affairs  then  resumed 
the  nroifcfofM    Pitt,  which  had  failed  in  1805,  because  Count 
Hau^wS  the  former  minister,  had  dissuaded  Frederic  Wi  ham 
"om  ending  into  the  alliance.      The  basis  of  a  new  coalition 
waTlaS  by  fhe  convention  of  Bartenstein,  between  R"«|'a  and 
Prussia  ((pril  21,)  in  which  Austria,  Great  Britain,  Sweden 
rnTSLma'rk'we;;  invited  to  join.     The  --ej;/^';-"-;: 
Son  with  the  King  of  Sweden  was  likewise  signed  at  Barten 
st^nn  consequence  of  which  Prussia  promised  to  send  a  body 
oftroops  intokmerania.      Austria  ^vas  disposed  to  enter  imo 
this  nroiect,  but  before  coming  to  a  decision,  she  tried  the 
chem    if  l;ediation  ;  and  in  the  month  of  M'^jch,  jw  pro- 
nosals  for  peace  were  made,  which  proved  unsuccessful.     Sup- 
E  wcreVomised  to  Prussia  by  a  convenl.ou  signed  at  Lon- 
5on  ( W  27,)  but  which  a  change  of  circumstances  prevented 

^' WhUe^hTSes  continued  in  a  kin<l  of  inaction  Marshal 
Lefebvre  pre3sed  the  siege  of  Dantzic.     After  several  attempU 


^■iL^- 


vr.Kioo  IX.     A.  D.  18C2— 1810. 


499 


onger  than  a  month, 
nand  of  the  Russians 

ities  of  Graudeniz 

petty  engagements 
aign  was  terminated 

1807.)  Bonaparte, 
he  left  wing  and  the 
;ian  General,  having 
ht  wing  of  the  Prus- 
hed  instantly  to  sup- 
ind  snatched  the  vic- 
en,  who  was  in  want 
g,  leaving  Bonaparte 

with  30,000  of  the 
e  Russians  had  lost 
•te  announced  that  he 
)ehind  the  Passarge. 
months. 

s  for  peace  were  re- 
sent General  Bertrand 

to  detach  him  from 
lis  proposal,  some  de- 
m  armistice ;  but  the 

I  at  Memel,  saw  that 
',  who  merely  wished 
jotiations,  accordingly, 
0  had  been  placed  by 
n  affairs,  then  resumed 

II  1805,  because  Count 
ided  Frederic  William 
sis  of  a  new  coalition 
1,  between  Russia  and 
Jreat  Britain,  Sweden 
e  same  day  a  conven- 
I'ise  signed  at  Barten- 
romised  to  send  a  body 
disposed  to  enter  into 
ecision,  she  tried  the 
h  of  March,  new  pro- 
d  unsuccessful.  Sup- 
f^onlion  signed  at  Lon- 
rcumstances  prevented 

A  of  inartion,  Marshal 
After  several  attempta 


to  blockade  the  place.  General  Kulkrcuth  obtained  a  capitulation 
on  very  honourable  terms  (May  24.)  Neis.se,  Kozel  and  Glatz, 
likewise  capitulated  in  course  of  the  following  month.  These  two 
latter  places  were  not  to  be  restored  by  the  French.  Hostilities 
recommenced  in  the  month  of  June.  Skirmishes  were  daily 
taking  place,  until  the  battle  of  Friedland  decided  the  campaign 
(June  14.)  General  Bennigsen  defeated  the  divisions  of  Lan- 
nes  and  Mortier,  when  the  Rus.sians,  thinking  the  Irattle  was 
gained  as  they  no  longer  saw  the  enemy,  slackened  their  exer- 
tions ;  but  towards  the  evening  Bonaparte  arrived  on  the  field 
of  battle  with  guides,  and  the  corps  of  Mar.shals  Ney  and  Vic- 
tor ;  and  taking  advantage  of  the  confusion  which  appeared  in 
the  Russian  army,  he  put  them  completely  to  the  rout.  In 
consequence  of  this  defeat,  Koningslierg  opened  her  gates  to  the 
conqueror.  The  Russian  and  Prussian  armies  passed  the  Nie- 
men  (June  18 ;)  and  ne.\t  day  Bonaparte  entered  Tilsit. 

Meantime  the  Cabinet  of  Vienno,  with  whom  negotiations, 
wore  still  carrying  on  to  obtain  their  accession  to  the  convention 
of  Bartenstein,  had  sent  General  Stutterheim  to  the  head-quar- 
ters of  the  two  monarchs,  with  power  to  sign  a  defensive  al- 
but  the  war  had  then  recommenced  with  new  vigour. 


lance : 


There  was  a  party  in  both  Cabinets,  and  even  among  the  allied 
Generals,  who  wished  to  prevent  this  alliance  ;  and  this  party 
succeeded  in  their  designs.  A  Russian  General  appeared  at 
Tilsit  on  the  part  of  Bennigsen  to  negotiate  an  armistice,  which 
was  concluded  on  the  spot  (June  21,)  without  including  the 
Prussian  army.  Four  days  after,  an  interview  took  place  be- 
tween Alexander  and  Napoleon,  on  the  invitation  of  the  latter, 
who  wished  to  exert  all  his  address  to  seduce  the  Northern  Au- 
tocrat from  the  alliance  into  which  he  had  entered.  This  me- 
morable interview  took  place  on  a  raft  in  the  middle  of  the  river 
Niemen.  Each  prince,  accompanied  by  five  generals  and  cour- 
tiers, reached  the  raft  from  the  opposite  bank  at  the  same  mo- 
ment, and  embraced  each  other  with  all  the  appearance  of  per- 
fect cordiality.  They  conversed  for  two  hours  in  a  pavilion, 
and  the  ambitious  ruler  of  France  displayed  in  such  glowing 
colours  the  joys  of  arbitrary  power  and  unlimited  dominion,  and 
held  out  such  an  attractive  prospect  of  the  advantages  which  he 
might  derive  from  a  union  of  councils  and  co-operation,  that 
Alexander  listened  with  pleasure  to  his  new  adviser,  and  was 
ready  to  rush  into  a  new  alliance.  On  the  same  day,  Field- 
Marshal  Kalkreuth  signed  an  armistice  on  the  part  of  Prussia. 
The  next  day  he  had  a  second  interview,  at  which  the  King 
of  Prussia  assisted,  who,  when  he  objected  to  some  parts  of  the 
proposed  treaty,  wan  insulted  with  a  hint  of  his  not  being  enti- 


jj^i 


II 


500 


CIUFTER  XI. 


tied  10  the  honour  of  consultation,  as  he  had  been  so  couipletcly 
conquered.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Bonaparte  demanded 
that  the  Emperor  Alexander  should  dismiss  his  minister  Baron 
Budberg,  and  the  king  of  Prussia  Baron  Hardenberg.  The  Prince 
Kourakin,  and  Count  de  Goltz  were  substituted  in  their  place. 

The  treaty  with  Russia  was  first  signed  (July  7.)  The  Em- 
peror A''>xander  obtained  from  Bonaparte  the  spoliation  of  his 
former  ally,  or  according  to  the  form  which  was  given  to  it  in 
that  transaction,  That  the  King  of  Prussia  should  recover  one 
half  of  his  estates.  The  provinces  which  Prussia  had  obtained 
by  the  second  and  third  division  of  Poland  were  ceded  to  the 
King  of  Saxony,  under  the  title  of  the  Dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
with  the  exception  of  the  fortress  of  Graudentz,  which  remained 
in  the  possession  of  Prussia,  and  the  city  of  Dantzic,  which  was 
to  regain  its  independence,  with  the  exception  of  the  department 
of  Bialystock  which  was  annexed  to  the  Russian  Empire.  Alex- 
ander acknowledged  the  Kings  created  by  Bonaparte,  including 
the  King  of  Westphalia.  He  likewise  acknowledged  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine,  and  ceded  to  Bonaparte  the  Seignory  of 
Jever,  which  he  inherited  from  his  mother.  He  promised  to 
withdraw  his  troops  from  Moldavia  and  Wallachia;  and  to  make 
common  cause  with  Bonaparte  against  England,  should  the  lat- 
ter refuse  to  make  peace  by  submitting  to  the  principles  of  free 
commerce  by  sea.  It  appears,  moreover,  by  certain  secret  arti- 
cles, that  Alexander  promised  to  surrender  to  Bonaparte  the 
Bocca  di  Cattaro,  and  the  isles  of  the  Ionian  Republic  ;  which 
took  place  in  the  month  of  August  following.  The  peace  which 
was  signed  between  Russia  and  Bonaparte  two  days  after  (July 
9,)  included  nearly  the  same  stipulations. 

A  special  convention  was  required  for  executing  the  articles 
of  the  treaty,  which  related  to  the  evacuation  of  the  States  of  the 
King  of  Prussia.  This  was  negotiated  and  signed  at  Konings- 
berg  (July  12,)  with  unpardonable  precipitancy,  by  Field-Marshal 
Kalkreuth,  who  forgot  to  insert  certain  stipulations  so  essential 
and  so  obvious,  that  it  must  have  appeared  to  him  superfluous 
to  mention  them.  Bonaparte  took  advantage  of  these  omissions 
to  ruin  the  provinces  which  were  left  in  possession  of  Prussia. 
It  may  be  justly  said,  that  the  convention  of  Koningsberg  did 
nearly  as  much  mischief  to  Prussia  as  the  peace  of  Tilsit  itself. 
It  occasioned  the  necessity  of  signing  a  series  of  subsequent  con- 
ventions, by  each  of  which  Prussia  had  to  submit  to  some  new 
sacrifice.  Some  of  the  more  important  of  these  we  shall  after- 
nrards  have  occasion  to  mention. 

The' King  of  Sweden,  who  was  attacked  in  Pomerania  by 
Marahnl  M ortier,  had  concluded  an>  armistice  at  Schlalkorv 


PKKIOD  IX.      A.  D.   1802—1810. 


501 


been  so  coiiipletely 
>naparte  demanded 
his  minister  Baron 
nberg.  The  Prince 
uted  in  their  place, 
"uly  7.)     The  Em- 
spoliation  of  his 
was  given  to  it  in 
I  should  recover  one 
russia  had  obtained 
were  ceded  to  the 
Dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
ntz,  which  remained 
Dantzic,  which  was 
on  of  the  department 
isian  Empire.    Alex- 
Bonaparte,  including 
nowledged  the  Con- 
jarte  the  Seignory  of 
er.     He  promised  to 
illachin ;  and  to  make 
gland,  should  the  lat- 
^he  principles  of  free 
by  certain  secret  arti- 
ler  to  Bonaparte  the 
lian  Republic  ;  which 
ig.    The  peace  which 
B  two  days  after  (July 

executing  the  articles 
on  of  the  Slates  of  the 
id  signed  at  Konings- 
ncy,  by  Field-Marshal 
pulations  so  essential 
jd  to  him  superfluous 
age  of  these  omissions 
possession  of  Prussia. 
n  of  Koningsberg  did 
I  peace  of  Tilsit  itself, 
•ies  of  subsequent  con- 
o  submit  to  some  new 
f  these  we  shall  after* 

;ked  in  Pomerania  by 
nistice  at  Schlalkorv 


(April  18.)  Gustavus  Adolphus  IV.  projected  an  attack  on  Mar- 
shal Brune,  while  a  body  of  10,000  Prussians  were  to  make  a 
descent  for  blockading  Colberg.  To  carry  this  project  into  exe- 
cution, he  was  so  eager  to  declare  against  the  armistice,  that,  on 
the  signature  of  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  he  found  himself  alone  under 
arms,  and  exposing  his  troops  to  great  danger.  This  unseason- 
able zeal  obliged  him  to  evacuate  Stralsund  and  the  whole  of 
Pomerania  (Sept.  7.) 

In  erecting  the  Dutchy  of  Warsaw,  Bonaparte  had  given  it  a 
constitution  modelled  after  that  of  France,  without  paying  atten- 
tion to  the  difference  of  manners,  customs,  and  localities  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  King  of  Saxony  wos  put  in  possession  of  that 
State  ;  but  the  new  dutchy  was  nothing  else  than  a  province  of 
the  French  Empire.  The  city  of  Dantzic  was  again  ilunged 
into  a  state  of  the  most  abject  dependence  ;  and  until  the  yeai 
1814,  it  remained  under  the  o-ders  of  a  Governor-general  ap- 

Eointed  by  the  French.  The  throne  of  Westphalia  was  destined 
y  Bonaparte  for  his  younger  brother  Jerome.  That  monarchy 
was  composed  of  the  greater  part  of  those  provinces  ceded  by 
the  King  of  Prussia  ;  of  nearly  all  the  estates  of  the  Elector  ol 
Hesse  and  the  Duke  of  Brunswick ;  of  a  district  belonging  to  the 
Electorate  of  Hanover ;  of  the  principality  of  Corvey,  and  the 
county  of  Rittberg — containing  in  all  about  two  millions  of  in- 
habitants. Only  a  small  part  of  this  kingdom  was  situated  in 
Westphalia ;  and  it  is  not  known  by  what  chance  the  name  ol 
that  country  was  selected  for  the  new  monarchy.  Deputies  from 
that  kingdom  were  summoned  to  Paris,  where  they  received 
from  the  hands  of  Bonaparte  a  constitutional  charter  (Nov.  16,) 
in  the  construction  of  which  they  had  never  once  been  consulted. 
As  to  the  other  districts  which  Bonaparte  had  taken  possession 
of  in  Germany,  or  of  which  he  had  deprived  their  rightful  sove- 
reigns, viz.  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  the  principalities  of  Erfurt. 
Fulda,  Baireuth,  and  Munster,  with  the  counties  of  Catzeneln- 
bogen  and  Hanau,  they  were  governed  entirely  to  his  own  inter- 
est, and  disposed  of  at  his  convenience. 

While  the  armies  of  Bonaparte  were  occupied  in  Prussia, 
Spain  formed  the  resolution  of  shaking  off  the  yoke  which  the 
Emperor  of  France  had  imposed  upon  her.  Charles  IV.  soli- 
cited privately  the  mediation  of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  to  bring 
about  a  pence  with  England.  By  a  proclamation  of  October 
30th  1806,  a  levy  of  40,000  men  was  ordered  for  the  defence  ol 
the  country,  without  mentioning  against  what  enemy.  This 
imprudent  step,  which  they  had  not  courage  to  prosecute,  ruined 
Spain.  At  the  commencement  of  1807,  a  French  army  was  as- 
sembled in  the  vicinity  of  Bayonne.    A  trap  was  laid  for  Gharlea 


it,- 


S  ■■* '' 


.ii 


5oa 


CHAPTER  XI. 


IV  :  and  he  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  it.  According  to  a 
on  -ention  signed  at  Fountainbleau  (Oct.  27,)  between  h.s  plem- 
Dotentiarv  and  that  of  Bonaparte,  for  the  partition  of  Portugal, 
K  k  ngdom  was  to  be  divided  into  three  lots.  The  most  north- 
X  parf  was  destined  for  the  King  of  Etruria  (who  w„s  to  sur- 
render up  Tuscany  to  Bonaparte,)  and  to  be  called  the  kinadom 
of  Northern  Lusitania.  The  southern  part,  comprising  A.ga.  ves, 
was  to  form  a  principality  for  Don  Manuel  G«J«y-  Jhe  p  o- 
vinces  in  the  middle  part  were  to  be  disposed  of  at  the  general 
peace,  when  the  King  of  Spain  was  to  assume  the  title  of  hm- 
peror  of  the  two  Americas. 

Immediately  after  the  signing  of  this  treaty,  Bonaparte  an- 
nounced  to  the  Queen-Dowager  of  Etruria,  who  was  Regent  for 
her  son  Louis  II.,  that  the  kingdom  no  longer  be  onged  to  him; 
and  that  a  new  destiny  awaited  him  in  Spain.  In  course  of  a 
few  days,  the  French  troops  occupied  Tuscany.  Mana  Louisa 
resigned  the  government,  and  retired  to  Madrid  AH  this  took 
place  after  Bonaparte  had  obtained  orders  that  the  15,000  Span 
lards,  who  were  in  Etruria,  should  be  sent  to  the  islands  of 

^  ATcree  of  the  French  Senate,  of  August  18th  1807,  though 
not  published  till  a  month  after,  suppressed  the  Tribunate,  and 
introduced  other  changes,  intended  to  extinguish  all  traces  of  the 
Republic.  Bv  a  treaty  signed  at  Fountainbleau,  Bonaparte  made 
over  to  his  brother  Louis,  the  principality  of  East  Friesland  and 
the  territory  of  Jever,  in  lieu  of  the  city  and  port  of  Flushing. 

In  terms  of  the  treaty  of  the  27th  October,  30,000  French 
troops,  under  the  command  of  Junot  crossed  the  Pyrenees  in 
two  divisions  ;  and  took  possession  of  Pampeluna,  St.  Sebastians, 
Figu^ras,  and  Barcelona.  The  two  divisions  united  again  at 
Salamanca,  and  being  reinforced  by  13,000  Spaniards  they 
marched  upon  Li.bon  ;  while  40,000  others  assembled  at  Bay- 
onne,  under  the  pretence  of  supporting  their  companions  if  it 
were  necessary,  ^he  Prince  Regent  of  Portugal  embarked  with 
all  his  treasures  (Nov.  29,)  and  departed  for  Brazil.  The  whole 
of  Portugal  was  taken  possession  of;  and  General  Junot  pro- 
claimed that  the  Hou:e  of  Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign  in  bu- 
rope  ;  but  the  French  never  executed  their  scheme  of  partition. 
We  have  already  observed,  what  progress  the  Federative 
system  of  the  French  Empire  had  made  in  1807  by  the  founda- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  and  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
and  by  the  occupation  of  Portugal ;  and  we  shall  next  advert  to 
the  measures  adopted  during  the  same  year  by  Bonaparte,  for 
consolidating  the  Continental  system,  and  by  Great  Bft"'"  /or 
eounleracting  its  effects.    An  order  was  issued  by  the  British 


t.  According  to  a 
between  his  pleni- 
tition  of  Portugal, 
The  most  north- 
Sa,  (who  was  to  sur- 
Icalled  the  kingdom 
mprising  Algaives, 
Godoy.  The  pro- 
id  of  at  the  general 
no  the  title  of  Em- 

saty,  Bonaparte  an- 
who  was  Regent  for 
er  belonged  to  him; 
in.  In  course  of  a 
my.  Maria  Louisa 
drid.  All  this  took 
lat  the  15,000  Span 
It  to  the  islands  of 

it  18th  1807,  though 
the  Tribunate,  and 
■ui.sh  all  traces  of  tiie 
sau,  Bonaparte  made 
f  East  Friesland  and 
port  of  Flushing, 
.ber,  30,000  French 
sed  the  Pyrenees  in 
eluna,  St.  Sebastians, 
ons  united  again  at 
00  Spaniards,  they 
s  assembled  at  Bay- 
eir  companions  if  it 
ugal  embarked  with 
Brazil.  The  whole 
General  Junot  pro- 
ased  to  reign  in  Eu- 
scheme  of  partition. 
ress  the  Federative 
1807,  by  the  founda- 
dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
shall  next  advert  to 
ir  by  Bonaparte,  for 
)y  Great  Britain  for 
isued  by  the  British 


KKIOD  IX.     A.  0.  1802— ISIO. 


508 


Cabinet  (Jan.  7,)  declaring  that  no  neutral  vesse.  would  be  per- 
mitted to  trade  with  any  port  belonging  to  France  or  her  allies, 
or  occupied  by  their  troops,  or  under  their  dependence.  A  de- 
cree, published  at  Warsaw  (Jan.  25,)  ordered  the  confiscation 
of  all  English  merchandise  in  the  Hanseatic  towns,  which  had 
been  occupied  by  the  order  of  Bonaparte.  An  order  of  the  Brit- 
ish Cabinet  (March  11,)  again  prescribed  a  rigorous  blockade  of 
the  mouths  of  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and  the  Ems.  A  declara- 
tion was  made  by  Bonaparte  (Oct.  14,)  in  presence  of  the  foreign 
ambassadors  at  Fountainbleau,  purporting  that  he  would  permit 
no  connexion,  either  commercial  or  diplomatic,  between  the 
Continental  powers  and  England.  An  order  of  the  British 
Cabinet  (Nov.  11,)  declared,  that  all  the  ports  and  places  in 
France,  and  the  countries  in  alliance  with  them,  or  any  other 
country  at  war  with  England,  as  well  as  all  other  ports  and 
places  in  Europe  where  the  British  flag  was  excluded,  though 
not  actually  at  war  with  Great  Britain  ;  and  all  other  ports  and 
places  of  the  colonies  belonging  to  her  enemies,  should  hence 
forth  be  subjected  to  the  same  restrictions  as  if  they  were  really 
under  blockade  ;  and,  consequently,  that  the  vessels  destined 
for  these  ports  should  be  subjected  to  examination  by  the  British 
cruisers  ;  and  required  to  stop  at  a  British  station,  and  pay  a 
duly  proportioned  to  the  value  of  the  cargo.  Another  order  of 
the  British  Cabinet  (Nov.  25,)  modified  the  preceding  declara- 
tion in  favour  of  neutral  vessels,  which  should  come  to  discharge 
either  English  merchandise  or  Colonial  produce  in  the  British 
ports.  A  decree  of  the  17th  December,  called  the  decree  of 
Milan,  because  it  was  issued  at  that  place,  declared,  that  all 
ships  which  should  be  searched  by  a  British  vessel,  or  pay  any 
tax  whatever  at  the  requisition  of  the  English  Government, 
should  be  denationalized,  and  regarded  as  English  property ;  and 
having  thus  forfeited  their  original  and  national  rights,  they 
might  be  lawfully  captured  wherever  found.  The  same  decree 
declared  the  British  Isles  to  be  in  a  state  of  blociiade  both  by  sea 
and  land. 

Having  thus  established  the  Continental  system,  Bonaparte 
used  every  endeavour  to  make  all  the  Continental  Powers  ac- 
cede to  it.  Prussia  and  Russia  adhered  to  it,  after  the  peace  of 
Tilsit.  Denmark  soon  entered  into  this  French  system.  Spain 
acceded  to  it  (Jan.  8,)  Austria  (Feb.  18,  1808,)  and  Sweden 
(Jan.  6,  1810  ;)  so  that,  for  some  years,  the  Continent  of  Eu- 
rope had  no  other  medium  of  communication  with  England  than 
by  way  of  Constantinople.  There  was  one  prince  in  Christen- 
dom, who  refused  his  accession  to  the  Continental  system,  and 
that  was  Pius  VII.     This  sovereign  Pontiff  declared,  that  an 


.!  :■-  r 


M\ 


504 


CHAPTER   ». 


alliance  which  prohibited  all  intercourse  with  a  nation  from 
whom  they  had  suflcred  no  grievance,  was  contrarv  to  religion. 
In  order  to  punish  his  Holiness  for  this  resistance,  &Dneral  Miol- 
lis  had  orders  to  occupy  Rome  (Feb.  2,  1808.)  This  was  the 
commencement  of  a  series  of  aggressions  and  attacks,  by  which 
Bonaparte  vainly  hoped  to  bend  that  great  personage,  lo 
eratify  his  resentment,  he  stripped  the  States  of  the  th«rch,  by 
a  decree  issued  at  St.  Cloud  (April  2,)  of  the  provinces  of  Urbino, 
Ancona,  Macerata  and  Camerino,  which  were  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy. 

In  order  to  add  lustre  to  his  crown,  and  to  attach  his  servants 
to  him  by  the  ties  of  interest,  Bonaparte  resolved,  not  to  re- 
store the  noblesse— though  there  was  no  reason  known  why  he 
should  not— but  to  create  titles  of  nobility  which  should  pass 
ni  hereditary  succession  to  their  descendants.  These  title* 
were  those  of  Princes,  Dukes,  Counts,  Barons,  and  Chevaliers 
or  Knights.  They  were  constituted  by  an  Imperial  statute, 
which  he  transmitted  to  the  Senate ;  for  the  decrees  of  the  Se- 
nate were  seldom  used,  except  in  declaring  the  union  of  territo- 
ries, or  ordering  levies  of  conscripts.  .  .  ,    •  i 

The  spoliation  of  the  Church  appeared  but  a  trivial  violence 
compared  with  that  masterpiece  of  intrigue  and  cunning  by 
which  the  House  of  Bourbon   was  deprived  of  the  throne  ol 
Spain.     The  second  French  army  formed  at  Bayonne,  passed 
the  Pyrenees  about  the  beginning  of  the  year,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Joachim  Murat,  and  advanced  slowly  as  if  it  only 
waited  an  order  to  seize  the  capital.     A  popular  insurrection 
broke  out  at   Madrid,  directed  against  Godoy,   the  Prince  of 
Peace  •  and  Charles  IV.,  who,  from  the  commencement  of  his 
reign,  had  been  disgusted  with  state  affairs,  abdicated  the  crown 
in  favour  of  his  son,  the  Prince  of  Asturias  (March  19,  1808,) 
who  assumed  the  title  of  Ferdinand  VII.     The  intrigues  of  the 
Queen-molher,  who  was  unwilling  to  quit  the  throne,  and  the 
plots  concerted  by  Murat,  soon  embroiled  the  R«yal  Jnmi'y"' 
disputes.     The  French  troops  entered  Madrid  (Mar.  23.)     la- 
king  advantage  of  the  inexperience  of  the  young  monarch,  they 
inveigled  him  into  an  interview  with  Bonaparte  at  Bayonne, 
where  Charles  IV.  and  his  Queen,  allured  by  promises  of  fa- 
vour and  friendship,  likewise  presented  themselves.     This  weak 
prince  there  retracted  his  abdication,  and  ceded  his  dominions 
over  to  Bonaparte  by  a  formal  treaty  (May  5.)     By  threatening 
Ferdinand  VII.  with  death,  they  extorted  from  him  a  similar  de- 
claration (May  10.)    Charles  fV.  his  Queen,  and  the  Prince  of 
Peace  were  conveyed  to  Compeigne,  and  afterwards  lo  Mar- 
seilles. 


'-^mv-^ 


vith  a  nation  from 
ontrary  to  religion. 

nnre,  General  Miol- 
«.)  This  wns  the 
d  attacks,  by  which 
at  personage.  To 
8  of  the  Church,  by 

provinces  of  Urbino, 

rere  annexed  to  the 

)  attach  his  servants 
resolved,  not  to  re- 
ason known  why  he 
which  should  pass 
ants.      These  titles 
rons,  and  Chevaliers 
an  Imperial  statute, 
le  decrees  of  the  Se- 
the  union  of  terrilo- 

ut  a  trivial  violence 
ue  and  cunning  by 
'ed  of  the  throne  of 
at  Bayonne,  passed 
I'ear,  under  the  corn- 
slowly  as  if  it  only 
popular  insurrection 
adoy,  the  Prince  of 
ommencement  of  his 
,  abdicated  the  crown 
IS  (March  19,  1808,) 
The  intrigues  of  the 
the  throne,  and  the 
the  Royal  family  in 
irid  (Mar.  23.)  Ta- 
yroung  monarch,  they 
naparte  at  Bayonne, 
ed  by  promises  of  fa- 
nselves.  This  weak 
ceded  his  dominions 
5.)  By  threatening 
om  him  a  similar  de- 
m,  and  the  Prince  of 
1  after^vards  to  Mar- 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1902-  1810. 


600 


Ferdinand  VII.  nnd  his  brothers  were  imprisoned  in  the  cas- 
tle of  ValcMicny.  Bonnpartt-  conforn-rl  the  throne  of  Spain  on 
his  brother  Joseph  (June'),)  who  wiis  tli«<ii  King  of  Naples.  A 
S|miiisti  Junta,  assembled  nl  Baymuie,  reri'ivpd  a  constitution 
Iroin  the  hands  of  Napoleon.  On  oi)tniiiiiig  the  crown  of  Spain, 
Joseph  made  over  the  kirif,'dotn  of  Naples  to  his  brother,  who  in 
his  turn  resigned  it  to  Miirnt,  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Bnyonne. 
Murat  then  gave  up  the  dutchies  of  Clevos  and  Berg. 

Bonaparte  found  himself  deceived  as  to  the  character  of  the 
Spanish  nation,  when  he  supposed  they  would  tolerate  this  out- 
rage with  impunity.  A  tumult  of  the  inhabitants  of  Madrid 
wns  quelled  by  Murat,  who  ordered  his  troops  to  fire  upon  the 
crowd  (May  2,)  when  upwards  of  1000  people  lost  their  lives. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  same  month,  a  general  insurrection 
broke  out  in  all  those  parts  of  Spain  not  occupied  by  the  enemy. 
This  wos  a  great  annoyance  to  Bonaparte  during  the  rest  of  his 
reign,  and  prevented  him  from  subduing  that  peninsula.  It 
served  as  an  example  nnd  encouragement  to  other  nations  to 
shake  off  his  yoke.  The  Portuguese  rose,  in  imitation  of  their 
neighbour.^.  The  English  sent  supplies  to  both  nations  ;  and 
it  was  beyond  the  Pyrenees  that  Bonaparte  experienced  those 
first  disasters  which  were  the  harbingers  of  his  downfall. 

One  event,  more  remarkable  for  the  pomp  with  which  it  was 
accompanied,  than  for  the  consequences  which  it  produced, 
was  the  interview  which  took  place  at  Erfurt  (Sept.  27,)  be- 
tween the  Emperor  Alexander  nnd  Bonaparte.  What  negotia- 
tions might  have  been  agitated  there,  are  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty ;  but  publicity  has  been  given  to  the  measures  concerted 
in  common  between  Bonaporte  and  Alexander  for  making  over- 
tures of  peace  to  England,  although  they  must  have  foreseen 
that  the  attempt  would  prove  fruitless.  From  that  time  an  in- 
timate friendship  subsisted  for  two  years  between  the  Courts  of 
Russia  and  France. 

The  inconsiderate  haste  with  which  Field-Marshal  Kalkreuth 
had  concluded  the  convention  of  Koningsberg,  and  the  defects 
or  omissions  of  that  act,  furnished  the  agents  of  Bonaparte  with 
numerous  pretexts  for  oppressing  the  Prussian  States  by  per- 
petual aggressions  ;  and  for  continuing  not  only  to  occupy  the 
country,  but  to  impose  taxes  for  the  service  of  France,  without 
deducting  their  amount  from  the  usual  contribution  which  that 
kingdom  had  to  pay.  To  extricate  themselves  from  so  harassing 
a  situation.  Prince  William,  the  King's  brother,  who  had  been 
sent  to  Paris  to  negotiate  for  the  evacuation  of  Prussia,  signed 
a  convention  there  (Sept.  8,)  by  which  the  King  engaged  to 
pay,  at  stated  terms,  the  sum  of  140  000,000  francs.     The  Em 


i>'* 


^j 


iif 


'iw* 


n 


CnAPTBR  Xt. 


606 

peror  Alexatuler,  (UirinR  the  interview  of  Erfurt,  got  .his  miir 
reduced  to  or.e  hundriHl  .u.d  twn.ty  .nillums.  In  n.nseauenc. 
oi  this,  a  new  convention  wtu  signed  at  Berlin  (iNov.  J,)  at- 
cordinR  to  which,  St.-ttin.  Cu«trin.  and  (ihfrm,  were  to  renm.n 
in  the  hands  of  the  French,  as  s.vuriiy  for  puyinenl  of  the  sli- 
puhited  sun. ;  the  rest  of  the  Pru**iun  states  were  evacuated. 

Austria  was  on  the  point  of  entering  into  the  fourth  coalition, 
when  the  peace  of  Tilsit  was  concluded.     From  that  inou.ent 
the  Cahinel  of  Vienna  resolved  to  prepare  for  war  by  s  ow  and 
successive  operations,  which   inijrht  appear  to  be  merely  mea- 
suresof  precaution  ;  more  especially  by  orRanizin<,'  her  armies 
an  better  principles,  and  trainin-  all  the  citizens  to  arms,  by  the 
institution  of  a  militia  called  Li>,dtv^:hr,  that  they  mi^'ht  be  in 
condition  to  act  on  the  spur  of  the  moment.     The  Arch,  uke 
Charles,  who  was  appointed  Generalissimo,  supenntendeil  all 
these  preparations,  and  succeeded  in  reviving  the  courage  of  the 
nation.     Although  these  armaments  could  not  escape  the  notice 
of  the  French  agents,  and  although  in  the  course  of  the  year 
180S,  and  especially  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1&U9,  they 
had  several  times  asked  for  explanations  on  this  subject,  never- 
theless. Count  Sladion  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  depiulment 
for  foreign  aaiiirs,  and  Count  .Metlernich  the  Austrian  minister 
at  Paris,  dissembled  so  well,  that  Bonaparte  never  dreamt  of 
war  till  it  was  on  the  very  point  of  breaking  out.      Ihe  time 
chosen  for  this  was  when  the  French  armies  were  occupied  in 
Spain  and  Portugal. 

Reasons— or  it  may  be  rather  said  pretexts— were  not  want- 
ing to  Austria;  for  undoubtedly  her  true  motive  was,  to  raise 
herself  from  that  state  of  abasement  into  which  she  had  sunk. 
Violations  innumerable  of  the  peace  of  Presburg,  the  organiz- 
ing of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  the  compelling  her  to 
accede  to  the  Continental    System,  and  the  spoliation  of  the 
Bourbons  in  Spain,  were  causes  more  than  sufTicient  to  justity 
her  having  recourse  to  arms.     The  war  which  Austria  under- 
took in  1809,  has  been  called  the  war  of  the  fifth  coalition.     It 
is  true  that  Great  Britain,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  the  King  of 
Sicily,  were  her  allies  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  descent 
which  the  English  made  on  Zealand,  she  had  to  support  alone 
\he  whole  burden  of  the  war.     On  opening  the  campaign,  she 
made  an  appeal  to  the  German  nation,  which  was  answered  by 
the  Kings  of  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Saxony,  by  a  declara- 
tion of  war.  ^  .         u  •     . 
The-Austrians  had  divided  their  forces  uito  three  armies , 
iwo  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men,  under  the  Archduke 
Charles,  were  destined  to  act  in  Germany;  the  Archduke  I'er- 


Erfurt,  goi  (his  suit 
)iiH.     Ill  coiisequen':* 
Berlin  (Nov.  3.)  ac 
nfjiiu,  wero  to  rciiiiiin 
r  payment  of  the  sti- 
es were  evacuiitcd. 
the  fourth  coalition, 
From  that  inouietit 
n  for  war  by  slow  uiid 
•iir  to  he  merely  iiieo- 
(ir<(ani/iiig  her  armies 
'iti/ens  to  arms,  by  the 
that  they  mij,'ht  be  in 
iient.     The  Archduke 
mo,  superintended  all 
ving  the  courage  of  the 
d  not  escape  the  notice 
ihe  course  of  the  year 
f  the  year  1809,  tiiey 
on  this  subject,  never- 
liead  of  the  depnrlment 
1  the  Au.strian  minister 
iparto  never  dreamt  of 
■aking  out.     The  time 
niiies  were  occupied  in 

!texts — were  not  want- 
ue  motive  was,  to  raise 

0  which  she  had  sunk. 
Presburg,  the  organiz- 
,  the  compelling  her  to 

1  the  spoliation  of  the 
lan  sufFicien'.  to  justify 
■  which  Austria  under- 
f  the  fifth  coalition.  It 
pain,  and  the  King  of 
cception  of  the  descent 
e  had  to  support  alone 
ling  the  campaign,  she 
vhich  was  answered  by 
I  Saxony,  by  a  declara- 

ces  into  three  armies ; 
1,  under  the  Archduke 
ny ;  the  Archduke  For- 


MRioD  IX.     ».  P.  1802—1810. 


r>07 


dinand  of  Est/%  with  thirty-six  thousand  men,  wa4  to  penetrate 
through  the  dutchy  of  Warsow  into  Prussia,  where  he  expected 
10  1k'  joined  by  the  troops  of  thot  country.  The  Arcndukt) 
John,  with  eighty  thousand  men,  was  to  enter  Italy.  The 
campaign  was  op»'iied,  on  the  part  of  the  Austrians,  by  the  in- 
vasion of  Bavaria  (April  10,  1809.)  Bonaparte  at  first  beat  the 
Archduke  Louis  and  General  Miller,  who  commanded  two  divi- 
sions, at  Abensberg  (April  20,)  and  thus  cut  them  otf  from  the 
grand  army  under  the  Archduke  Charles.  The  latter  was  him- 
self defeated  at  Eckmiihl  and  Ratisbon,  three  days  after,  and 
ertectcd  his  retreat  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.,  Bona 
parte  then  pursued  Hiller,  who  was  defeated  at  Eberslwrg  (May 
3,)  and  retired  to  Kreins,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  Vi- 
enna in  consoijiience  was  left  defenceless,  and  surrendered  by 
capitulation  (May  13.)  It  was  there  that  Boiia|)arte  passed. the 
Danube,  and  fought  with  the  Archduke  ut  EberdsorlF,  Aspern 
and  Essling,  two  most  sanguinary  engagements  (May  21 — 22,) 
in  which  the  French  lost  30,000  men.  He  then  retired  to  the 
Isle  of  Lobau,  where  his  army,  cut  off  from  provisions  and 
supplies,  pas.sed  forty-eight  hours  in  great  distress,  until  they 
had  succeeded  in  reconstructing  the  bridges  which  the  floods  o( 
the  Danube  had  carried  away.  In  Italy  the  Archduke  John 
had  defeated  Eugene  Beauharnais,  who  commanded  the  French 
army,  at  Sa(,'ile ;  but  being  informed  of  the  defeat  at  Ratisbon. 
he  commenced  his  retreat,  and  was  defeated  near  the  Piave 
(May  8,)  after  which  he  retired  on  the  Kaab,  where  he  was 
again  defeated  (June  14.)  Beauharnais  then  joined  the  army 
of  Napoleon.  The  Archduke  Ferdinand  took  possession  of 
Warsaw,  and  marched  as  far  as  Thorn,  where  he  took  from  the 
Prussians  one  hundred  pieces  of  cannon.  But  an  insurrection 
which  happened  in  the  rear  of  his  army,  obliged  him  to  retreat, 
when  the  Polish  troops  took  possession  of  Cracow  (July  14.) 

About  the  beginning  of  July,  Bonaparte  pas.sed  over  to  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  battle  of  EnzersdorflT,  where  Ber- 
nadotte  and  the  Saxons  distinguished  themselves,  was  bloody, 
but  not  decisive  :  next  day  (July  6,)  the  Archduke  Charles  was 
defeated  at  Wagram,  and  retreated  in  good  order  into  Moravia. 
An  armistice  wos  then  concluded  near  Znaym  (July  12,)  c«i 
conditions  very  oppressive  for  Austria.  But  the  negotiations 
for  peace  were  long  protracted  ;  as  both  parties  were  waiting  the 
result  of  an  expedition  which  the  English  had  made  to  Zealand ; 
and  as  Austria  hoped  that  Prussia,  and  perhaps  even  Russia, 
would  declare  in  her  favour. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Tyrol ;  who  were  very  mnch  attached 
to  the  House  of  Austria,  from  whom  they  had  been  separated  at 


m 


tiif 


i(i*' 


(In'' 


no8 


CHAPTBR  XI. 


ihe  |..ri.T  of  Proshnrsr,  hml  tnkfi.  up  arms  unacr  the  conduct  of 
a..  i!mk...per.  nun.-ul  lloir-r.  By  iho  urnu.tu-e  of  /'"-^y'";  A"- 
•riu  wns  cmiipoll-.l  i..  .ibatulon  ihis  l.r.ivo  people,  whom  th«  Bu- 
varin.is  an.l  the  Fn-nch  loKollier  Im.l  ^real  .litlictiUy  in  reducing 

Id  submission.  ....  ••  •  i     u..  .».„ 

VVoomnot  puss  in  silence  the  bol.l  expedition  made  by  the 
Duke  of  Bruiiiwick,  the  son  and  heir  of  hiin  who  had  command- 
ed at  Jena.  At  the  head  of  a  body  of  volunteers  which  he  had 
forme<t  in  Boh-Mnia,  ho  had  entered  Saxony  when  the  armistice 
was  concluded.  Not  beinff  disposed  to  a-  cede  to  it,  he  traversed 
the  dutchy  of  Brunswick  and  the  whole  of  Lower  Saxony;  beat 
the  Westnhalian  General  Rewbel,  who  had  attempted  to  stop 
his  march  ;  and  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  in  safety,  where 
he  found  transports  which  took  him  and  his  army  on  board,  and 
ronveved  them  to  Enffland.  .  , 

An  Enirlish  fleet,  commanded  by  Sir  Richard  Strachan,  with 
thirty-eight  thousand"  troops,  under  the  command  of  the  barl  ol 
Chatham,  the  brother  of  Mr.  Pitt,  was  despotched  to  Zealand, 
with  the  intent  of  destroying  the  shipping,  dockyards,  and  arse- 
nals at  Antwern  and  Flushing,  and  for  occut.ying  the  Island  o 
Walcheren.     '^hey  landed  in  that  Island  (July  30,   o    which 
thev  took  possession,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  Flushing, 
after  a  siege  of  fifteen  days.     But  Lord  Chatham  fc.un.l  it  im- 
possible  to  execute  his  commission  with  regard  to  Anlwrrp,  on 
account  of  the  activity  of  Marshal  Bernadotte,  ^vho  had  formed 
there  an  army  of  35,000  men.     The  whole  expedition  ^yas  badly 
conducted,  and  in  about  four  months  Lord  Chatham  relumed  to 
England.     The  English  destroyed  the  fortifications  of  b  lushing, 
which  they  were  unable  to  retain.  .  •    .u-    .„„, 

Russia,  as  the  ally  of  France,  likewise  took  part  in  this  war 
A  body  of  troops,  commanded  by  Prince  Gahtzin,  had  entered 
into  Galicia;  but  it  was  merely  a  display,  by  which  Alexander 
meant  to  fulfil  an  engagement  that  he  had  contracted  with  re- 
luttance.  The  peace  between  Austria  and  France  was  signed 
at  Schoenbrunn  (Oct.  14,  1809,)  which  regulated  the  terntorial 
cessions  niade  by  the  former  to  Bonaparte,  the  King  of  Saxony 
and  the  Emperor  of  Russia.  The  very  day  on  which  the  peace 
was  signed,  Bonaparte  united  the  territories  which  had  been 
ceded  to  him  directly  into  a  single  State,  under  the  name  of  the 
lUyrian  Provinces,  which  he  governed  on  his  own  separate  ac 
count,  without  annexing  them  to  France. 

A  de^ee  of  the  Senate,  of  the  2d  March  1809,  erected  the 
government  general  of  the  Tuscan  departments  into  a  grand 
dignity  of  the  Empire,  to  be  conferred  on  a  Princess  of  the  Im- 
perial blood,  under  the  title  of  Grand  Dutchess.     This  lady  was 


) 


Is  urulcr  tho  conduct  of 
liiNtice  of  Ztmytn.  .\n»- 
pt'onle,  whom  th«  Bu- 
ilt dimrulty  in  reJufinu 

xpcilition  made  by  the 

liin  who  had  commund- 

J)lunloera  which  he  had 

)ny  when  the  armistice 

i-edc  to  it,  he  traversed 

f  Lower  Saxony ;  beat 

hnd  attempted  to  stop 

e  Elbe  in  safety,  where 

liis  army  on  board,  and 

Richard  Strachan,  with 

ommand  of  the  Ear!  of 

Jcspatched  to  Zealand, 

g,  dockyards,  and  arse- 

occupyinjj  the  Island  of 

nd  (July '30,)  of  which 

'es  masters  of  Flushing, 

Chatham  found  it  im- 

1  regard  to  Antwerp,  on 

ladotte,  who  had  formed 

ole  expedition  was  badly 

rd  Chatham  returned  to 

srtifications  of  Flushing, 

ie  took  part  in  this  war. 
e  Galitzin,  had  entered 
ly,  by  which  Alexander 
had  contracted  with  re- 
and  France  was  signed 
regulated  the  territorial 
rte,  the  King  of  Saxony 
day  on  which  the  peace 
-itories  which  had  been 
,  under  the  name  of  the 
on  his  own  separate  ac- 

[arch  1809,  erected  the 
partments  into  a  grand 
ti  a  Princess  of  the  Im- 
itchess.     This  lady  was 


riiKioD  IX.     A.  I).  1802—1910, 


600 


iVIadnm  Eliza  Bacciochi,  Princess  of  Lurca  and  Piombino,  who 
was  next  day  decorated  with  tlir  Arch-ducal  tiiic  On  the  sumo 
day,  Napoleon  cedeil  ihe  Urund  Dutchy  nf  Uvr;^  to  his  nephew, 
the  son  of  the  King  of  ilollund  ;  taking  the  government  on  hiu)- 
self  during  the  minority  of  that  child. 

No  outrage  had  been  able  to  overcome  the  |)erseveram'o  cf 
Pius  VII.  Bonaparte  published  a  decree  at  Sclioeidtrutin  (Mny 
n,)by  which  the  States  of  the  Pope  were  annexed  to  the  Frencfi 
Empire,  and  the  city  of  Rome  <lci'lared  a  free  Imperial  city 
The  union  of  the  States  did  take  place;  i)nt  Home  had  no  ap- 
pearance of  a  free  city.  VV^lien  tho  decree  was  put  in  execution 
(June  11,)  the  Pope  published  a  Bullof  exconnniniicatioii  against 
Bonaparte  and  his  adherents,  counsellors,  and  coadjutors.  From 
ihut  moment  the  venerable  captive  was  more  closely  imprisoned. 
On  the  night  of  the  5th  of  July,  ho  was  forcibly  removed  from 
Rome  by  order  of  Napoleon,  and  transferred  to  Grenoble,  and 
thence  to  Savona,  where  he  was  detained  three  years  under 
rigorous  supervision. 

Tho  year  1809  proved  disastrous  for  the  French  arms  by  sea. 
The  captain  of  an  English  vessel,  and  Manjues,  a  Portuguese 
colonel,  took  possession  of  the  Island  of  Cayenne  and  French 
Guiana  (Jan.  12.)  Lieutenaiit-General  Bcckwith  and  Rear-Ad- 
miral Cochrane  took  Mnriinico  by  capitulation  (Feb.  12.)  Ad- 
miral Gambler  and  Lord  Cochrane  destroyed  a  French  fleet, 
commanded  by  the  Vice-Admirnls  Villaumez  and  L'Allcmand 
(April  11,)  in  Basque  Roads,  by  means  of  Congreve  rockets. 
The  French  fort  of  Senegal  fell  mto  the  hands  of  the  English  in 
the  month  of  June  following.  General  Carmichael,  and  a  body 
of  Spaniards  who  had  arrived  from  Portorico,  expelled  the  French 
from  St.  Domingo  (July  7.)  Admiral  Collingwood  and  General 
Oswald  took  possession  of  the  Ionian  Islands  (Oct.  S.) 

Bonaparte  had  now  arrived  at  the  summit  of  his  grandeur, 
but  Providence  had  denied  him  a  family  by  his  wife  Josephine 
Tascher  de  la  Pagerie.  With  the  consent  of  both  parties,  a  de- 
cree of  the  Senate  pronounced  the  dissolution  of  that  marriage 
(Dec.  16 ;)  which  the  ecclesiastical  court  of  Paris  conlirmed. 
Another  decree  of  the  Senate  (Feb.  17,  1810,)  conferred  on  the 
eldest  son  of  the  French  Emperor  the  title  of  King  of  Rome  ; 
ind  ordained,  that  the  Emperor  of  the  French  should  be  crowned 
a  second  time  at  Rotne  within  the  ten  first  years  of  his  reign. 
Bonaparte  soon  after  (April  1,)  espoused  the  Arch-dutchesa  Ma- 
ria Louisa,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria. 

By  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Paris,  between  Bonaparte 
and  Charlea  XIIl.  of  Sweden,  this  latter  prince  regained  posses- 
sion of  Swedish  Pomerania  on  condition  of  acceding  to  the  Con 


hi 


■w 


610 


CHAPTER  XI. 


t>* 


,tl,.. 


tinentnl  system,  though  under  certain  modifiitnlions.  Had  Charles 
executed  this  engagement,  his  kingdom  would  have  been  ruined 
beyond  resource.  The  part  of  the  Hanoverian  States  belonging 
to  the  King  of  England  which  Bonaparte  had  still  reserved  in 
his  own  possession,  was  ceded  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Paris 
(Jan.  14,)  to  his  brother  Jerome,  to  be  incorporated  with  the 
kingdom  of  Westphalia.  Besides  the  dutchy  of  Lauenberg, 
Bonaparte  reserved  to  himself  a  landed  revenue  of  four  millions 
five  hundred  and  fifty-nine  thousand  francs,  for  bestowing  in 
legacies  and  endowments. 

Louis  Bonaparte  had  reluctantly  accepted  the  crown  of  Hol- 
land ;  but  from  the  moment  he  had  placed  it  on  his  head,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  interests  of  the  country;  and  resisted,  as 
far  as  prudence  would  allow,  the  arbitrary  orders  of  his  brother, 
when  he  judged  them  prejudicial  to  the  welfare  of  Holland. 
This  gave  rise  to  frequent  broils,  accompanied  sometimes  with 
threats.  Bonaparte  reproached  the  Dutch  Government,  more 
especially  for  not  earnestly  and  rigorously  enforcing  the  Con- 
tinental system,  so  pernicious  to  their  commerce.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  1910,  things  had  come  to  such  a  state,  that 
it  was  expected  Napoleon  would  cancel  the  kingdom  of  Holland 
from  the  list  of  European  States.  To  avert  this  calamity,  Louis 
signed  a  treaty  at  Paris  (March  16,)  by  which  a  body  of  12,000 
Dutch  and  6000  French  were  to  be  stationed  at  the  mouths  of 
all  the  rivers,  to  protect  the  French  revenue-officers  who  were 
superintending  the  execution  of  Bonaparte's  orders.  Louis 
ceded  to  him  Dutch  Brabant,  Zealand,  and  a  part  of  Gueldres. 
of  which  the  Waal  was  henceforth  to  form  the  frontier.  In  vain 
did  that  excellent  man  hope,  by  so  great  a  sacrifice,  to  repur- 
chase the  independence  of  his  kingdom.  Under  pretext  of  cer- 
tain insults  which  the  French  agents  had  received  at  the  hands 
of  this  exasperated  people,  Bonaparte  sent  a  French  army  to 
occupy  the  whole  country.  Then  Louis  resigned  a  crown 
which  he  could  no  longer  wear  with  honour ;  he  abdicated  in 
favour  of  his  son  (July  3.)  But  Napoleon,  indignant  at  a  mea- 
sure on  which  he  had  not  been  consulted,  annexed  the  kingdom 
of  Holland  to  the  French  Empire,  by  a  decree  dated  at  Kam- 
bouillet  (July  9.) 

Some  months  afterwards,  the  Republic  of  Valais,  which,  since 
the  year  1802,  had  formed  an  independent  State,  was  united  to 
the  French  Empire  by  a  decree  of  Bonaparte  (Nov.  12.)  But 
the  most  important  of  his  usurpations  in  1810,  and  that  which 
was  instrumental  in  working  his  downfall,  wus  the  union  of  the 
H.unseatic  countries  situated  on  the  coasts  of  the  North  Sea,  viz. 
certain  districts  of  W:;stphalia,  and  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Berg 


"ERIOD  IX.      A.  D.    1S02— 18J0. 


511 


lions.  Hrtd  Charles 
I  have  been  ruined 
n  States  belonging 
id  still  reserved  in 
concluded  at  Paris 
>rporated  with  the 
;hy  of  Lauenberg, 
lie  of  four  millions 
,  for  bestowing  in 

the  crown  of  Hol- 
)n  his  head,  he  de- 
;  and  resisted,  as 
lers  of  his  brother, 
eifare  of  Holland, 
d  sometimes  with 
Government,  more 
enforcing  the  Con- 
nerce.  At  the  be- 
)  such  a  state,  thai 
ingdom  of  Holland 
his  calamity,  Louis 
1  a  body  of  12,000 
d  at  the  mouths  of 
-officers  who  were 
!'s   orders.     Louis 

part  of  Gueldres. 

frontier.  In  vain 
lacrifice,  to  repur- 
ider  pretext  of  cer 
eived  at  the  hands 
a  French  army  to 
resigned   a  crown 

;  he  abdicated  in 
ndignant  at  a  mea- 
lexed  the  kingdom 
se  dated  at  Kam- 

/^alais,  which,  since 
tale,  was  united  to 
>  (Nov.  12.)  But 
10,  and  that  which 
i»s  the  union  of  the 
he  North  Sea,  viz. 
d  Dutchy  of  Berg 


some  possession.!  of  the  princes  of  Salm-Salm,  and  Saki-Kyr- 
burg,  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Oldenburg,  the  free  cities  of  Bremen 
and  Hamburg,  as  well  as  the  citv  of  Lubcc  and  the  duti>hy  of 
Lauenburg.  By  a  decree  of  the  Senate  (Dec.  13,)  these  places 
were  declared  united  to  France  ;  the  necessity  of  which  Bona- 
parte had  stated  in  a  message  addressed  to  these  pliant  and  sub- 
missive bodies. 

France  still  retained  possession  of  Guadaloupe,  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon,  and  the  Mauritius.  The  year  1810,  in  which  the 
greatness  of  Bonaparte  in  Europe  reached  its  summit,  deprived 
him  of  these  possessions.  General  Beckwith  and  Admiral 
Cochrane,  attacked  and  seized  Guadaloupe.  An  expedition 
sent  by  Lord  Minto,  the  English  Governor-General  in  India 
and  a  thousand  men  from  the  Cape,  reduced  the  Isle  of  B..  ur- 
bon  (July  7,)  and  that  of  the  Mauritius  some  months  after. 

It  will  now  be  necessary  to  point  out  some  of  the  modifica- 
tions wlich  the  Continental  system  underwent.  The  English 
had  shov  n  some  disposition  to  put  an  end  to  that  unnatural  stale 
of  commerce  which  preceding  measures  had  established.  They 
first  modified  the  Orders  of  1807  regarding  America;  so  that 
the  Americans  were  permitted,  under  certain  conditions,  to  carry 
on  trade  in  all  ports  subject  to  French  influence,  which  were 
not  actually  under  blockade  ;  and  the  law  of  blockade  was  even 
restricted  to  the  ports  of  Holland  and  France,  and  those  of  the 
northern  part  of  Italy,  between  Pesaro  and  Orbitello.  The 
clause  in  the  decree  of  11th  November,  relative  to  the  payment 
of  a  compulsory  duty  in  England,  was  abolished. 

A  new  era  in  the  Continental  system  began  with  a  decree  of 
Bonaparte  (Aug.  7,)  known  by  the  name  of  The  Decree  or  Tariff 
of  Trianon.  A  second,  by  way  of  supplement,  was  issued 
from  St.  Cloud  (Sept.  12.)  Making  a  distinction  between  the 
trade  and  the  produce  of  the  colonies  ;  and  availing  himself  of 
the  universal  custom  which  had  rendered  the  latter  among  the 
necessaries  of  life,  he  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  this  cir- 
cumstance to  replenish  his  treasury,  by  permitting  their  impor- 
tation on  paying  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  50  per  cent.  A  third 
decree,  signed  at  Fontainbleau,  ordered  all  English  merchandise, 
found  in  France  or  her  dependencies,  to  be  seized  and  burnt. 
At  that  time,  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Germany,  were 
covered  with  bonfires,  which  destroyed  the  property  of  native 
merchants,  and  opened  a  new  prospect  for  English  manufactures 
one  day  to  replace  the  articles  that  wore  thus  wantonly  consumed. 

We  shall  now  give  a  short  outline  of  the  most  remarkable 
events  that  took  place  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  during  this  period 
of  French  preponderance. 


51-2  CHAPTBR   XI. 

For  more  than  six  years  Portugal,  by  means  of  the  pecuniary 
sacrifices  which  she  had  made  to  the  French  crown,  haJ  maiu- 
tanied  iier  neutrality  between  France  and  England.  But  as  she 
had  betrayed  her  predilection  for  England  during  the  Prussian 
war,  her  ruin  was  determined  oti ;  and  as  she  could  no  longer 
I'onceal  from  herself  the  danger  of  her  position,  the  Prince  Ke- 
)7ent  entered  into  a  strict  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  by  a  con- 
vention signed  at  London  (Oct.  22,  1807.)  General  Junot  had 
taken  possession  of  the  country  after  the  Roy.il  family  had  em- 
barked for  Brazil ;  and  solemnly  declared,  that  the  House  of 
Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign  in  Europe  (Feb.  1,  1808.)  Fol- 
lowing the  example  of  the  Spaniards,  the  Portuguese  soon  shook 
off  the  yoke  of  the  oppressor.  The  city  of  Oporto  gave  the  first 
signal  of  insurrection  (June  6  ;)  an  English  army,  commanded 
by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  landed  in  Mondego  Bay  (July  31,)  and 
defeated  Junot  at  Vimeiro  (Aug.  21.)  The  French  General, 
whose  army  was  reduced  to  a  most  distressing  state,  obtained 
from  General  Dalrymple,  who  had  taken  the  command  of  the 
Engli.«h  troops,  a  capitulation  on  very  honourable  terms,  wliich 
was  concluded  at  Cintra  (Aug.  30.)  Junot,  and  his  troops,  were 
conveyed  to  France  in  English  vessels. 

The  Russian  Admiral  Siniawin  was  not  so  fortunate.  He 
was.  then  lying  in  the  Tagus  with  a  fleet  of  nine  ships  of  the 
line,  and  a  frigate,  which  had  been  employed  in  the  war  against 
the  Turks  in  the  Archipelago,  and  found  himself  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  surrendering  his  fleet  to  Sir  Charles  Cotton  the  Eng- 
lish Admiral  (Sept.  3,)  which  was  not  to  be  restored  to  the  Em- 
peror until  the  conclusion  of  a  pacific  treaty  between  Russia  and 
Great  Britain.  The  convention  of  Cintra,  of  which  the  true 
circumstances  are  not  well  known,  excited  so  great  a  discontent 
in  England,  that  Sir  Heu  Dalrymple  and  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley 
were  called  home,  that  an  investigation  might  be  made  into  thi.i 
unpopular  measure. 

During  their  absence,  and  after  the  affair  of  Corunna,  Soult 
received  orders  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Portugal,  where  there 
were  not  more  than  8000  English  troops,  under  the  command  of 
General  Craddock,  and  an  army  of  the  natives.  At  the  head  of 
23,000  men  he  marched  towards  Chaves,  and  took  possession  of 
that  place  (March  7,)  which  is  one  of  the  frontier  fortresses  of 
the  kingdom.  But  on  his  arrival  at  Oporto  he  encountered  the 
Portuguese  army,  who  for  three  days  disputed  with  him  the 

EDSsession  of  the  place.  Here  he  remained  a  full  month  before 
e  durst  proceed  on  his  march.  Meantime  General  Wellesley 
had  landed  at  Lisbon  with  a  new  English  army.  He  manoju- 
wed  so  well  that  by  the  end  of  May,  Soult  was  obliged  to  retire 


IS  of  the  pecuniary 
1  crown,  hai  maiu- 
ghind.  But  as  she 
uring  the  Prussian 
he  could  no  Inneer 
on,  the  Prince  Re- 
t  Britain,  by  a  con- 
General  Junot  had 
yal  family  had  em- 
that  the  House  of 
eb.  1,  1808.)  Fol- 
tuguese  soon  shook 
)porto  gave  the  first 
1  army,  commanded 
Bay  (July  31,)  and 
e  French  General, 
sing  state,  obtained 
be  command  of  the 
irable  terms,  which 
and  his  troops,  were 

;  so  fortunate.  He 
of  nine  ships  of  the 
d  in  the  war  against 
imself  under  the  ne- 
les  Cotton  the  Eng- 
restored  to  the  Em- 
between  Russia  and 
,  of  which  the  true 
30  great  a  discontent 
ir  Arthur  Wellesley 
ht  be  made  into  thii) 

r  of  Gorunna,  Soult 
ortugal,  where  there 
ider  the  command  of 
ires.  At  the  head  of 
id  took  possession  of 
frontier  fortresses  of 
I  he  encountered  the 
puted  with  him  the 
1  a  full  month  before 
J  General  Wellesley 
army.  He  manceu- 
was  obliged  to  retire 


Tr 


PERIOD  a.    A.  D.  1803—1810. 


513 


into  Galicia,  with  the  loss  of  his  artillery  an'  baggage.  Next 
ycai  the  French  sent  a  third  expedition  to  Po  tugal,  bat  as  this 
belt  gs  more  properly  to  the  war  in  Spain,  v  c  shall  take  o'-ca- 
sion  to  notice  it  afterwards.  After  the  retreat  of  Soult,  the  For- 
tuguese  acted  a  considerable  part  in  the  liberation  of  Europt* 
General  Wellesley,  who  was  intruisted  with  very  extensive 
powers,  organized  their  army,  and  augmented  it  to  40,000  m<>», 
wiih  the  assistance  of  600,000/.  Sterling,  which  England  fur 
nished  for  that  purpose. 

The  connexion  between  Great  Britain  and  Portugal,  became 
still  more  intimate  bj'  the  treaty  of  alliance  which  was  conclu- 
ded at  Rio  Janeiro  (Feb.  19, 1811.)  George  III.  there  promised 
never  to  recognise  any  King  of  Portugal  but  the  heir  and  legiti- 
mate representative  of  the  House  of  Braganza.  The  Regent 
granted  Britain  the  right  of  building  ships  of  war  in  Brazil,  and 
of  supplying  themselves  with  timber  for  the  purpose  from  the 
forests  of  that  country  ;  and  by  abrogating  certain  former  stipu- 
lations, he  agreed  to  receive  into  his  ports  as  many  British  ves- 
sels as  chose  to  enter.  The  Regent  likewise  promised  to  co- 
operate with  England  for  the  abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade ;  and 
this  is  the  first  example  of  a  stipulation  of  the  kind.  Together 
with  this  treaty  there  was  also  concluded  a  treaty  of  commerce. 
Towards  the  end  of  1810  Portugal  became  the  theatre  of  war, 
as  we  shall  observe  when  we  come  to  speak  of  Spain. 

Charles  IV.  King  of  Spain,  had  flattered  himself  that  by  sub- 
mitting to  the  payment  of  subsidies  to  France,  according  to  the 
treaty  of  October  30,  1803,  he  would  be  exempted  from  the  ne- 
cessity of  taking  part  in  the  war  which  had  broken  out  between 
Bonaparte  and  England ;  and  it  was  on  the  faith  of  this  that 
the  latter  power  had  commenced  hostilities.  Four  Spanish 
ships  returning  to  Europe,  loaded  with  treasures  and  valuable 
merchandise  from  South  America,  were  seized  off  Cape  St. 
Mary  (Oct.  5,  1804,)  by  an  English  squadron.  After  that  act 
of  hostility,  which,  but  for  the  negotiation  that  had  preceded  it, 
might  have  been  regarded  as  a  violation  of  the  law  of  nations, 
Charles  IV.  declared  war  against  England  (Dec.  12 ;)  and  the 
following  year  he  had  the  mortification  to  see  his  marine  totallv 
destroyed  by  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  which  Admiral  Nelson 
gained  over  the  combined  fleets  of  Gravina  and  Villeneuve. 

In  1806  the  English  made  an  attempt  to  get  possession  of  the 
Spanish  colony  of  Buenos  Ayres.  Tne  expedition  sailed  from 
St.  Helena  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Sir  Home  Popham. 
The  troops  were  commanded  by  General  Beresford.  Buenos 
Ayrea  capitulated  on  the  2d  July ;  there  the  English  found  nn* 
merous  treasures  which  were  transported  to  Europe ;  but  t.n 

33 


•1   .(« 


m 


i^i' 


'  H,-! 


hi 


VM 


I  i■^ 


514 


CHAPTER  XI. 


incunection  of  the  inhabitants,  headed  by  a  Spaniard  named 
Puerido"  and  Liniers  a  native  of  France,  obliged  General  Beres- 
ford  to  surrender  himself  and  his  troops  prisoners  of  war  (Aug. 
12.^  Admiral  Popham  took  possession  of  Maldonado  (Oct.  29,} 
where  he  remained  in  expectation  of  the  supplies  which  he  f  x- 

Scted  to  come  from  England.  General  Auchmuty  landed  m. 
aldonado  in  the  beginning  of  the  following  year,  and  took  the 
town  of  Monte  Video  by  assault  (Feb.  2.)  New  reinforcements 
having  arrived  from  England,  General  Whitelocke  again  attack- 
ed Buenos  Ayres,  and  penetrated  into  the  town  (July  5 ;)  but 
Liniers,  at  the  head  of  the  Spaniards,  made  so  able  a  defence, 
that  the  English  General  signed  a  capitulation,  by  which  he  v»b- 
tained  the  restitution  of  all  British  prisoners  ;  and  the  English 
promised  to  evacuate  Monte  Video  within  the  space  of  two 
months. 

Charles  IV.  and  his  minister,  during  the  war  with  Prussia, 
had  shown  a  desire  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  Bonaparte.  By 
signing  at  Fontainbleau  the  partition  of  Portugal,  they  opened 
a  way  for  the  French  armies  into  Spain,  who  took  possession  of 
St.  Sebastian,  Pampelunn,  Figueras,  and  Barcelona  ;  and  were 
even  masters  of  Madrid  while  one  part  of  the  Spanish  army 
were  occupied  in  Portugal,  and  the  other  in  Denmark.  The  con- 
sequences of  these  imprudences  were,  the  overturning  of  Spain, 
and  the  dethronement  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  as  we  have 
noticed  above. 

When  the  Spaniards  rose  in  rebellion  against  the  royal  intru- 
der, they  formed  themselves  into  Juntas,  or  directorial  commit- 
tees, in  every  province.  That  of  Seville,  which  was  composed 
of  enterprising  men,  took  the  lead  in  the  insurrection,  declared 
war  against  Bonaparte  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  con- 
cluded an  armistice  with  England.  Their  authority  was  not 
acknowledged  by  the  Provincial  Juntas,  each  of  which  had  set 
on  foot  an  army  of  their  own.  All  these  armies  engaged  the 
French  troops  wherever  they  met  them,  and  were  very  often 
vanquished.  The  insurrection  did  not  come  to  a  head  till  after 
the  battle  of  Baylen  (July  20,  1808,)  where  14,000  French 
troops,  under  Generals  Dupont  and  Vidal,  laid  down  their  arms. 
Castanos,  to  whom  this  success  was  owing,  was  then  appointed 
Generalissimo  ;  and  the  Junta  organized  a  Regency,  at  the  head 
of  which  they  placed  the  old  Cardinal  de  Bourbon.  There  were 
two  other  events  which  greatly  encouraged  the  Spaniards ;  the 
one  was  the  expulsion  of  Le  Febvre  from  Saragossa  by  General 
Palafox,  and  the  other  the  arrival  of  the  Marquis  de  la  Romana 
at  Corunna  with  7000  men,  who  had  been  conveyed  to  the  ic- 
land  of  Funen  for  invading  Sweden,  but  had  embarked,  m  spite 
of  the  French,  to  come  to  the  assistanco  of  their  country 


a  Spaniard  named 
ged  General  Beres- 
oners  of  war  (Aug. 
aldonado  (Oct.  29,) 
pplies  which  he  ex- 
uchmuty  landed  at 
T  year,  and  took  ilie 
ew  reinforcements 
elocke  again  attack- 
town  (July  5 ;)  but 
e  80  able  a  defence, 
ion,  by  which  he  ob- 
s  ;  and  the  English 
n  the  space  of  two 

le  war  with  Prussia, 
of  Bonaparte.  By 
ortugal,  they  opened 
10  took  possession  of 
Jarcelona ;  and  were 
f  the  Spanish  urmy 
Denmark.  The  con- 
verturning  of  Spain, 
Jourbon,  as  we  have 

fainst  the  royal  intru- 
r  directorial  commit- 
which  was  composed 
insurrection,  declared 
jinand  VII.,  and  con- 
lir  authority  was  not 
ich  of  which  had  set 
I  armies  engaged  the 
and  were  very  often 
ne  to  a  head  till  after 
here  14,000  French 
laid  down  their  arms. 
r,  was  then  appointed 
Regency,  at  the  head 
Jourbon.  There  were 
d  the  Spaniards ;  the 
Saragossa  by  General 
arquis  de  la  Romana 
n  conveyed  to  the  le- 
ad embarked,  m  spite 
"  their  country 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1803~1810. 


515 


Joseph  Bonaparte  having  abandoned  Madrid  and  retired  to 
Burgos  (Aug.  1,)  a  Central  Junta  was  established  at  Araniucz. 
This  Junta  raised  three  armies:  that  of  the  North,  under  Blake 
and  Romanu  ;  that  of  the  Centre,  under  Castanos ;  and  that  of 
Arragon,  under  Palafox.  Immediately  after  the  interview  at 
Erfurt,  Bonaparte  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  which 
had  been  increased  to  180,000  men  ;  and  after  gaining  several 
advantages  over  the  enemy,  he  sent  back  his  brother  Joseph  to 
Madrid.  Meantime,  two  divisions  of  the  English  army  having 
arrived,  the  one  from  Lisbon,  and  the  other  from  Corunna,  they 
formed  a  junction  in  the  province  of  Leon,  under  the  command 
of  Sir  John  Moore.  Bonaparte  marched  against  them,  but  they 
thought  it  prudent  to  retire.  Having  arrived  at  Astorga,he  re- 
ceived intelligence  of  the  preparations  of  the  Austrians,  when 
he  set  out  for  Paris,  leaving  the  command  of  the  army  to  Soult, 
who  obliged  the  English  to  embark  at  Corunna,  after  a  severe 
engagement  in  which  Sir  John  Moore  lost  his  life.  A  treaty  of 
peace  and  alliance  was  signed  at  London  between  England  and 
the  Supreme  Junta,  acting  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.  (Jan. 
14,  1809.)  England  sent  into  Portugal  a  new  army,  under  the 
command  of  Sir  A.  Wellesley.  The  second  siege  of  Saragossa. 
which  was  undertaken  first  by  Junot,  and  continued  by  Lannes, 
vas  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  events  in  modern  war.  The 
garrison,  commanded  by  Palafox,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  place 
who  were  completely  devoted  to  him,  performed  prodigies  of 
valour.  When  the  French  took  the  city  (Feb.  21,)  it  presented 
nothing  but  a  mass  of  ruins.  It  was  calculated  that  above  100,000 
men  perished  in  that  siege. 

Marshal  Victor  defeated  Cuesta  at  Medellin  (March  28,)  and 
Suchet  defeated  General  Blake  at  Belchite  (June  16 :)  but  Soult, 
who  had  penetrated  into  Portugal,  was  repulsed  by  Wellesley^ 
who  fought  the  bloody  battle  of  Talavera  with  Marshals  Jourdan 
and  Victor,  which  turned  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  French. 
The  misconduct  of  the  army  of  Cuesta,  which  had  been  con- 

t'oined  with  that  of  Wellesley  in  this  battle,  determined  the  latter 
lenceforth  to  carry  on  a  defensive  war  with  the  English  and 
Portuguese  alone ;  and  to  leave  to  the  Spaniards  the  care  of 
occupying  the  French,  by  harassing  their  troops  incessantly, 
destroying  their  convoys  and  magazines,  and  surprising  their 
entrenchments.  The  battle  of  Ocana  (Nov.  19,)  which  Cuesta 
fought  with  General  Mortier  and  lost,  was  the  last  pitched  bat- 
tle which  the  Spaniards  fought.  From  that  time  they  confined 
themselves  to  a  Guerilla  warfare,  by  which  they  did  infinite 
damage  to  the  enemy 

In  1809,  the  Central  Junta  retired  to  Seville.     Towards  the 


■^0^ 


■rp" 


>i.< 


il 

's.   ' 

#■'' 

■'  ih 


516 


CHAFTER  XJ. 


end  of  the  year,  they  were  replaced  by  an  Executive  Directory 
uf  nine  membera;  and  next  year  these  were  superseded  in  their 
turn  by  a  Regency  of  five  members,  which  was  established  at 
Cadiz.  An  assembly  of  the  Cortes  was  summoned  to  meet 
there,  the  members  of  which  were  nominated,  not  by  the  clergy, 
the  nobility,  and  the  cities,  which  composed  the  legitimate  States 
of  Spain,  out  by  the  great  body  of  the  inhabitants.  That  assem- 
bly, who  could  do  no  more  for  the  defence  of  their  country,  em- 
ployed themselves  in  establishing  a  democratic  constitution  in 
Spain,  destroying  by  degrees  all  the  institutions  of  the  monarchy. 

Soult,  who  was  commander-in-chief  of  tho  army  of  the  South, 
conquered  the  whole  of  Andalusia  in  1810,  with  the  exception 
of  Cadiz,  which  Victor  had  in  vain  attempted  to  besiege.  The 
principal  efforts  of  the  French  were  then  turned  towards  Portu- 
gal ;  and  on  this  occasion  Massena  was  ordered  to  undertake 
the  reduction  of  that  country,  at  the  head  cf  70,000  men.  Junot 
laid  siege  to  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  which  surrendered  after  a  vigorous 
defence  (July  10.)  Almeida  was  likewise  obliged  to  capitulate 
a  few  weeks  after  (August  27.)  These  conquests  were  made, 
without  any  apparent  wish  on  the  part  ofthe  English  commander, 
recently  created  Lord  Wellington,  to  prevent  them.  He  had 
then  begun  to  carry  into  execution  the  plan  of  defensive  warfare 
which  he  had  conceived  after  the  battle  of  Talavera.  In  the 
spring  he  was  stationed  on  the  Coa,  and  began  to  retreat  after 
the  fall  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  ;  nor  did  he  stop  till  he  had  reached 
Torres  Vedras.  Four  months  were  employed  in  effecting  this 
slow  tetrograde  march.  Massena  followed  him  every  step,  suf- 
fering from  continual  fatigue  and  daily  skirmishes ;  and  strug- 
gling against  amine,  as  the  English  army  had  destroyed  every 
thing  that  lay  in  their  way.  Towards  the  end  of  October,  Lord 
Wellington  took  up  an  impregnable  position,  where  for  four 
months  the  French  General  found  all  his  manceuvres  unsuccess- 
ful Lord  Wellington  took  advantage  of  this  interval  to  secure 
considerable  reinforcements  which  arrived  from  Lisbon.  He  was 
thus  prepared  to  fall  upon  his  adversary,  when  the  impossibility 
of  subsisting  longer  in  an  exhausted  country  should  at  length 
compel  him  to  retreat. 

When  giving  a  summary  of  the  history  of  France,  we  spoke 
of  the  renewal  of  hostilities  between  Bonaparte  and  Great  Britain 
in  1803,  as  well  as  of  the  part  which  the  latter  took  in  the  Con- 
tinental wars  of  1805,  1807,  and  1809.  The  efforts  which  she 
had  made  to  support  these  expenses,  added  a  frightful  increase 
to  her  national  debt ;  but  the  constantly  increasing  progress  of 
her  commerce  furnished  her  with  the  means  of  meeting  this 
enormous  expenditure      In  vain  had  Bonaoarte  expected  to  rain 


PKRior  IX.     A.  0.  1802—1810. 


617 


Executive  Directory 

superseded  in  their 

was  established  at 

summoned  to  meet 

d,  not  by  the  clergy, 

[the  legitimate  States 

roitants.  That  assem- 

Jof  their  country,  em- 

cratic  constitution  in 

ons  of  the  monarchy- 

o  army  of  the  South, 

),  with  the  exception 

ted  to  besiege.     I'he 

irned  towards  Portu- 

irdered  to  undertake 

f  70,000  men.  Junot 

Jered  after  a  vigorous 

obliged  to  capitulate 

onquests  were  made, 

!  English  commander, 

vent  them.     He  had 

1  of  defensive  warfare 

of  Talavera.     In  the 

began  to  retreat  after 

op  till  he  had  reached 

loyed  in  effecting  thie 

d  him  every  step,  suf- 

cirmishes ;  and  strug- 

T  had  destroyed  every 

end  of  October,  Lord 

ition,  where  for  four 

(lantBuvres  unsuccess- 

this  interval  to  secure 

from  Lisbon.    He  was 

irhen  the  impossibilitv 

ntry  should  at  length 

of  France,  we  spoke 
arte  and  Great  Britain 
atter  took  in  the  Con- 
Fhe  efforts  which  she 
d  a  frightful  increase 
icreasing  progress  of 
eans  of  meeting  this 
oarte  expected  to  i  uin 


the  industry  of  England  by  the  Continental  system.  In  the 
Fionch,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  culonie;-;  which  she  conquered,  she 
found  new  channels  to  supply  the  place  of  those  which  were 
shut  against  her  on  the  Continent  of  Europe.  The  Empire  of 
the  sea  still  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  British ;  and,  in 
1807,  they  annihilated  the  marine  of  Denmark,  the  only  king- 
dom which  then  retained  any  maritime  power.  But  of  this  cir- 
cumstance we  shall  speak  hereafter. 

The  year  1806  is  remarkable  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade  in  the  English  colonies.  Since  1785,  the  Blacks  had  found 
zealous  advocates  in  the  British  Parliament,  amongst  whom  Fox, 
Wilberforce,  and  Pitt,  were  the  most  distinguished.  But  the 
British  Government,  too  sagacious  to  enter  precipitately  into  a 
measure  which  might  endanger  the  fortun-;  of  the  planters,  and 
even  the  tranquillity  of  the  colonies,  wishfd  first  to  consult  ex- 
perience on  the  subject,  and  to  leave  the  proprietors  time  to  pre- 
pare themselves  for  a  different  order  of  things.  For  twenty 
years  they  had  refused  to  adopt  the  bill  which  Mr.  Wilberforce 
regularly  laid  before  the  Parliament,  to  demand  restrictive  laws 
against  the  trade.  It  was  not  until  Mr.  Fox  and  Lord  Grenville 
entered  into  the  ministry,  that  this  question  occupied  their  serious 
deliberations.  An  Act  of  Parliament,  ratified  by  the  King  (May 
16,  1806,)  forbade  the  exportation  of  slaves  from  the  Englisn 
colonies,  and  conveying  them  into  foreign  colonies.  A  Bill  of 
the  6th  February  1807,  which  was  ratified  by  the  King  on  the 
17th  March  following,  enacted,  that  the  slave  trade  should  ac- 
tually cease  from  the  date  of  May  1st  ensuing ;  providing,  how- 
ever, that  vessels  already  departed  fn  the  trade  should  be  allowed 
to  import  slaves  into  the  West  Indies  until  the  1st  January  1808 

Of^  all  the  countries  which  were  brought  under  the  yoke  of 
Napoleon,  the  most  unfortunate  without  dispute  was  Holland. 
Her  commerce,  the  only  resource  of  her  numerous  inhabitants, 
was  annihilated  by  the  Continental  system  ;  her  finances  were 
in  such  a  state  of  disorder,  that,  in  spite  of  all  their  economy, 
the  annual  deficit  was  regularly  about  twenty  millions  of  flo- 
rins :  her  inhabitants  were  harassed  as  much  by  the  soldiers  of 
Bonaparte  as  by  his  revenue  officers ;  and  as  if  nature,  in  con- 
cert with  political  oppression,  had  conspired  her  ruin,  her  soil 
was  laid  waste,  and  her  industry  destroyed  by  periodical  inun 
dations,  fires,  and  other  calamities.  Such  is  the  picture  which 
that  wrretched  country  presented  up  to  the  moment  when  Bona- 
parte extinguished  the  feeble  remains  of  independence  which  it 
enjoy«d.  After  various  alterations,  that  Republic  obtained  a 
constitution  similar  to  that  which  had  existed  in  France  since 
1804.     M.  Schimmelpennink  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  go 


•^*' 


if 


m> 


«:  '" 


■■«* 


518 


CHAPTER  XI. 


vemment  (April  1806,)  under  tlio  title  of  Grand  Pensionary 
and  vested  with  such  powers  as  the  last  Stadtholders  had  never 
exercised,  e\en  after  the  revolution  of  1788.  We  have  already 
observed  how  this  power,  together  with  the  Royal  title,  were 
rendered  hereditary  in  favour  of  Louis  Bonaparte ;  and  how 
the  Dutch  monarchy  vanished  at  the  fiat  of  Napoleon. 

Switzerland,  with  the  exception  of  some  partial  commotions 
which  are  scarcely  worthy  of  remark,  had  remained  tranquil 
under  the  system  of  government  which  Boncparte  had  pre- 
scribed in  the  act  of  mediation  (Feb.  19,  1803.)  The  Conti- 
nental System,  and  the  prohibition  laid  on  the  greater  part  ol 
Swiss  commo<lities  in  France,  paralyzed  their  industry  and 
their  commerce ;  and  caused  many  of  the  inhabitants  to  emi 
grate,  who  for  the  most  part  directed  their  course  towards  North 
America.  A  treaty  which  General  Ney  had  signed  at  Friburg 
(Sept.  27,)  regulated  the  connections  between  France  and  the 
Helvetic  Confederation,  in  a  manner  more  advantageous  for  that 
country  than  in  the  time  of  the  Directory.  Bonaparte  was  sa- 
tisfied with  a  defensive  alliance  ;  but  the  Swiss  agreed  to  im- 
port from  the  mines  of  France  their  stock  of  salt,  which  they 
had  till  then  been  in  the  habit  of  receiving  partly  from  Bavaria 
This  stock  amounted  to  two  hundred  thousand  quintals  per  an 
num  ;  and  the  revenue  which  France  derived  from  furnishing 
this  article,  was  sufficient  to  support  more  than  20,000  troops. 
At  the  same  time  a  military  capitulation  wa?.  signed,  by  which 
Bonaparte  took  into  his  service  sixteen  thous^^nd  Swiss  volun- 
teers. It  must  appear  astonishing,  that  in  this  nation  of  war- 
riors, a  sufficient  number  could  not  be  found  to  make  up  the 
complement  of  16,000  men.  The  incomplete  state  of  the  Swiss 
regiments  was  a  subject  of  perpetual  complaint  with  Bonaparte. 

The  number  of  the  Italian  States  had  been  perpetually  di- 
minishing ;  and  about  the  time  of  which  we  now  speak,  that 
peninsula  was  entirely  subjected  to  the  influence  of  Bonaparte, 
and  divided  nominally  between  France,  Naples,  and  the  kingdom 
of  Italy ;  excepting  the  small  Republic  of  St.  Marino,  which 
preserved  its  independence  in  the  midst  of  the  general  convulsion. 
The  Italian  Republic,  which  since  the  year  1805  had  borne  the 
title  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  was  oppressed  by  the  enormous 
load  of  contributions  which  were  exacted  for  the  support  of  the 
French  troops,  as  well  as  by  payments  for  the  civil  list  of  the 
King  and  his  viceroy.  That  country  submitted  with  great  im- 
patience to  the  law  of  the  military  conscription,  which  was  con- 
♦.rary  to  the  feelings  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants.  It  obtained 
considerable  aggrandizements  after  the  peace  of  Presburg  by 

die  union  of  the  Venetian  provinces  in  1807,  and  by  that  of  t}»»- 


K^r^ili^ir^tui 


tpi    mi 


jGrand  Pensionary 
thoiders  had  never 
We  have  already 
ic  Royal  title,  were 
>naparte ;  and  hnv> 
Napoleon, 
partial  commotions 
remained  tranquii 
loncparte  had  pre- 
1803.)    The  Conti- 
the  greater  part  ol 
their   industry  and 
inhabitants  to  emi 
)ur3e  towards  North 
il  signed  at  Friburg 
en  France  and  the 
ivantageous  for  that 
Bonaparte  was  sa- 
5wiss  agreed  to  im- 
;  of  salt,  which  they 
partly  from  Bavaria 
and  quintals  per  an 
'ed  from  furnishing 
than  20,000  troops. 
1?.  signed,  by  which 
>usu.nd  Swiss  volun- 
I  this  nation  of  war- 
md  to  make  up  the 
te  state  of  the  Swiss 
lint  with  Bonaparte. 
been  perpetually  di- 
we  now  speak,  that 
uence  of  Bonaparte, 
les,  and  the  kingdom 
St.  Marino,  which 
!  general  convulsion. 
1805  had  borne  the 
d  by  the  enormous 
r  the  support  of  the 
■  the  civil  list  of  the 
itted  with  great  im- 
ion,  which  was  con- 
>itants.    It  obtained 
ace  of  Presburg  by 
',  and  by  that  of  tlif 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810. 


51<J 


four  provinces  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States  ;  but  those  accessions 
miide  no  addition  to  its  happiness.  Eugene  Beauhariiuis,  dig- 
nifit'J  with  the  title  of  Prince  of  Venice,  was  proclaimed  heir 
to  the  throne  of  Italy,  failing  the  male  desceiidiuiis  of  Bonaparte. 

The  kingdom  of  Naples  was  overthrown  about  the  beginning 
of  1S06.  Ferdinand  iV.,  had  retired  to  Sicily,  and  Joseph  Bo- 
naparte was  put  in  his  place  ;  but  he  had  occupied  that  unstable 
throne  only  two  years,  when  he  exchanged  it  for  another  still 
more  insecure.  But  before  surrendering  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
to  Joachim  Murat  who  was  appointed  his  successor  (June  28, 
1808,)  he  wished  to  immortalize  his  nam  by  giving  a  new  con- 
stitution to  that  kingdom,  which  was  guaranteed  by  Bonaparte. 
The  attempts  which  Murat  made  to  conquer  Sicily  proved 
abortive. 

Germany  had  experienced  two  complete  revolutions  in  course 
of  the  nine  years  of  which  we  have  given  a  short  summary 
The  constitution  of  the  Germanic  Empire  was  changed  in  se- 
veral essential  respects  by  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation  of 
Ratisbon.  Of  all  the  ecclesiastical  princes  that  belonged  to  the 
Germanic  body,  one  only  was  retained,  viz.  the  Elector,  Arch- 
Chancellor,  who  took  the  place  of  the  ancient  Elector  of  May- 
ence ;  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  was  secu- 
larized. The  territories  of  the  rest,  as  well  as  the  revenues  of 
all  ecclesiastical  endowments,  mediate  or  immediate,  were  em- 
ployed either  to  indemnify  the  hereditary  princes  who  had  lost 
the  whole  or  a  part  of  their  estates  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
or  to  aggrandize  those  whom  the  policy  of  Bonaparte  chose 
to  favour.  In  place  of  the  two  Ecclesiastical  Electors  who 
were  suppressed,  four  lay  Electors  were  appointed,  one  of  whom 
only  was  a  Catholic,  that  of  Saltzburg,  who  had  formerly  been 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  three  were  Protestants,  those 
of  Wurtemberg,  Baden,  and  Hesse-Cassel. 

The  House  of  Orange  obtained  the  bishopric  of  Fulda  and 
other  territories ;  Brisgau  and  Ortenau  were  ceded  to  the  Duke  of 
Modena,  who  left  them  at  his  death  to  his  son-in-law  the  Arch- 
duke Ferdinand.  The  relation  between  the  two  religions  was 
still  more  unequal  in  the  College  of  Princes,  where  the  Pro- 
testants had  acquired  so  great  a  superiority  that  the  head  of  the 
Empire  refused  to  ratify  that  article  of  the  Resolutions.  The 
free  cities  were  reduced  to  six,  viz.  Augsburg,  Lubec,  Nurem- 
berg, Frankfort,  Bremen,  and  Hamburg.  The  immediate  nobi- 
lity were  retained ;  but  those  of  them  who  were  entitled  to 
indemnity  were  disappointed,  as  nothing  remained  to  be  distri- 
buted. In  place  of  the  existing  duties  payable  on  the  Rhine, 
a  rate  of  navigation  was  established,  the  proceeds  of  which 


'*m> 


•'k 


*». 


<j(! 


.   il 


:i». 


I  r 


620 


CHAPTEn   XI 


were  to  be  divided  belwoon  Frnnec  and  Germany  ;  a  part  of  the 
endowment  of  the  Aich-Chaiicellor  was  fouiule d  on  that  revenue. 

The  execution  of  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation,  gave  rise 
(0  several  conventions  nmong;  the  States  of  the  Einpirc,  as  well 
as  to  a  great  variety  of  claims.  So  many  difficulties  had  arisen 
on  this  occasion,  especially  from  the  refusal  of  the  Emperor  to 
sanction  the  Resolution,  without  certain  modifications,  that  the 
Empire  was  abolished  before  this  new  fundamental  low  could 
be  carried  into  practice  in  all  its  bearings.  The  peace  of  Pres- 
burg  had  created  two  n^w  Kings  in  the  centre  of  Germany, 
namely,  the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  who  had  as- 
sumed that  dignity.  These  two  princes,  with  the  Elector  of 
Baden,  were  declared  sovereigns,  and  obtained  territorial  addi- 
tions at  the  expense  of  Austria,  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  city  of  Augsburg.  The  King  of  Bavaria  annex- 
ed that  free  city  to  his  Estates.  The  Elector  of  Saltzburg  ex- 
changed all  that  the  Resolutions  of  the  Imperial  Deputation  had 
given  him  for  the  principality  of  Wurtzburg  which  was  taken 
from  the  King  of  Bavaria,  to  which  the  Electoral  title  was 
uansferred.  The  Grand  Mastership  of  the  Teutonic  Knights 
was  secularized  in  favour  of  a  prince  of  the  House  of  Austria. 
The  heir  of  the  Duke  of  Modena  lost  Brisgau,  and  Ortenau, 
which  fell  to  the  Elector  of  Baden. 

The  annihilation  of  the  German  Empire,  the  germ  of  which 
is  to  be  found  in  that  treaty,  was  effected  by  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine,  which  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wunemberg,  the 
Arch-Chancellor,  the  Elector  of  Baden,  the  Dukes  of  Cleves  and 
Berg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  Princes  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  Salm,  Isemburg,  Lichtenstein  and  Aremberg,  and  Count 
Leyen,  concluded  with  Bonaparte  (July  6,  1806,)  who  was 
named  Protector  of  the  League,  as  they  announced  in  their  de- 
clarations to  the  Diet.  The  act  by  which  the  Emperor  Francis 
II.  abdicated  the  crown  of  Germany  (Aug.  6,)  completed  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Germanic  body.  The  princes  who  had  joined 
that  confederation  usurped  the  sovereignity,  instead  of  the  mere 
mperiority  which  they  had  formerly  enjoyed  under  the  authori- 
ty of  the  Empire.  By  overthrowing  the  barriers  which  the  laws 
and  institutions  of  the  country,  the  most  ancient  customs,  and 
conventions,  had  opposed  to  the  encroachments  of  absolute 
power,  they  set  a  fatal  example  of  trampling  under  foot  the  well 
acquired  rights  of  their  people.  They  carried  their  injustice 
still  farther.  They  usurped  dominion  over  the  princes,  pro- 
vinces, and  cities,  their  associates  and  coequals,  who  were  un 
fortunately  placed  in  their  neighbourhood;  and  who  had  not 
been  apprized  in  time  that  they  might  repair  to  Paris,  in  ordei 


fA,:a^^ri7r 


rmany  ;  a  pari  of  the 

idi'il  on  that  revenue. 

Dcpulntion,  gnvc  rise 

the  Empire,  as  wi'll 

jirticuhies  hnd  nri^en 

of  the  Emperor  lo 

0(iiHcation»,  that  the 

ndamcntal  low  could 

The  peace  of  Pres- 

centre  of  Germany, 

emberg,  who  hnd  as- 

with  the  Elector  of 

(lined  territorial  addi- 

I  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 

ng  of  Bavaria  annex- 

ctor  of  Saltzburg-  ex- 

>erial  Deputation  had 

irg  which  was  taken 

0  Electoral  title  was 
he  Teutonic  Knights 
ho  House  of  Austria. 
Jrisgau,  and  Ortenau, 

e,  the  germ  of  which 
by  the  Confederation 
and  Wunamberg,  the 

1  Dukes  of  Clevcs  and 
he  Princes  of  Hohen- 
Aremberg,  ond  Count 

6,  1806,)  who  was 
tinounced  in  their  de- 
the  Emperor  Francis 
6,)  completed  the  dis- 
inces  who  had  joined 
',  instead  of  the  mere 
ed  under  the  authori- 
Triers  which  the  laws 
ancient  customs,  and 
chments  of  absolute 
g  under  foot  the  well 
arried  their  injustice 
i^er  the  princes,  pro- 
quals,  who  were  un 
i ;  and  who  had  not 
lir  to  Paris,  in  ordei 


rBKlOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810. 


S21 


to  co-opernte  in  that  trniisnction,  or  counternrt  tli»»  intrigiieii  by 
whii'h  it  was  acconinlished. 

TIk'  KliTtor  Arili-Clianc('lli)r  then  assumed  the  dignity  of 
Prini-e  F'rinmto  ;  tlip  Elector  of  Hadcn,  ilie  Dukus  of  Bert;  ond 
Cloves,  ond  the  Landgrave  of  HL'ssc-Darnistadt  todk  the  title  of 
Grand  Dukes;  to  which  the  an  of  the  12lh  July  attached  th' 
nrerogoiivew  of  the  royal  dignity.  The  head  of  the  house  oi 
Nassau  took  the  dignity  of  Duke,  ond  Count  Leyen  that  of 
Prince.  A  federal  Diet,  divided  into  two  chambers,  was  to  de- 
liberate on  the  general  interests  of  the  union  ;  but  that  assembly 
never  met.  Of  the  six  free  cities  which  the  Deputation  had 
preserved,  the  King  of  Bavaria  had  Augsburg  adjudged  to  him 
by  the  peace  of  Presburg ;  he  afterwards  obtained  Nuremberg 
by  an  act  of  the  Confederation.  Frankfort  fell  to  the  shore  of 
the  Prince  Primote ;  so  thot  there  remained  only  three  of  the 
Hanseatic  towns. 

Several  other  princes  entered  successively  into  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine  ;  but  none  of  those  accessions  were  voluntary. 
They  all  took  place  in  consequence  of  the  war  with  Prussia, 
which  broke  out  in  October  1806.  These  princes,  token  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  accession,  were  the  following: — The  Elector 
of  Wurlzburg,  the  old  Elector  of  Saltzburg,  who  took  the  grand 
ducal  title,  the  King  of  Saxony,  the  Dukes  of  Soxony,  the  Houses 
of  Anhalt  and  Schwortzburg,  the  Prince  of  Waldeck,  the  Houses 
of  Lippe  and  Reuss,  the  King  of  Westphalia,  the  House  of 
Mecklenburg,  ond  the  Duke  of  Oldenburg.  Thus  all  Germany, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  entered  in  succession  into  that  Confede- 
ration. 

Several  other  changes  occurred  in  the  Rhenish  Confedera- 
tion, especially  after  the  peace  of  Schoenbrunn.  The  grand 
dutchy  of  Berg  received  considerable  accessions.  The  kingdom 
of  Westphalia  was  augmented  in  1810,  by  the  union  of  the  States 
of  the  King  of  England  in  Germany,  with  the  exception  of  the 
dutchy  of  Lunenburg,  as  has  been  already  mentioned.  Within 
a  short  time  after  he  hod  disposed  of  the  territory  of  Hanover, 
Bonoporte  formed  the  grand  dutchy  of  Frankfort,  by  adding  the 
district  of  Fulda,  and  the  greater  port  of  the  county  of  Hanau, 
to  the  possessions  of  the  Prince  Primate  ;  with  the  deduction  of 
the  principality  of  Ratisbon,  on  condition  that  after  the  death  of 
the  Prince  Primate,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Frankfort,  these  territories  should  pass  to  Eugene  Beou- 
harnais  and  his  male  descendants ;  and  failing  these,  they  should 
revert  to  the  Crown  of  France.  The  Grand  Duke  ceded  to 
Napoleon  the  principality  of  Ratisbon,  and  his  moiety  of  the 
navigation-dues  on  the  Rhino. 


m 


t^ 


h 


!««' 


1^ 


"W^ 


I  J!  I 


J: 

I 

Its.;": 


'    ,f 


529 


CHAPTIR   XT. 


The  i;it>ctor  of  Bavaria  had  lost  by  the  fM-acn  of  LunevHle 
that  part  uf  the  i'alatiiuito  NitimtucI  on  the  left  bunk  of  tho  Khine, 
with  this  diilohy  of  Deux-nonts.  Tho  Deputation  of  1803  de- 
prived him  of  the  retit  of  the  Palatinate  ;  but  that  act  amply 
compemiatfd  him,  by  makinjr  over  to  him  the  bishoprica  of 
Bamberi^,  Wurtzburj,',  Freisinj^en,  Passau,  and  Auitfsburjf,  with 
several  abbeys  and  free  citie*.  By  tho  peace  of  I'resburK,  Bo- 
naparte took  Wurtzburg  from  him  ;  but  ho  gave  him  in  lieu  of 
it  tt  considcrablo  part  of  the  spoils  of  Austria,  especially  the 
county  of  Tyrol,  which  contained  more  than  700,000  inhabitants. 
To  recompense  that  monarch  for  the  zeal  which  he  had  displayed 
1809,  BonapartB  put  him  in  posse.^sion  of  the  principalities  of 
Baireuth  and  Ratisbon,  the  dutchy  of  Saltzburg,  with  Berch- 
tolsgaden,  and  the  part  of  Lower  Austria  whicli  the  Emperor 
had  renounced  by  tho  peace  of  Schonbrunn.  In  return,  the 
King  of  Bavaria  ceded  back  a  part  of  the  Tyrol,  containing  about 
305,000  souls,  which  was  annexed  either  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  or  the  Illyriau  provinces. 

By  the  peace  of  Luneville,  the  Austrian  monarchy  had  lost, 
in  point  of  extent  and  population  ;  but  she  had  gained  an  addi- 
tion of  six  millions  of  francs  to  her  revenue.  1  he  government 
had  to  struggle  incessantly  against  th^  ruinous  state  of  the  ex- 
chequer, and  the  over-circulation  of  paper  money.  Neither  loans 
nor  economy  could  recover  them.  The  embarrassed  state  of  his 
finances  was  still  more  increased  by  the  disastrous  war  of  1805. 
The  peace  of  Presburg  cost  the  Emperor  the  States  that  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Venetians,  the  Tyrol,  and  all  the  possession.')  of 
his  House  in  Swabia.  He  acquired  nothing  by  that  treaty,  ex- 
cept the  dutchy  of  Saltzburg  and  Berchtolsgaden.  His  losses 
amounted  to  more  than  a  thousand  German  square  miles  of  ter- 
ritory, and  nearly  three  millions  of  subjects.  The  following 
year  (Aug.  6, 1806,)  he  voluntarily  laid  aside  the  Imperial  crown 
of  Germany,  adopting  instead,  the  hereditary  Imperial  crown  of 
Austria,  with  the  name  of  Francis  I.  Besides  Saltsburg  and 
Berchtolsgaden,  the  ci-devant  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  lost  also 
Passau  and  Eichstctt ;  but  ho  oblained  the  principality  of  Wurta- 
burg.  The  Archduke  Ferdinand  was  deprived  of  Brisgau  and 
Ortenau. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  year  1807,  Austria  had  made 
warlike  preparations  which  indicated  that,  but  for  the  precipi- 
tancy with  which  the  peace  of  Tilsit  had  been  concluded,  she 
would  have  made  a  powerful  diversion  on  the  rear  of  the  French 
army.  It  was  not  till  the  convention  of  Fontainbleau  that  she 
obtained  the  restitution  of  Braunau,  which  had  remained  in  the 
possession  of  the  French,  and  which  she  purchased  by  new  ter 


pcacd  of  Lunflvllle 
bank  of  tho  Rhine, 
luiution  uf  1S03  (Ih- 

but  that  act  nniply 
In  the  bishoprics  of 

mil  Augiiburg,  with 
|cc  of  I'rcsburu,  Bo> 

gave  him  in  Ueu  of 

itria,  especially  the 
700,000  inhabitants, 
ich  he  had  displayed 
the  principalities  of 
tzburg,  with  Berch- 
which  the  Emperor 
nn.  In  return,  the 
rol,  containing  about 

to  the  kingdom  of 

monarchy  had  lost, 
had  gained  an  addi- 
J.  1  he  government 
nous  state  of  the  ex- 
loney.  Neither  loans 
barrussed  state  of  his 
iastrous  war  of  1806. 
!  States  that  formerly 
all  the  possessions  of 
ig  by  that  troaty,  ex- 
Isguden.  Hib  losses 
1  square  miles  of  ter< 
!ct8.  The  following 
e  the  Imperial  crown 
ry  Imperial  crown  of 
isidcs  Saltsburg  and 
of  Tuscany  lost  also 
irincipality  of  Wurt2- 
rived  of  Brisgau  and 

,  Austria  had  made 
,  but  for  the  precipi- 
been  concluded,  she 
le  rear  of  the  French 
ontainbleau  that  she 
had  remained  in  the 
irchased  by  new  ter 


>£^ 


r^l^' 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.   180S— 1810. 


023 


riiorial  losses  on  the  side  of  Italy  ;  from  that  inomcnt  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  made  great  exertions  fur  rc-orguiii/iiig  the  army, 
introducing  a  new  order  and  a  better  diifciplint-,  forming  bodies 
of  militia,  and  repairing  fnrtres.Nc.s.  M(!  coritiniied  to  inspire  the 
natiiiii  with  an  enthu»iaMm  which  it  had  never  lnTore  displayed. 
Many  wealthy  individuals  made  large  pecuniary  sacrifices  for 
the  seivice  ol'^their  country 

The  peace  of  Schccnbrunn,  which  terminated  the  war  of  1809, 
brought  Austria  down  to  the  ronk  of  the  third  Contiiu'iilul 
power.  That  monarchy  compri'hended  ii  surface  of  9471  Ger- 
man square  miles,  and  a  populnticm  of  twenty-one  millions  ;  but 
her  commerce  was  annihilated  by  the  loss  of  Trieste  and  Fiunie, 
which  separated  her  from  the  sea.  The  immense  quantity  of 
paper  money  in  the  ceded  provinces,  flowed  back  into  ttie  interior 
of  the  kingdom,  and  reduced  the  currency  of  these  bills  to  one- 
hfth  of  their  nominal  value. 

Prussia,  by  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation  of  1S03,  gained 
426,000  subjects,  and  more  than  four  millions  of  francs  to  her 
revenue  ;  and  the  provinces  which  she  acquired,  established,  to 
a  certoin  extent,  the  continuity  of  her  Westphalian  possessions 
with  the  centre  of  the  kingdom.  A  convention  with  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria  respecting  an  exchange  of  territory,  made  consiiler- 
able  additions  to  the  Principalities  in  Franconia.  The  King, 
from  that  time,  occupied  himself  in  applying  the  remedy  of  a 
wise  administration  to  repair  the  calamities  which  wars  and 
levies  had  inflicted  on  the  country.  In  vain  had  they  tried  every 
means  of  persuasion  to  make  him  join  the  third  coalition  ;  and 
it  was  only  the  violation  of  his  territory  by  the  French  troops, 
that  at  last  prevailed  with  him  to  take  that  step.  We  have  al- 
ready spoken  of  the  convention  at  Potsdam,  by  which  he  engag- 
ed eventually  to  become  a  party  to  that  confederacy,  and  of  the 
attempt  which  he  made  to  restore  peace  by  means  of  negotiation. 
We  have  already  mentioned  how  he  became  involuntarily,  and 
by  the  turn  which  his  minister  gave  to  the  affair  with  which  he 
was  intrusted,  the  ally  of  him  whom  he  wished  to  engage  in 
war.  Prussia  obtained,  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  precarious 
possession  of  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  in  lieu  of  which  she 
ceded  Anspach,  Cleves,  and  Neufchatel  The  superficial  extent 
of  the  whole  monarchy  amounted  then  to  6746  German  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  10,668,000  souls. 

The  occupation  of  Hanover  dragged  Prussia  into  a  war  with 
England ;  and  the  course  pursued  towards  her  by  Bonaparte 
soon  compelled  her  to  declare  war  against  France.  He  had 
offered  the  Electorate  of  Hanover  to  the  King  of  England,  and 
opposed  Prussia  in  the  project  of  associating  Saxony,  Hesse, 


m 

I";  I   I 


Hi 


524 


CHAPTER  XI. 


and  the  Hanseatic  towns,  in  the  confederation  which  Frederic 
wished  to  oppose  to  that  of  the  Rhine.  The  convention  of  Vienna 
thus  became  the  occasion  of  inflicting  new  calamities  on  Prussia. 
Frederic  William  renounced  the  territory  of  Hanover,  by  the 
peace  which  he  concluded  with  George  III.  at  Memel  (Jan.  2S. 
1807 ;)  but  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  cost  the  former  the  half  of  his 
German  estates,  viz.  an  extent  of  2657  German  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  4,670,000  souls.  This  sacrifice  was  not 
sufficient  to  appease  the  resentment  of  Bonaparte.  By  misin- 
terpreting the  equivocal  terms  of  the  convention  of  Koning.sberg. 
he  restored  to  the  King  only  a  part  of  his  provinces  on  the  east 
of  the  Vistula,  which  were  desolated  by  the  war,  and  reduced 
almost  to  a  deser'.  After  sixteen  months  of  peace,  he  could  not 
obtain  repossessic  i  of  his  other  provinces,  until  he  engaged  lo 
pay  120,000,000  ol  francs,  to  leave  three  fortresses  in  the  hands 
of  Bonaparte  by  way  of  pledge,  and  to  promise  never  to  keep 
more  than  40,000  men  in  the  field. 

Prussia  was  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  destitution,  at  the  time 
when  Frederic  William  turned  his  attention  to  the  administra- 
tion of  the  country.  The  army  had  devoured  the  substance  of 
the  inhabitants  ;  the  population  had  suffered  a  great  diminution  ; 
while  sickness  and  a  complication  of  miseries,  were  continually 
cutting  them  off  in  considerable  numbers.  The  King  submitted 
to  many  privations,  to  fulfil  the  obligations  he  had  contracted 
towards  France,  and  thereby  to  obtain  the  final  evacuation  of  tlie 
kingdom,  as  well  as  to  relieve  those  provinces  which  had  suf- 
fered more  severely  than  others  by  the  sojourn  of  the  French 
army.  He  did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  revive  agriculture 
and  industry  among  his  subjects,  and  restore  the  resources  of 
the  army ;  and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  recovering  the  rank 
which  the  Prussian  monarchy  had  former^  held. 

Independently  of  the  hardships  which  Bonaparte  inflicted  on 
Prussia,  by  protracting  the  stay  of  his  army,  and  by  the  contri- 
butions which  he  imposed  on  her,  this  country  was  made  the  vic- 
tim of  a  rapacity  which  is,  perhaps,  unprecedented  in  history 
By  a  convention  which  the  King  of  Saxony,  as  Duke  of  War- 
saw, concluded  with  Bonaparte  (May  10,  1808,)  while  occupied 
at  Bayonne  in  overtiming  the  Spanish  monarchy,  the  latter 
ceded  to  him,  for  a  sum  of  twenty  millions  of  francs,  not  only 
the  pecuniary  claims  of  the  King  of  Prussia  over  his  Polish 
subjects,  (for  these  he  had  abandoned  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit,) 
but  also  those  of  certain  public  establishments  in  Prussia,  such 
us  the  Bank,  the  Society  for  Maritime  Commerce,  the  Endow- 
ment for  Widows,  Hospitals,  Pious  Foundations,  Universities. 
and  Schools  ;  and  what  may  seem  incredible,  those  of  private 


ration  which  Frederic 

e  convention  of  Vienna 

calamities  on  Prussia. 

y  of  Hanover,  by  the 

I.  at  Memel  (Jan.  28. 

former  the  half  of  his 

jrerman  square  miles, 

'his  sacrifice  was  not 

onaparte.     By  misin- 

ention  of  Koning.sberg, 

s  provinces  on  the  east 

the  war,  and  reduced 

i  of  peace,  he  could  not 

es,  until  he  engaged  lo 

fortresses  in  the  hands 

promise  never  to  keep 

destitution,  at  the  time 
ntion  to  the  administra- 
voured  the  substance  of 
sred  a  great  diminution ; 
series,  were  continually 
i.  The  King  submitted 
ions  he  had  contracted 
e  final  evacuation  of  the 
svinces  which  had  suf- 
!  sojourn  of  the  French 
ver  to  revive  agriculture 
restore  the  resources  of 
for  recovering  the  rank 
erly  held. 

h  Bonaparte  inflicted  on 
irmy,  and  by  the  contri- 
untry  was  made  the  vic- 
nprecedented  in  history 
xony,  as  Duke  of  War- 
),  1808,)  while  occupied 
sh  monarchy,  the  latter 
ions  of  francs,  not  only 
'russia  over  his  Polish 
)y  the  peace  of  Tilsit,) 
iments  in  Prussia,  such 
Commerce,  the  Endow- 
}undations,  Universities 
redible,  those  of  private 


^ 


\\i\i 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.   1802—1810. 


525 


individuals  in  Prussia  over  Polish  subjects.  The  pecuniary 
claims  were  so  much  the  more  considerable,  as  the  capitalists  of 
the  ancient  provinces,  since  the  introduction  of  the  system  of 
mortgage  into  Prussia,  had  advanced  large  sums  to  Polish  pro- 
prietors for  the  improvement  of  their  patrimonies.  The  sums 
thus  taken  from  those  who  had  furnished  them,  and  transfeired 
to  the  King  of  So  xony,  were  estimated  at  first  at  forty -three 
millions  and  a  half  of  francs,  and  four  millions  of  interest ;  but 
the  financial  authorities  of  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  discovered 
that  they  amounted  to  sixty-eight  millions'.  In  vain  did  Fre- 
deric William  offer  to  repurchase  this  pretended  right  of  the 
King  of  Saxony,  by  reimbursing  the  twenty  millions  of  francs 
which  the  latter  had  been  obliged,  it  was  said,  to  give  to  Bona- 
parte. The  Revolution  of  1814  rectified  this  piece  of  injustice, 
as  it  did  many  others. 

During  this  period  the  north  of  Europe  was  agitated  by  three 
different  wars,  that  of  England  against  Denmark,  which  occa- 
sioned a  rupture  between  the  Cabinets  of  St.  Petersburg  and 
London ;  that  of  Russia  against  Sweden,  in  which  Denmark 
was  involved ;  and  lastly,  the  war  between  Russia  and  the 
Porte,  in  which  England  look  an  active  part. 

The  expedition  of  the  English  against  the  Isle  of  Zealand  in 
1807,  was  an  event  which  was  censured  at  the  time  with  great 
severity  ;  and  which  cannot  be  justified,  since  it  is  the  nature 
of  all  preventive  war  to  destroy  the  very  arguments  and  evi- 
dences of  its  necessity.  Nevertheless,  if  on  the  one  hand,  we 
consider  what  was  requisite  to  support  the  interests  of  Bona- 
parte after  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  or  more  properly  speaking,  to 
:arry  into  execution  the  system  he  had  organized ;  and  if  on 
the  other,  we  examine  into  his  conduct  a  short  time  after,  to- 
wards Spain  and  Portugal,  we  shall  find  England  not  wholly 
without  excuse.  The  peace  of  Tilsit  had  excluded  British  com- 
merce from  a'l  the  southern  ports  of  the  Baltic,  and  she  na 
turaily  wished  that  Sweden,  and  especially  Denmark,  who  had 
a  communication  with  the  Continent  by  way  of  Jutland,  should 
apen  their  ports  to  her.  Several  appearances  indicated  that  it 
was  the  intention  of  Bonaparte  to  seize  Denmark  also  after  the 
peace  of  Tilsit ;  and  the  British  minister  declared  that  he  was 
in  possession  of  proofs  of  a  plan  to  that  effect. 

The  British  Government  accordingly  fitted  out  an  expedition 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  his  designs,  with  an  activity  and 
a  celerity  such  as  they  had  never  displayed  in  sending  aid  to 
their  allies;  and  that  difference  in  their  conduct  tended  not  a 
little  to  create  an  unfavourable  opinion  as  to  the  enterprise 
-vhich  they  undertook  ag^iinst  Denmark  in  1807.     An  English 


.^* 


mf 


52G 


CHAPTER  XI. 


^* 


fleet,  having  an  army  on  board,  to  which  a  Hanoveiian  legion 
of  7000  men  then  in  the  Isle  of  Rugen,  was  afterwards  added, 
sailed  from  England  about  the  endof  July  or  beginning  of  August. 
It  was  divided  into  two  squadrons,  one  of  which,  under  Commo- 
dore Keats,  took  up  their  station  in  the  Great  Belt,  which  till  then 
had  been  thought  inaccessible  to  ships  of  war,  and  thus  cut  oft 
the  Isle  of  Zealand  from  the  main  land,  where  the  Prince  Royal 
with  the  Danish  army  then  was.  The  second  division,  under 
the  command  of  Admiral  Gambler,  with  troops  on  board  com- 
manded by  Lord  Cathcart,  arrived  oflf  Copenhagen.  Mr.  Jack- 
son was  sent  to  Kiel  to  demand  from  the  Prince  Royal  the 
surrender  of  the  Danish  fleet,  which  they  alleged  it  was  the  in- 
tention of  Bonaparte  to  seize. 

After  a  fruitless  negotiation,  Copenhagen,  after  being  invested 
by  the  army  of  Lord  Cathcart  on  the  land  side,  was  bombarded 
for  three  daj's  (Sept.  2,  3,  4,)  and  a  great  part  of  the  city  de- 
stroyed. At  length  General  Peymann,  the  Commander-in-chief 
of  the  Danish  forces,  demanded  an  armistice  to  treat  for  a  ca- 
pituliition.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  the  same  ofli'^er  who  soon 
after  so  distinguished  himself  in  Portugal,  signed  that  capitula- 
tion on  the  part  of  Great  Britain.  The  citadel  was  given  up 
to  the  English.  The  Danes  surrendered  their  fleet,  with  all 
the  naval  stores  in  their  arsenals  and  dock-yards.  The  Eng- 
lish stipulated  for  a  delay  of  six  weeks  to  pvepare  for  departure, 
after  which  they  promised  to  surrendei  the  citaael,  and  evacuate 
the  Isle  of  Zealand. 

In  this  manner  the  Danish  marine,  consisting  of  eighteen 
ships  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  six  brigs,  and  twenty-five  sloops 
of  war,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  During  the  six 
weeks  stipulated  for,  the  Court  of  London  offered  Denmark  the 
alternative  either  of  returning  to  a  state  of  neutrality,  o?  of  form- 
ing an  alliance  with  England.  The  Prince  Regent  having  re- 
fused both  of  these,  England  declared  war  against  him  (Nov. 
4 ;)  but  she  did  not  violate  the  capitulation  of  Copenhagen,  as 
the  evacuation  of  that  city  and  the  island  of  Zealand  took  place 
at  the  ter.n  specified.  This  event  added  Denmark  to  the  French 
system.  Her  minister  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  at  Fon- 
tainbleau,  the  tenor  of  which  has  not  been  made  public  ;  but  if 
wo  may  judge  by  the  events  which  followed,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  Danish  islands  should  be  occupied  by  French  troops  des- 
tined to  act  against  Sweden.  In  the  month  of  March  1808, 
32,000  French,  Dutch,  and  Spanish  troops  (the  last  brought 
from  the  kingdom  of  Etruria,)  under  the  command  of  Marshal 
Bernadotte,  arrived  in  Zealand,  Funen,  and  the  other  islands  of 
the   Baltic ;  but  the  defection  of  the  Spanish  troops,  and  the 


$1 


iH* 


a  Hanoveiian  legion 

as  afterwards  added, 
Ir  beginning  of  August. 

hich,  under  Commo- 
at  Belt,  which  till  then 

war,  and  thus  cut  oft 
here  the  Prince  Royal 
econd  division,  under 
troops  on  board  com- 
)enhagen.  Mr.  Jack- 
the  Prince  Royal  the 
alleged  it  was  the  in- 

en,  after  being  invested 
d  side,  was  bombarded 
at  part  of  the  city  de- 
le  Commander-in-chief 

slice  to  treat  for  a  ca- 
saine  officer  who  soon 
il,  signed  that  capitula- 

citadel  was  given  up 
d  their  fleet,  with  all 
ock-yards.  The  Eng- 
j  pvepare  for  departure, 
lie  citauel,  and  evacuate 

consisting  of  eighteen 
,  and  twenty-five  sloops 
3[lish.  During  the  six 
)n  offered  Denmark  the 
►f  neutrality,  Ojr  of  form- 
nee  Regent  having  re* 
var  against  him  (Nov. 
ion  of  Copenhagen,  as 
I  of  Zealand  took  place 
Denmark  to  the  French 
ity  of  alliance  at  Fon- 
;n  made  public  ;  but  if 
ved,  it  was  agreed  that 
by  French  troops  des- 
tnonth  of  March  1808, 
)ops  (the  last  brought 
t  command  of  Marshal 
ind  the  other  islands  of 
panish  troops,  and  the 


PERIOD  IX,     A.  D.  1802—1810. 


527 


war  with  Austria,  prevented  the  projected  invasion  of  Sweden 
The  English  took  possession  of  the  colonics  of  Denmark,  and 
ru.ned  the  commerce  of  her  subjects.  Frederic  VI.,  who  had 
succeeded  his  father  Christian  VII.,  (Mo'ch  13,  1808,)  after 
having  been  at  the  head  of  the  government  ds  regent  since  1784, 
strictly  executed  the  Continental  system  ;  especially  after  the 
commencement  of  the  year  1810,  when  the  two  Counts  Bern- 
storflT  had  retired  from  the  ministry.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to 
arrest  all  the  English  subjects  found  in  Denmark. 

The  expedition  of  the  English  against  Copenhagen,  induced 
the  Emperor  Alexander  to  declare  war  against  them  (Nov.  7.) 
That  monarch  entered  decidedly  into  the  Continental  system, 
and  demanded  of  the  King  of  Sweden,  that  agreeably  to  the 
conventions  as  to  the  armed  neutrality  of  the  North,  he  should 
enforce  the  principle  by  which  the  Baltic  was  declared  a  shut 
sea.  The  King  of  Sweden  replied,  that  the  principles  establish- 
ed by  the  conventions  of  1780  and  1800  had  been  abandoned  by 
that  of  June  17, 1801  ;  that  circumstances  were  entirely  changed 
since  Denmark,  on  whose  co-operations  he  had  formerly  reck- 
oned, had  lost  her  fleet ;  and  since,  independently  of  the  Sound, 
the  English  had  eflfected  another  entrance  into  the  Baltic,  through 
the  Great  Belt ;  these  objections,  however,  did  not  prevent  him 
from  incurring  a  ruinous  war. 

A  Russian  army  entered  Finland  (Feb.  21,  1808.)  General 
Buxhowden,  who  had  the  command,  announced  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  that  province  that  the  Emperor  Alexander  had  thought 
it  necessary  to  occupy  that  country,  in  order  to  have  a  pledge 
that  the  King  of  Sweden  would  accept  the  proposals  of  peace 
which  France  had  made  to  him.  Although  the  Swedish  troops 
in  Finland  were  but  few  in  number,  and  defended  it  bravely, 
they  were  compelled  to  yield  to  the  superior  force  of  the  Rus- 
sians, and  to  retire  into  East  Bothnia.  Sueaborg,  the  bulwark 
of  Finland,  and  deemed  impregnable,  surrendered  (April  6,) 
after  a  siege  of  a  few  days  by  Vice-Admiral  Kronstadt.  A  mani- 
festo of  the  Emperor  Alexander  (March  28,)  had  already  decla- 
red the  grand  dutchy  of  Finland  to  be  incorporated  with  iiis  Em- 
pire. This  une.xpected  attack  excited  the  most  lively  indignation 
in  Gustavus  IV.,  who  so  far  forgot  himself,  as  to  cause  M.  d'Alo- 
peus,  the  Russian  minister  at  his  court,  to  be  arrested.  Den- 
mark having  also  declared  war  against  him  (Feb.  29,)  n  Swedish 
army  of  20,000  men,  under  the  command  of  Gen.  Ann  field,  un- 
dertook the  conquest  of  Norway.  But  this  expedition  was  repuls- 
ed with  loss  ;  and  the  Danes  even  made  incursions  into  Sweden. 

Field-Marshal  Count  Klinspor  being  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Swedish  army,  then  at  Uleaburg  began  to  act  on  the  ofiensive 


1\ 


¥ 


''^   M 


538 


CHAPTER  XI. 


^t<4       >l 


in  the  north  of  Finland  ;  while  a  second  annVt  under  the  com 
maiid  of  General  Vegesack,  disembarked  at  Abo  (June  S.  The 
war  was  carried  on  with  variable  success,  but  with  equal  bra- 
very on  both  sides.  At  the  end  of  the  campaign,  the  Russians 
were  again  masters  of  Finland.  A  body  of  10,000  English 
troops,  commanded  by  the  same  General  Moore  who,  a  few 
months  after,  fell  at  Corunna  in  Spain,  had  arrived  in  the  roads 
at  Gottenburg  (May  17 ;)  but  as  the  Swedish  King  could  not 
come  to  an  agreement  as  to  the  employment  of  these  auxiliaries, 
nor  even  as  to  the  command,  he  refused  to  permit  the  troops  to 
disembark.  He  even  ordered  General  Moore,  who  had  repairer 
to  Stockholm,  to  be  arrested.  But  having  soon  found  means  to 
escape,  Moore  returned  to  England  with  his  troops.  Mr.  Thorn- 
ton, the  British  envoy,  who  had  remonstrated  against  this  arbi- 
trary conduct  of  the  King,  was  recalled. 

Admiral  Chanikoff,  with  a  Russian  fleet  of  twenty-four  ships 
of  war,  made  an  attempt  to  burn  the  Swedish  fleet,  commanded 
by  Admiral  NauckhofT,  in  Virgin  Bay  (Aug.  18 ;)  but  the  ar- 
rival of  an  English  fleet  under  Sir  James  Saumarez  in  Baltic 
Port  where  NauckhofT  was,  with  a  reinforcement  of  some  Eng- 
lish ships  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Hood,  kept  th^m  in 
blockade  for  nearly  two  months.  In  Finland  an  armistice  iiad 
been  concluded,  (Sept.  1808,)  on  the  footing  of  the  Uti  Posside- 
tis; but  the  Emperor  Alexander  refused  to  ratify  it.  Another 
was  then  concluded  at  Olkioki  (Nov.  19,)  by  which  the  Swedish 
army  engaged  to  evacuate  Uleaburg,  and  to  retire  behind  the 
Kemi.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year,  the  English  Cabinet  ad- 
vised the  King  of  Sweden  to  make  peace,  which  he  obstinately 
refused,  and  even  demanded  additional  supplies  to  continue  the 
war  with  vigom  The  British  Cabinet  having  declined  to  grant 
them  unconditionally,  Gustavus  was  on  tne  point  of  coming  to 
an  open  rupture  with  that  Court.  But  his  indignation  having 
pbated,  he  agreed,  soon  after,  to  conclude  a  n  jw  convention  at 
Stockholm  (March  1,  1809.)  when  Great  Britain  engaged  to  pay 
in  advance  300,000/.  sterling  by  quarterly  instalments. 

Meantime  a  revolution  was  fermenting  in  Sweden,  which  was 
to  change  the  aspect  of  aflfairs.  The  haughtiness  and  obstinacy 
of  the  King,  had  created  him  many  enemies.  The  people  were 
oppressed  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner  by  burdens  and  im- 
posts, which  Gustavus  increased  arbitrarily,  and  without  regard 
to  constitutional  forms.  The  severity  with  which  be  punished 
the  troops,  not  only  when  they  had  committed  faults,  out  even 
when  they  were  unsuccessful,  had  alienated  the  minds  of  the 
soldiers  from  him,  and  especially  the  guards.  A  conspiracy 
was  formed,  atthe  head  of  which  was  Lieutenant-Colonel  Adler- 


''€*: 


riny,  under  the  com 

t  Abo  (June  S.    The 

but  with  equal  bra- 

jnpaign,  the  Russians 

of  10,000  English 

Moore  who,  a  few 

arrived  in  the  roads 

dish  King  could  not 

t  of  these  auxiliaries, 

»  permit  the  troops  to 

ore,  w^ho  had  repairc  > 

soon  found  means  to 

s  troops.   Mr.  Thom- 

ited  against  this  arbi- 

t  of  twenty-four  ships 
lish  fleet,  commanded 
.ug.  18;)  but  the  ar- 
3  Saumarez  in  Baltic 
cement  of  some  Eng- 
I  Hood,  kept  th'-Ti  in 
land  an  armistice  nad 
ng  of  the  Uti  Posside- 
to  ratify  it.  Another 
by  which  the  Swedish 
d  to  retire  behind  the 
;  English  Cabinet  ad- 
,  which  he  obstinately 
ipplies  to  continue  the 
iving  declined  to  grant 
ne  point  of  coming  to 
is  iridignation  having 
a  njw  convention  at 
Britain  engaged  to  pay 
r  instalments. 
in  Sweden,  which  waa 
^htiness  and  obstinacy 
es.  The  people  were 
r  by  burdens  and  im- 
y,  and  without  regard 
th  which  he  punished 
rjitted  faults,  but  even 
ted  the  minds  of  the 
jards.  A  conspiracy 
tenant-CoIonel  Adler- 


!^. 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802—1810. 


529 


sparre,  and  Colonel  Skioldebrand,  and  which  was  joined  by  the 
army  of  the  West,  or  of  Norway,  and  the  troops  that  were  sta- 
tioned in  the  Islands  of  Aland.  Adlersparre  and  the  army  of 
the  West  marched  on  Stockholm.  They  had  arrived  at  Orebro, 
when  Field-Marshal  Klinspor,  who  had  been  disgraced,  advised 
the  King  to  avert  the  storm  by  changing  his  conduct.  On  his 
refusal,  General  AcMercieutz  arrested  him  in  the  name  of  the 
people  (March  13.)  The  Duke  of  Sudermania,  the  King's  un- 
cle, was  proclaimed  Regent.  Gustavus  was  conveyed  to  Drott- 
tiingholm,  and  thence  to  f^ripsholm,  where  he  signed  a  deed  of 
abdication,  which  he  afterwards  declared  on  various  occasions  to 
have  been  voluntary.  The  revolution  was  terminated  without 
commotion  and  without  bloodshed. 

The  Regent  immediately  assembled  the  Diet  at  Stockholm. 
Not  content  with  accepting  the  abdication  of  Gustavus,  such  as 
he  had  given  it,  they  excluded  all  his  descendants  from  the 
throne  of  Sweden.  They  offered  the  crown  to  the  Regent,  who 
declared  his  willingness  to  accept  it  when  they  had  revised  the 
constitution.  This  revision,  by  which  the  royal  authority  was 
limited  ,\vithout  reducing  it  to  a  state  of  humiliation  and  depen- 
dence,! .laving  been  adopted  by  the  Diet,  the  Duke  of  Suderma- 
nia was  proclaimed  King  (June  5,  1809,)  undc  the  title  of 
Cl'.arlej  XIII.  according  to  the  common  but  erroneous  method 
of  reckoning  the  Kings  of  Sweden.  As  the  now  monarch  had 
no  family,  they  elected  as  his  successor  to  iae  throne.  Prince 
Christian  Augustus  of  Holstein-Augustenburg,  who  commanded 
the  Danish  army  in  Norway,  and  who  had  procured  the  esteem 
even  of  his  enemies.  Gustavus  and  his  family  were  permitted 
to  leave  the  kingdoni ;  and  towards  the  und  or  the  year  a  new 
.''andamental  law  was  published,  regulating  the  order  of  succes- 
sion to  the  throne. 

At  Stockholm  the  people  fla  .,  red  themselves  that  the  de- 
thronement of  Gustavus  would  speedily  bring  peace  to  Sweden  ; 
bnt  it  was  not  so.  Alexander  I.  refused  to  treat  with  a  govern- 
ment so  insecure  as  a  regency,  and  hostilities  accordingly  con- 
tinued. General  Knorring  who  had  passed  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
on  the  ice  with  25,000  Russians,  took  possession  of  the  Islands 
of  Aland  (March  17,)  when  the  Swedish  troops  stationed  there 
retired  to  the  continent  of  Sweden.  Knorring  granted  the 
Swedes  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  to  allow  them  time  to  make 
overtures  of  peace.  Apprized  of  this  arrangement,  Count  Bar- 
clay de  Tolly,  who  haa  crossed  the  Gulf  with  another  body  of 
Russinns  on  the  side  of  Ynsa,  and  taken  possession  of  Umea, 
evacuated  West  Bothnia,  and  returned  to  Finfeind.  A  third 
bodv  of  Russians,  tmdcr  the  command  of  Schouvaloff,  penetrated 

34 


"^-.i 


m} 


^ 


530 


CHAPTER  X:. 


into  West  Bothnia  by  the  route  of  Tornea,  and  compelled  the 
Swedish  army  of  the  North,  which  was  commanded  by  Gripen- 
berg,  to  lay  down  their  arms  at  Seiwis  (March  25.)  This  san- 
guinary affair  occurred  entirely  through  ignorance  ;  because  ih 
that  country,  lying  under  the  66th  degree  of  north  latitude,  they 
were  not  aware  of  the  armistice  granted  by  Knorring.  On  the 
expiration  of  the  truce,  hostilities  recommenced  in  the  month  of 
May,  and  the  Russians  took  possession  of  the  part  of  West 
Bothnia  lying  to  the  north  of  Umea. 

The  peace  between  Russia  and  Sweden  was  signed  at  Fre- 
dericsham  (Sept.  17.)  The  latter  power  adhered  to  the  Con- 
tinental system,  reserving  to  herself  the  importation  of  salt  and 
such  colonial  produce  as  she  could  not  do  without.  She  sur- 
rendered Finland  with  the  whole  of  East  Bothnia,  and  a  part  of 
West  Bothnia  lying  to  the  eastward  of  the  river  Tornea.  The 
cession  of  these  provinces  which  formed  the  granary  of  Sweden, 
and  contained  a  population  of  900,000  souls,  was  an  irreparable 
loss  to  that  kingdom,  which  had  only  2,344,000  inhabitants  left. 
The  peace  of  Predericsham  was  speedily  followed  by  that  of 
Jonkoping  with  Denmark  (Dec.  10,)  and  that  at  Paris  with  France 
(Jan.  6,  1810.)  By  the  first,  every  thing  was  re-established  on 
Its  ancient  footing  between  these  two  States.  But  by  the  peace 
of  Paris,  Sweden  renoun''ed  the  importation  of  colonial  produce, 
and  only  reserved  the  privilege  of  importing  salt  as  an  article 
of  absolute  necessity.  It  was  on  this  condition  alone  that  she 
could  obtain  repossession  of  Pomerania. 

The  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  having  died  suddenly,  a  Diet 
assembled  at  Orebro,  and  elected  John  Baptiste  Julius  Berna- 
dotte.  Prince  of  Ponte  Corvo,  his  successor  to  the  throne  (May 
28.)  The  election  was  unanimous  ;  but  out  of  more  than  one 
thousand  of  the  nobility  who  had  a  right  to  appear  at  the  Diet, 
only  one  hundred  and  forty  were  present.  Bernadotte  accepted 
an  off*er  so  honourable.  On  his  arrival  at  Elsinore,  he  professed, 
as  his  ancestors  had  done  before  him  in  France,  his  adherence 
to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  which  was  then  the  established 
religion  in  Sweden.  King  Charles  XIII.  having  adopted  him 
as  his  son,  he  was  proclaimed  at  Stockholm  (Nov.  5,)  eventual 
successor  to  tha  throne,  under  the  name  of  Charles  John. 
Twelve  days  afterwards,  Sweden  declared  war  against  Great 
Britain. 

In  Russia,  the  Emperor  Alexander,  since  hr  iccession  to  the 
throne,  had  occupied  himself  incessantly  in  improving  cverv 
oranch  of  the  administration.  The  restrictive  regulations  whicb 
had  been  published  under  the  last  reign  were  abrogated ;  by 
(gradual  concessions,  the  peasantry  were  prepared  for  a  libertv 


1,  and  compelled  the 
nmanded  by  Gripen- 
irch  25.)  This  san- 
fnorance ;  because  iti 
f  north  latitude,  they 
Knorring.  On  the 
need  in  the  month  of 
of  the  part  of  West 

I  was  signed  at  Fre- 
adhered  to  the  Con- 
nportation  of  salt  and 
)  without.  She  sur- 
Bothnia,  and  a  part  of 
e  river  Tornea.  The 
le  granary  of  Sweden, 
lis,  was  an  irreparable 
14,000  inhabitants  left. 
y  followed  by  that  of 
at  at  Paris  with  France 
^  was  re-established  on 
es.  But  by  the  peace 
on  of  colonial  produce, 
rting  salt  as  an  article 
ndition  alone  that  she 

died  suddenly,  a  Diet 
Baptiste  Julius  Berna- 
ior  to  the  throne  (May 

out  of  more  than  one 

;  to  appear  at  the  Diet, 

Bernadotte  accepted 

Elsinore,  he  professed, 
France,  his  adherence 
as  then  the  established 
[.  having  adopted  him 
>lm  (Nov.  6,)  eventual 
ime  of  Charles  John, 
red  war  against  Great 

nee  hi'   iccession  to  the 
y   in   nnproving  cverv      \ 
ctive  regulations  which 
jn  were  abrogated ;  by     I 
prepared  for  a  liberty      ' 


TERIOD  IX.       A.  D.  1803—1810. 


531 


which  they  had  not  yet  enjoyed.  The  number  of  universities, 
and  what  is  still  more  essential  to  civilization,  the  number  of 
schools  was  augmented.  The  senate,  the  ministry,  and  the 
civil  authorities  were  reorganized,  and  new  improvements 
adopted,  tending  to  abolish  arbitrary  power,  to  accelerate  the 
despatch  of  business,  and  to  promote  the  distribution  of  fail 
and  impartial  justice  to  all  classes  of  society.  Canals  were 
dug,  new  avenues  were  opened  for  industry,  and  commerce 
flourished,  especially  the  trade  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  only 
point  in  which  the  Government  failed,  was  in  its  attempts  to  re- 
store the  finances ;  but  the  four  wars  of  the  preceding  seven 
years  in  which  Russia  had  been  engaged,  rendered  these  at- 
tempts unavailing. 

We  have  already  related  the  origin,  events,  and  termination 
of  two  of  these  wars,  viz.  that  of  1806,  which  ended  with  the 
peace  of  Tilsit,  and  procured  Russia  the  province  of  Bialystock ; 
and  that  of  Sweden,  which  annexed  the  province  of  Finland  to 
that  Empire.  The  war  against  England  continued  after  the 
peace  of  Fredericsham,  but  without  furnishing  any  events  of 
great  importance.  The  two  other  wars  were  those  against  Per- 
sia and  the  Porte.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  Alexander 
had  annexed  Georgia  to  his  Empire,  which  had  till  then  been 
the  prey  of  continual  disturbances.  This  accession  drew  him 
into  a  war  with  Persia,  which  did  not  terminate  till  1813.  The 
principal  events  of  that  war  were  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  at 
£tschmiazin,by  Prince  Zizianofr(.Tune  20,  1804;)  the  conquest 
of  the  province  of  Shirvan  by  the  same  Prince  (Jan.  1806 ;) 
the  taking  of  Derbent  by  the  Russians  (July  3  ;)  and  the  defeat 
of  the  Persians  by  Paulucci,  at  Alkolwalaki,  (Sept.  1,  1810.) 

Before  speaking  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  it 
will  be  necessar  to  lake  a  brief  retrospect  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire. The  cone  ition  of  that  Empire,  badly  organized  and  worse 
governed,  wis  uch,  that  every  thing  tnen  presaged  its  ap- 
proaching dissolution  ;  or  in  other  words,  the  expulsion  of  the 
Turks  from  Europe.  Every  where  the  authority  of  the  Grand 
Seignor  was  disregarded.  Paswan  Oglou,  the  racha  of  Wid- 
din,  was  in  open  revolt.  Ali  Pacha  of  Janina  was  obedient 
only  when  it  suited  his  convpiiicnce.  The  Servians  had  taken 
up  arms  under  theii  leader  C/crni  George,  and  threatened  to 
possess  themselves  of  Sabacz  and  Belgrade.  Djezzar,  the 
Pacha  of  Syria,  without  declaring  himself  an  enemy  to  the 
Porte,  enjoyed  an  absolute  independence.  The  sect  of  the  Wa- 
habites  was  in  possession  of  Arabia.  Egypt  was  distracted  by 
civil  wars.  Selim  III.,  who  had  reigned  there  since  1789,  con- 
vinced that  the  Porte  could  never  re-establish  its  authority  e»- 


3 

If 


(V 


532 


CHAPTER  XI. 


cept  by  better  orgfanizing  the  army,  had  endeavoured  to  model 
it  on  the  European  system.  This  attempt  afterwards  cost  him 
his  throne. 

Such  was  the  situation  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  when  Bona 

farte,  in  order  to  prevent  Alexander  from  sending  supplies  to 
'russia,  resolved  to  embroil  him  in  a  quarrel  with  the  Porte. 
General  Sebastian!,  the  French  Envoy  at  Constantinople,  con- 
trived to  obtain  so  great  an  influence  over  the  minds  of  the 
Divan,  that  for  some  time  it  was  entirely  under  his  direction. 
Subjects  of  dissension  were  not  wanting  between  Russia  and 
the  Porte  ;  and  these  were  of  such  a  nature,  as  to  furnish  each 
partjr  with  plausible  reasons  for  complaining  of  the  infraction  ol 
treaties.  The  French  minister  was  not  slow  to  fan  the  spark  ot 
discord.  He  even  induced  the  Divan  to  refuse  to  renew  their 
treatjr  of  alliance  with  England,  which  was  then  on  the  point  of 
expiring.  The  Emperor  Alexander,  foreseeing  that  there  would 
be  no  redress  to  his  complaints,  gave  orders  to  General  Michel- 
son  to  enter  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  The  Porte  then  declared 
war  against  Russia  (Dec.  30 ;)  but  deviating  for  the  first  time 
from  a  barbarous  custom,  he  allowed  M.  d'ltalinski,  the  Russian 
minister,  to  depart  unmolested. 

A  few  days  after,  Mr.  Arbuthnot,  the  English  minister,  quit- 
ted Constantinople,  after  having  repeatedly  demanded  the  re- 
newal of  the  alliance,  and  the  expulsion  of  M.  Sebastiani. 
Within  a  few  weeks  an  English  fleet  of  nine  ships  of  the  line, 
three  frigates,  and  several  fire-ships,  commanded  by  Vice- Admi- 
ral Duckworth,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles,  and  ap- 
giared  before  Constantinople.  Duckworth  demanded  of  the 
ivan,  that  the  forts  of  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Turkish  fleet 
should  be  surrendered  to  him  ;  that  the  Porte  should  cede  Mol- 
davia and  Wallachia  to  Russia,  and  break  ofi"  alliance  with  Bo- 
naparte. But  instead  of  profiting  by  the  sudden  panic  which 
his  appearance  had  created,  he  allowed  the  Turks  time  to  pu» 
themselves  in  a  posture  of  defence.  Encouraged  and  instructed 
by  Sebastiani,  they  made  their  preparations  with  such  energy 
and  success,  that  in  the  course  of  eight  days  the  English  Vice- 
admiral  found  that  he  could  do  nothing  better  than  weigh  an- 
chor and  repass  the  Dardanelles.  On  his  arrival  at  Malta,  he 
took  on  board  5000  troops,  under  the  command  of  General  Era- 
ser, a..d  conveyed  them  to  Egypt.  The  English  took  posses- 
sion of  Alexandria  (Mar,  20;)  but  in  the  course  of  six  months, 
they  found  themselves  obliged  to  surrender  that  city  by  capitu- 
lation to  the  Governor  of  Egypt. 

The  campaign  of  1N07  was  not  productive  of  niiy  very  deci- 
sive result,  as  General  Michelson  had  received  orders  to  detach 


intleavoured  to  model 
(t  nrterwardri  cost  him 

Empire,  when  Bona 
in  sending  supplies  to 
arrel  with  the  Porte. 
|t  Constantinople,  con- 
ver  the  minds  of  the 
ly  under  his  direction, 
g  between  Russia  and 
ure,  as  to  furnish  each 
ing  of  the  infraction  oi 
slow  to  fan  the  spark  oi 
0  refuse  to  renew  their 
ras  then  on  the  point  of 
seeing  that  there  would 
ers  to  General  Michel- 
Die  Porte  then  declared 
inting  for  the  first  time 
d'ltalinski,  the  Russian 

!  English  minister,  quit- 
itedly  demanded  the  re- 
sion  of  M.  Sebastiani. 
if  nine  ships  of  the  line, 
mmandedby  Vice-Admi- 
;he  Dardanelles,  and  ap- 
^orlh  demanded  of  the 
es  and  the  Turkish  fleet 
!  Porte  should  cede  Mol- 
;ak  off  alliance  with  Bo- 
the  sudden  panic  which 
i  the  Turks  time  to  pu* 
ncou  raged  and  instructed 
rations  with  such  energy 
days  the  English  Vice- 
ng  better  than  weigh  an- 
his  arrival  at  Malta,  he 
jmmand  of  General  Fra- 
le  English  took  posses- 
he  course  of  six  months, 
inder  that  city  by  capitu- 

luctive  of  any  very  deci- 
received  orders  to  detach 


ia>-n-^iiJ7i'fi.-(''->ii|>T 


:,Sfr*-\ii:^'i 


TERIOD  IX.       A.  D.   1802—1810. 


533 


SO,nOO  men  to  oppose  the  French  in  Poland.  Czerni  George 
lh(.'  leader  of  the  revolted  Servians,  took  Belgrade,  Sabacz,  and 
Nissu,  penetrated  into  Bulgaria,  where  he  was  reinforced  by  some 
Hiissinn  troops,  and  gained  divers  signal  advantages.  General 
Miihclson  himself  was  victorious  near  Guirdesov  (March  17,) 
without,  however,  being  able  to  get  possession  of  that  place.  The 
war  was  condiirted  with  more  success  on  the  frontiers  of  the  two 
Empires  in  Asia.  The  Seraskier  of  Erzerum  was  entirely  de- 
feated by  General  Gudovitch  (June  18;)  and  that  victory  was 
an  event  so  much  the  more  fortunate,  as  it  prevented  the  Persians 
from  making  a  bold  diversion  in  favour  of  the  Turks.  The  most 
important  event  in  the  campaign  was  the  naval  battle  of  Lemnos, 
where  the  Russian  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Vice-admiral 
Siniawin,  defeated  the  Capitan  Pacha,  who  had  sailed  from  the 
Dardanelles  after  the  retreat  of  Duckworth. 

When  the  Ottoman  navy  sustained  this  defeat,  Selim  III.  had 
ceased  to  reign.  That  prmce  had  rendered  himself  odious  to 
the  troops,  by  the  introduction  of  the  European  discipline  and 
dress,  known  by  the  name  of  Nizami  gedid,  and  by  his  connexion 
with  the  French  Emperor.  One  circumstance,  regarded  as  a  fun- 
damental law,  and  according  to  which  a  Sultan  who  had  reigned 
seven  years  without  having  any  children  was  regarded  as  un- 
worthy of  the  throne,  served  as  a  pretext  for  the  military  to  have 
him  deposed.  Selim,  finding  it  impossible  to  quell  or  allay  the 
revolt,  abdicated  voluntarily  (May  29,)  and  placed  his  cousin, 
Mustapha  IV.,  on  the  throne.  In  the  amnesty  which  that  prince 
published,  he  recognised  the  right  of  the  Janissaries  to  withdraw 
their  allegiance  from  the  Grand  Seignor  who  should  depart  from 
the  established  customs,  and  that  of  appointing  his  successor. 

The  Emperor  Alexander  had  promised,  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit, 
to  evacuate  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  on  condition,  however,  that 
the  Turks  should  not  occupy  these  two  provinces  till  after  the 
conclusion  of  a  definitive  peace.  The  French  General  Guille- 
minot  was  sent  to  the  Turkish  camp  to  negotiate  an  armistice 
on  these  terms,  which  in  effect  was  signed  at  Slobozia  (Aug.  24.) 
The  evacuation  of  the  two  provinces  stipulated  by  that  arrange- 
ment never  took  place,  as  the  Emperor  of  Russia  refused  to  ratify 
the  treaty,  as  it  contained  certain  articles  which  he  judged  in- 
compatible with  his  dignity  ;  so  that  matters  remained  on  their 
former  footing.  That  circumstance  was  one  of  the  pretexts 
which  Bonaparte  alleged  for  continuing  to  occupy  Prussia. 

In  the  midst  of  these  political  quibblings,  the  time  arrived 
when  a  new  system  of  things  took  place.  The  Cabinets  of  St. 
Petersburg  and  Paris  were  making  mutual  advances  ;  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  fate  of  the  Porte,  and  especially  of  the  pro- 


'•I! 


■  >if  wafcj^.^     ..jt_^       -V    J»tii 


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I 


M' " 


^:i-'l' 


634 


CHAPTBR   XI. 


vinces  beyond  the  Danul^e,  was  one  of  the  subjects  which  were 
discussed  during  the  intervitw  at  Erfurt.  France  lost  her  influ- 
ence at  Constantinople,  when  they  saw  her  enter  into  an  alliance 
with  Russia  ;  and  from  that  time  England  directed  the  poliiica 
of  the  Divan. 

Mustapha  IV.  had  in  the  i?iean  time  been  hurled  from  ihe 
throne.  Mustapha,  styled  Bairactar  or  the  Standardbearer, 
the  Pacha  of  Rudschuk,  a  man  of  extraordinary  courage,  and 
one  of  the  most  zealous  abettors  of  the  changes  introduced  by 
Selim,  which  he  regarded  as  the  sole  means  of  preserving  the 
State,  had  marched  with  35,000  men  to  Constantinople,  with 
the  view  of  reforming  or  seizing  the  government,  and  announced 
to  Mustapha  IV.  (July  28, 1808,)  that  he  must  resign,  and  make 
way  for  tne  ancient  and  legitimate  Sultan.  Mustapha  thought 
to  save  his  crown  by  putting  Sclim  to  death  ;  but  Bairactar 
proclaimed  Mahmoud,  the  younger  brother  of  Mustapha,  who 
was  then  shut  up  in  the  Seraglio.  Bairactar,  invested  with  abso- 
lute power,  re-established  the  corps  of  the  Seimens,  or  disciplined 
troops  on  the  footing  of  the  Europeans,  and  took  vigorous  mea- 
sures 'ir  putting  the  Empire  in  a  condition  to  resist  the  Russians. 
These  patriotic  efforts  cost  him  his  life.  After  the  departure  of 
a  part  of  the  Seimens  for  the  army,  the  Janissaries  and  the  in- 
habitants of  C  onstantinople  revolted.  At  the  head  of  a  body  of 
newly  organi;:ed  troops,  Mustapha  defended  himself  with  cou- 
rage ;  but  seeing  the  moment  approach  when  he  must  yield  to 
the  superior  number  of  his  assailants,  he  put  to  .leath  the  old 
Sultan  and  his  mother,  whose  intrigues  had  ini  .gated  the  insur- 
rection. He  retired  to  a  fortress  or  strong  pkce,  where  he  had 
deposited  a  quantity  of  gunpowder.  The  Janissaries  having 
pursued  him  thither,  he  set  fire  to  the  magazine,  and  blew  him- 
self and  his  persecutors  into  the  air.  The  young  Sultan  Mahmoud 
had  the  courage  t(>  declare  that  he  would  retain  the  European 
discipline  and  dress ;  but  after  being  attacked  in  his  place,  and 
learning  that  the  city  was  filled  with  carnago  and  conflagration, 
he  gelded  to  necessity,  and  restored  the  privileges  of  the  Janis- 
sanes.  It  is  probable  they  would  not  have  spared  his  life,  but  for 
the  circumstance  that  he  was  the  last  scion  of  the  race  of  Osman. 

The  ministers  of  the  Divan,  whom  General  Sebastiani  had 

fainedoverto  the  interestsof  France,  finding  themselves  entirely 
iscarded  by  the  last  revolution,  Mr.  Adair,  the  new  English 
minister  at  Constantinople,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  (Jan.  5, 
1809,)  by  which  the  Porte  confirmed  to  England  the  commercial 
advantages  which  the  treaty  of  1675  had  granted  them,  as  well 
as  the  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  which  Mr.  Spencei  Smith 
had  obtained  (August  3,  1799.) 


n. 


subjects  which  were 
France  lost  her  iiiAu* 
[renter  into  an  alliance 
M  directed  the  politici 

been  hurled  from  the 

the  Standardbearer, 

ordinary  courage,  and 

hanges  introduced  by 

!ans  of  preserving  the 

)  Constantinople,  with 

nment,  and  announced 

must  resign,  and  make 

.     Mustapha  thought 

death ;  but  Bairactar 

her  of  Mustapha,  who 

tar,  invested  with  abso- 

Seimens,  or  disciplined 

md  took  vigorous  mea- 

[» to  resist  the  Russians. 

After  the  departure  of 

Janissaries  and  the  in- 

kt  the  head  of  a  body  of 

ided  himself  with  cou- 

when  he  must  yield  to 

ie  put  to  .'eath  the  old 

lad  ini  .gated  the  insur- 

ng  place,  where  he  had 

'he  Janissaries  having 

agazine,  and  blew  him- 

roung  Sultan  Mahmoud 

1  retain  the  European 

icked  in  his  place,  and 

nagrj  and  conflagration, 

privileges  of  the  Janis* 

!  spared  his  life,  but  for 

n  of  the  race  of  Osman. 

reneral  Sebastiani  had 

ing  themselves  entirely 

dair,  the  new  English 

reaiy  of  peace  (Jan.  »5, 

ingland  the  commercial 

granted  them,  as  «vell 

ch  Mr.  Spencei  Smith 


ff 


PBRIOD  IX.       A.  D.   1802—1810. 


C35 


Immediately  after  the  return  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  from 
Erfurt,  an  order  was  given  to  open  negotiations  with  the  Turks. 
Tile  confercMice  took  place  at  Jassy  ;  but  it  was  immediately 
broken  utf,  uftcr  the  Russian  plenipotentiaries  had  demundi'd,us 
preliminary  conditions,  the  ccs.><ion  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
and  the  expulsion  of  the  British  minister  from  Constantinopk. 
Ho.stilities  then  recommenced.  Tli''  Russians  were  conunanded 
by  Prince  Prosoroffski.and  nftorhis  death,  by  Prince  Bagration. 
Having  passed  the  Danube,  they  took  po.-sseasion  of  Ismael,  and 
fought  abloody  battle  at  Tarlaritza,riear  Silistria  (Sept.  26,)  which 
compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege  of  that  place.  The  Grand 
Vizier,  without  taking  advantage  of  his  good  fortune,  retired  to 
winter-quarters. 

The  campaign  of  1810  was  more  decisive.  General  Kamen- 
skoi,  the  second  of  that  name,  had  taken  the  chief  command  of 
the  Russian  army ;  his  brother  of  the  same  name,  and  General 
Markoti',  opened  it  by  the  taking  of  Bazardjik  (June  4;)  the  cap- 
ture of  Silistria  (June  11,)  by  the  Commander-in-chief  and  Count 
Langeron,  opened  the  way  to  Shumla,  where  the  Grand  Vizier, 
YussuflT  Pacha,  occupied  a  strong  position  ;  while  General  Sa- 
banieft'  defeated  a  body  of  Turkish  troops  near  Rasmird  (June 
14,)  the  remains  of  which  were  obliged  to  surrender.  The  Grand 
Vizier  then  demanded  an  armistice  for  negotiating  a  peace.  The 
reply  was,  that  it  would  be  concluded  immediately  on  his  recog- 
nising the  Danube  as  the  limit  of  the  two  Empires,  and  promising 
to  pay  a  sum  of  twenty  millions  of  piastres  ;  the  Russians  re- 
maining in  possession  of  Bessarabia  until  it  was  paid.  The 
Grand  Vizier,  at  the  instigation  of  the  British  minister,  rejected 
these  conditions.  Yussuff  Pacha  still  occupied  his  camp  near 
Shumla,  the  rear  of  which  was  protected  by  the  Hemus.  Ka- 
menskoi  the  elder,  attacked  him  in  his  entrenchments,  but  was 
repulsed  with  loss  (June  23 ;)  he  left  his  brother  at  Kargali  Dere 
(about  five  leagues  from  Shumla)  at  the  head  of  a  corps  of  ob- 
servation, while  he  attempted  himself  to  take  Rudschuk  by  main 
force,  but  was  again  repulsed.  The  younger  brother  then  found 
himself  obliged,  by  the  approach  of  a  superior  force,  to  abandon 
his  position  at  Kargali  Dere  (Aug.  15.)  YussufT  being  deter- 
mined to  save  Rudschuk,  detached  Mouhtar  Pacha  with  a  body 
of  40,000  troops,  who  took  up  a  formidable  position  at  the  place 
where  the  Jantra  runs  into  the  Danube.  Kamenskoi  leaving  to 
Count  Langeron  the  care  of  the  siege  of  Rudschuk,  and  ordering 
Sass  to  invest  Guirdesov,  which  is  situated  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Danube  opposite  Rudschuk,  immediately  directed  his  march 
against  Mouhtar,  and  attacked  mm  in  his  entrenchments  at 
Batine.     Ai''.er  e  '.errible  carnage,  the  Russians  took  possession 


■  +1 


m 


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CHACTER  Xn. 


af  the  Turkish  cnmn  by  main  force  (Sept.  7.)  when  Mouhlar 
csca;  rtd  with  a  small  dctachmoiit.  Within  afiwdays  after, 
Count  St.  Priest  took  Sczistov,  -vith  the  whole  Turkish  fleet, 
Rudschuk  and  Guirdesov  sun.  ud' red  on  the  same  day  (Sen(. 
27,)  and  Nicnpoli  and  Widdin  in  a  short  time  after ;  so  that  by 
the  end  of  the  campaign  the  Russians  were  masters  of  the  whole 
right  bank  of  the  D.m  abe.  The  Grand  Vizier  had  continued 
all  this  time  in  his  siivnig  camp  at  Shumla.  The  Servians,  as- 
sisted by  a  body  of  Russians,  hod  taken  possession  of  the  last 
fortresses  in  their  country  which  the  Turks  had  still  maintained, 
such  as  Cladova,  Oreavn,  and  Praova. 


CHAi'TKR  XII. 


PERIOD  IX. 


The  declirw  and  downfall  of  the  Empire  of  Bonaparte. — a.  d 
1810—1816. 

The  power  of  Napoleon  had  now  attained  its  greatest  height. 
The  birth  of  a  son.  an  event,  which  happened  March  20,  ISll, 
might  have  given  stability  to  this  power,  had  he  known  how  to 
set  bounds  to  his  ambition.  The  heir  to  the  Imperial  throne 
received  the  title  of  King  of  Rome,  a  dignity  which  had  been 
decreed  in  anticipation. 

The  differences  that  had  arisen  between  Bonaparte  and  the 
Head  of  the  Church,  became  this  year  a  subject  of  public  dis- 
cussion. The  will  of  a  despot  whom  no  power  could  resist,  was 
made  to  recoil  mo/e  than  once  before  the  inflexible  firmness  of 
an  old  man,  disarmed  and  in  captivity.  Ever  since  Bonaparte 
had  deprived  the  Church  of  her  patrimony,  and  had  been  laid 
under  the  ban  of  excommunication,  Pius  VII.,  faithful  to  his 

Erinciples,  had  refused  confirmation  to  every  bishop  nominated 
V  a  man  who  was  excluded  from  the  Catholic  communion 
Bonaparte  thought  it  might  be  possible  to  dispense  with  the 
confirmation  of  the  Pope.  With  this  view,  he  assembled  a  na- 
tional council  at  Paris  (June  17, 1811,)  composed  of  French  and 
Italian  bishops,  and  in  which  Cardinal  Fesch,  the  Archbishop 
of  Lyons,  presided.  He  soon  found,  however,  that  despotic  au- 
thority was  of  little  avail  against  religious  opinions.  The  pre- 
lates, on  whose  compliance  he  had  calculated  with  too  much 
confidence,  declared  that  the  Council  hud  no  power  to  grant  that 


xMUHIiH 


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7,)  ivhon  Mouhlar 
ri  a  (i  w  day  i  nfler, 
•hole  Turkish  flcpl, 
he  snine  dny  (Sent. 
10  after  ;  so  that  by 
nasters  of  the  whole 
izicr  had  continued 
The  Servians,  as- 
ssession  of  the  last 
lad  still  maintained, 


f  Bonaparte. — a.  d 


1  its  greatest  height, 
led  March  20,  ISll, 
id  he  known  how  to 
the  Imperial  throne 
ity  which  had  been 

1  Bonaparte  and  the 
lubject  of  public  dis- 
iver  could  resist,  was 
nflexible  firmness  of 
Iver  since  Bonaparte 
f,  and  had  been  laid 

VII.,  faithful  to  his 
iry  bishop  nominated 
/atholic  communion 
to  dispense  with  the 
',  he  assembled  a  na- 
iposed  of  French  and 
esch,  the  Archbishop 
ver,  that  despotic  au- 

opinions.  The  pre- 
lated  with  too  much 
o  power  to  grant  that 


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PERIOD  IX.       A.  D.   ISIO— 1815. 


537 


rontirmation  which  was  refused  by  the  Pope ;  but  the  arrest  of 
three  of  the  most  refractorv  prelates,  who  were  imprisoned  :it 
Viiiceiines  (July  12,)  having  given  rha  to  a  negotiation,  the  rest 
adopted  a  modified  scheme  which  the  government  had  commu- 
nicated to  them  ;  on  condition,  however,  that  it  should  be  sub- 
mitted for  the  approbation  of  the  Pope.  But  his  Holiness,  who 
had  still  remained  at  Savona,  refused  to  treat  with  the  Council, 
which  he  declared  null  and  void,  as  having  been  convened  with- 
out his  authority.  The  project  of  Bonaparte  thus  completely 
failed  ;  the  Council  was  dismissed  ;  and  twenty  of  the  Sees  of 
France  and  Italy  were  left  without  bishops. 

Before  proceeding  to  detail  the  grand  events  which  overturned 
the  dominion  of  Bonaparte,  it  will  be  necessary  to  advert  to  what 
took  place  in  Spain  and  Portugal  in  1811  and  1812.  Sickness, 
and  the  want  of  provisions,  had  at  length  compelled  Massena  to 
effect  his  retreat  (March  1,)  during  which  he  sustained  con- 
siderable loss  by  the  pursuit  of  Lord  Wellington.  Thus,  for 
the  third  time,  was  Portugal  released  from  the  invasion  of  the 
French  army.  It  would  be  impossible,  within  the  narrow  limits 
to  which  we  are  here  confined,  to  detail  the  various  marches  and 
counter-marches  of  the  Generals,  or  the  operations  in  which  they 
were  engaged.  We  can  only  point  out  the  principal  actions  in 
a  detached  and  cursory  manner. 

Marshal  Soult  retook  Badajos  (March  10,)  while  Lord  Wel- 
lington still  retained  his  position  at  Torres  Vedras,  which  he  had 
quitted  with  reluctance  to  go  in  pursuit  of  Massena.  As  the 
possession  of  that  place  was  of  importance  for  the  English,  Lord 
Wellington  determined  to  besiege  it ;  but  Marshal  Marmont 
who  had  replaced  Massena  in  the  command  of  the  army  of  the 
North,  and  Marshal  Soult  who  had  formed  a  junction  with  him, 
obliged  him  to  discontinue  the  siege.  He  retired  to  Portugal, 
where  he  remained  on  the  defensive  during  the  rest  of  the  cam- 
paign. The  advantages  of  the  campaign  of  1811  belonged  to 
General  Suchet.  After  a  destructive  siege,  he  took  Tortosa  by 
capitulation  (Jan.  1,)  and  Tarragona  by  main  force  (June  28.) 
He  made  himself  master  of  Monteserrat  in  the  same  manner. 
(Aug.  19.)  By  a  signal  victory  which  he  gained  over  General 
Blake  (Oct.  25,)  at  Murviedro,  the  ancient  Saguntum,  he  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  conquest  of  Valencia,  which  surrendered 
by  capitulation  (Jan.  9,  1812.) 

At  the  commencement  of  1812,  the  French  forces  in  Spain 
amounted  to  150,000  men.  The  allies  consisted  of  52,000  Eng- 
lish troops,  24,000  Portuguese,  and  100,000  Spaniards,  mcluding 
20,000  guerillas.  Lord  Wellington  reduced  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
(Jan.  19,)  and  then  retired  once  more  mto  Portugal,  where  hs 


•■!■ ; 


,,..  I 


:s  m 


538 


CHAPTER  XU. 


kepi  on  the  defensive  for  nearly  five  months.  He  then  attacked 
Salamanca,  took  that  city  (June  28,)  and  defeated  Marmont  in 
the  famous  battle  of  Areopiles,  near  Salamanca  (July  21,)  where 
Clause!  saved  the  French  nrmy  from  a  complete  rout.  Joseph 
Bonaparte  (juitted  Madrid.  Soult  gave  orders  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Cadiz,  which  had  continued  for  two  years.  He  evacuated 
Andalusia,  and  joined  King  Joseph  in  Murcia.  Wellington, 
now  master  of  Burgos,  was  desirous  to  get  possession  also  Oi 
the  citadel  of  that  place,  the  acquisition  of  which  was  necessary 
for  his  safety.  But  Souham,  who  had  succeeded  Marmont,  and 
Soult  having  approached  on  both  sides  to  save  the  town,  the 
British  General  retired  again  into  Portugal,  and  Joseph  Bona- 
parte returned  to  Madrid  (Nov.  1.) 

At  this  time  the  North  of  Europe  had  been  the  theatre  ot 
great  events.  For  some  time,  the  friendship  between  the  Courts 
of  St.  Petersburg  and  St.  Cloud  had  been  growing  cool.  The 
last  usurpations  of  Bonaparte,  during  the  course  of  1810,  brought 
about  a  complete  rupture.  The  extension  of  the  French  Empire 
towards  the  Baltic,  was  becoming  a  subject  of  suspicion  and 
anxiety  to  Alexander.  The  manner  in  which  Bonaparte  had 
taken  possession  of  the  dutchy  of  Oldenburg,  the  patrimony  of 
his  family,  was  an  outrage  against  his  person.  The  first  symp- 
tom of  discontent  which  he  exhibited,  was  by  abandoning  the 
Continental  system,  although  indirectly,  by  an  Ukase  (Dec.  13, 
1810,)  which  permitted  the  importation  of  colonial  produce, 
while  it  interdicted  that  of  France,  wine  only  excepted.  Under 
pretext  of  organizing  a  force  for  the  maintenance  of  these  regu- 
lations, he  raised  an  army  of  90,000  men.  A  rupture  with  Bo- 
naparte appeared  then  unavoidable. 

In  Sweden  also  there  arose  new  subjects  of  quarrel.  Bona- 
parte complained,  that  in  that  country  the  Continental  system  had 
not  been  put  in  execution  with  sufficient  rigour.  He  demanded, 
that  Charles  XIII.  should  put  two  thousand  sailors  into  his  pay ; 
that  he  should  introduce  the  Tariff  of  Trianon,  and  admit  French 
revenue-officers  at  Gottenburg.  In  short,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  were  to  form  a  confederation,  under 
the  protection  of  France.  During  these  discussions,  Marshal 
Davoust,  who  commanded  in  the  north  of  Germany,  took  pos- 
session of  Swedish  Pomerania  and  the  Isle  of  Rugen  (Jan.  27, 
1812.)  Bonaparte  offered,  however,  to  surrender  that  province 
to  Sweden,  and  to  compel  Alexander  to  restore  Finland  to  her, 
if  Charles  XIII.  would  agree  to  furnish  30,000  troops  against 
Russia. 

Sweden,  on  the  contrary,  was  on  terms  of  conciliation  with 
that  power.  By  an  alliance,  which  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg 


He  then  attacked 
feated  Marmont  in 
ca  (July  21,)  where 
)lete  rout.  Joseph 
rs  to  raise  the  siege 

:irs.  He  evacuated 
rcia.  Wellington, 
possession  also  Oi 

'hich  was  necessary 

;eded  Marmont,  and 
save  the  town,  the 

,  and  Joseph  Bona- 

been  the  theatre  ot 

between  the  Courts 

growing  cool.     The 

rse  of  1810,  brought 

the  French  Empire 

of  suspicion  and 

lich  Bonaparte  had 

g,  the  patrimony  of 

m.     The  first  symp- 

by  abandoning  the 

an  Ukase  (Dec.  13, 

)f  colonial  produce, 

ly  excepted.   Under 

nance  of  these  regu- 

A  rupture  with  Bo- 

of  quarrel.  Bona- 
itinental  system  had 
rour.  He  demanded, 
sailors  into  his  pay ; 
n,  and  admit  French 
Sweden,  Denmark, 
confederation,  under 
iscussions.  Marshal 
jrermany,  took  pos- 
of  Rugen  (Jan.  27, 
render  that  province 
tore  Finland  to  her, 
1,000  troops  against 

of  conciliation  with 
ed  at  St.  Petersburg 


TEHIOD  IX.      A.  D.   1810 — 1816. 


539 


(April  5,)  Alexander  promised  to  procure  her  Norway.  A  body 
of  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  thousand  Swedes,  and  be- 
tween fifteen  and  twenty  thousand  Russians,  were  then  to  make  a 
diversion  against  France  on  the  coasts  of  Germany.  This 
arrangement  was  afterwards  changed ;  in  a  conference  which 
the  Emperor  had  at  Abo  (Aug.  30,)  the  latter  consented  that  the 
Russian  troops,  destined  to  act  in  Norway,  should  be  transported 
to  Riga  for  the  defence  of  Russia ;  and  that  they  should  not,  till 
a  later  period,  undertake  the  conquest  of  Norway.  Charles  XIII. 
was  also  reconciled  to  England,  while  he  had  always  pretended 
to  be  ignorant  of  the  declaration  of  war  of  November  17,  1810. 
A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Orebro  (July  12,)  where  they 
agreed,  though  in  general  terms,  on  a  defensive  alliance. 

Bonaparte,  seeing  the  moment  approach  when  a  rupture  with 
Russia  would  take  place,  hesitated  for  some  time  as  to  the  part 
he  should  take  with  regard  to  Prussia,  in  the  very  centre  of 
which  he  still  possessed  three  fortresses.  He  determined  at  last 
to  preserve  that  State,  and  to  make  an  ally  of  it,  on  which  the 
principal  burden  of  the  war  should  fall.  Four  conventions  were 
concluded  at  Paris,  on  the  same  day  (Feb.  24,)  between  these 
two  powers.  By  the  principal  treaty,  an  alliance  purely  defen- 
sive was  established ;  but  according  to  certain  secret  articles, 
that  alliance  was  declared  ofTensive ;  on  such  terms,  however, 
that  Prussia^was  not  to  furnish  any  contingent  beyond  the  Py- 
renees in  Italy,  or  against  the  Turks.  By  the  first  convention, 
which  was  likewise  to  be  kept  secret,  the  alliance  was  expressly 
directed  against  Russia  ;  and  the  King  of  Prussia  promised  to 
furnish  a  body  of  20,000  auxiliary  troop3.  Glogau,  Stettin,  and 
Custrin,  were  to  be  still  occupied  by  the  French.  The  two  other 
conventions  related  to  the  sums  still  due  by  Prussia,  and  the  sup- 
plies which  she  had  to  furnish. 

A  few  days  after,  there  was  also  signed  at  Paris  a  defensive 
alliance  agamst  Russia,  between  Austria  and  France.  The  recip- 
rocal supplies  to  be  furnished  by  each,  was  30,000  men ;  and  the 
Court  of  Vienna  was  given  to  nope,  that  she  might  again  be  re- 
stored to  the  possession  of  the  Illyrian  Provinces.  From  that  mo- 
ment, Bonaparte  began  to  make  the  most  active  preparations.  By 
a  decree  of  the  Senate,  the  whole  male  population  of  France,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  twenty  and  sixty  years,  was  divided  into  three 
Bans,  or  bodies  summoned  by  proclamation  ;  the  first  of  these 
contained  100,000  men,  to  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  princes  of  the  confederation  were  to  furnish  their  con- 
tingent as  follows: — Bavaria  30,000  troops,  Westphalia  and 
Saxony  each  20,000,  Wurtemberg  14,000,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  40,000.  Negotiations  were  at  that  time  in  progress  between 


''"'•"r 


(■i 


•♦««"<. 


•1*1 


'        ,1^ 


i.kii 


110 


CIIAriER  XII. 


Bcinapane  and  Alexander,  apparently  with  a  view  of  adjusting 
their  rniilual  complaints.     But  matters  had  recently  taken  a 
turn,  which  left  little  reason  to  hope  that  they  would  come  t<» 
any  satisfactory  result.      These  conferences  were  continued  at 
Dresden  where  Bonaparte  had  gone,  and  where  he  met  the  Em- 
peror and  Empress  of  Austria,  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  a  great 
number  of  the  princes  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation,      rhis 
was  the  last  moment  of  Bonaparte's  greatness.     He  waited  the 
return  of  Count  Narbonne,  whom  he  had  sent  to  Wilna  with 
his  last  proposals  to  the  Emperor  Alexander.     Immediately  af- 
ter the  arrival  of  the  Count,  war  v/as  declared  (June  12,  1812.) 
The  army  of  Bonaparte  amounted  to  587,000  men,  of  which 
73,000  were  cavalry.      It  was  separated  into  three  grand  divi- 
sions ;  the  main  armv  was  composed  of  the  divisions  oflia- 
voust,  Oudinol,  and  Ney.     It  contained  also  the  troops  of  Wur- 
temberg,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  the  Prince  Royal.      f  he 
second  army,  commanded  by  Eugene  Beauharnais,  consisted  of 
the  divisions  of  Junot  and  St.  Cyr  ;  the  Bavarians,  under  the 
command  of  Deroy  and  Wrede,  made  a  part  of  it.     The  third 
army,  commanded  by  Jerome  Bonaparte,  consisted  of  the  Poles, 
under  Prince  Poniatowski,  the  Saxons,  under  Regnier,  and  the 
Westphalians  under  Vandamme.     The  Austrian  auxiliaries,  at 
the  head  of  whom  was  Prince  Schwartzenberg,  formed  the  ex- 
treme right  wing.     The  corps  of  Marshal  Macdonald  and  the 
Prussians,  were  placed  on  the  e.xtreme  left.     To  oppose  this 
immense  mass,  Alexander  had  only  260,000  men,  divided  into 
two  armies,  which  were  called  the  first  and  second  armies  of 
the  West.     The  former,  under  the  command  of  Count  Barclay 
de  Tolly,  extended  as  far  as  Grodno,  and  communicated  on  the 
north  side  with  Count  d'Essen,  Governor  of  Riga  ;  and  on  the 
south,  with  the  second  army  of  the  West,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  Prince  Bagration.      But  independently  of  these  forces, 
there  were  bodies  of  reserve,  and  armies  of  observation,  formed 
with  all  expedition,  and  ultimately  joined  with  the  main  armies. 
Of  the  great  number  of  battles  fought  during  this  memorable 
campaign,  we  must  content  ourselves  with  selecting  the  more 
important ;  without  entering  into  a  detail  of  the  various  move- 
ments of  either  party.     The  inferiority  of  numbers  which  Alex- 
ander had  to  oppose  to  Bonaparte,  seemed  to  render  a  defensive 
plan  advisable,  according  to  which,  by  destroying  all  the  means 
of  subsistence  in  the  districts  which  they  abandoned,  they  might 
allure  the  enemy  into  countries  desolated  and  destitute  of  every 
resource.     Bonaparte  allowed  himself  to  be  duped  by  feint  re- 
treats ;  his  scheme  was  to  place  himself  between  the  two  Rus- 
sian armies,  and  after  having  destroyed  botji,  to  penetrate  into 


FERIOD  IX.       A.  D.   1810— 1S15. 


541 


w  of  adjusting 
^cenlly  taken  u 
would  come  t«i 
re  continued  at 
he  met  the  Em- 
isia,  and  a  great 
'erntion.     This 
He  waited  the 
I  to  Wilna  with 
[mmediately  af- 
June  12,  1812.) 
)  men,  of  which 
iree  grand  divi- 
divisions  of  Da- 
j  troops  of  Wur- 
e  Royal.      The 
lais,  consisted  of 
rians,  under  the 
f  it.    The  third 
Bted  of  the  Poles, 
Regnier,  and  the 
m  auxiliaries,  at 
,  formed  the  ex- 
cdonald  and  the 
To  oppose  this 
len,  divided  into 
econd  armies  of 
f  Count  Barclay 
nunicated  on  the 
:iga  ;  and  on  the 
le  head  of  which 
of  these  forces, 
iervation,  formed 
the  main  armies. 
',  this  memorable 
ecting  the  more 
le  various  move- 
aers  which  Alex- 
nder  a  defensive 
ig  all  the  means 
oued,  they  might 
estitute  of  every 
ped  by  feint  re- 
en  the  two  Rus- 
0  penetrate  into 


the  inferior  of  the  Empire,  whore  he  reckoned  on  finding  im- 
mense riches,  and  to  dictate  the  terms  of  pence,  as  he  had  twice 
done  at  Vienna. 

The  passage  of  the  Niemen,  by  the  French  army,  was  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  (June  22;)  llie  Russians  immedi- 
ately began  their  system  of  retreat.  Bonaparte,  at  first,  suc- 
ceeded in  penetrating  between  the  two  armies;  but  after  several 
battles  fought  by  Prince  Bagration,  more  esperinlly  ilml  at 
MohilofT (July  23,)  the  two  armies  effected  a  junction  at  Smo- 
lensko.  Jerome  Bonaparte  and  Vandamine,  to  w  hoin  Bonaparte 
attributed  that  check,  were  ordered  to  quit  the  French  army, 
while  he  himself  advanced  as  far  as  Witcpsk. 

Bonaparte  engaged  Barclay  de  Tolly,  and  fought  a  bloody 
battle  with  him  at  Smolensko  (Aug.  17.)  He  took  possession 
of  that  city  by  force,  after  it  had  been  set  on  fire  by  the  inhabit- 
ants. He  found  no  provisions  in  it,  and  scarcely  a  shelter  to 
cover  his  sick  and  wounded.  On  the  news  of  the  progress 
which  the  French  were  making,  a  general  enthirsiasm  seized 
the  Russian  nation.  Alexander  had  encouraged  and  e.xcited 
this  patriotic  spirit  by  repairing  to  Moscow.  The  nobles  armed 
their  peasantry,  and  prepared  to  fight  with  desperation  to  the 
last.  The  two  armies  of  the  West  were  combined  into  one, 
of  which  Prince  KutusofT  took  the  command.  He  engaged 
Bonaparte,  and  fought  the  famous  battle  of  Moskwa,  about 
twenty-five  leagues  from  Moscow  (Sept.  7.)  Although  65,000 
men,  including  Russians,  French,  and  allies,  were  left  dead  on 
the  field  of  battle,  that  action  was  by  no  means  decisive ;  but 
KutusofT,  whose  army  was  reduced  to  70,000  men,  while  Bona- 
parte, out  of  150,000,  had  still  120,000  left,  resolved  to  continue 
his  retreat,  and  to  leave  Moscow  at  the  mercy  of  the  enemy. 
The  French  entered  that  place  seven  days  after  the  battle  (Sept. 
14.)  They  found  that  ancient  capital  entirely  abandoned,  but 
still  containing  immense  wealth  which  the  inhabitants  had  not 
been  able  to  carry  with  them.  Within  two  days,  a  conflagra- 
tion which  broke  out  in  five  hundred  places  at  once,  reduced 
that  immense  city  to  a  heap  of  ashes.  The  precautions  of  the 
incendiaries  had  been  so  well  taken,  that  all  the  efforts  of  the 
French  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  flames  proved  ineffectual ; 
and  out  of  9158  houses,  they  could  only  save  2041.  Thus 
perished  irrevocably  the  means  of  subsistence,  which  had  for  a 
moment  revived  the  courage  of  the  invaders. 

In  a  short  time  famine  began  to  make  its  appearance  in  the 
army  of  Bonaparte.  Dissembling  the  real  state  of  his  aflairs, 
he  twice  offered  peace.  Alexander  refused  to  treat  at  a  time 
when  the  war  was  only  on  the  eve  of  commencing ;  and  told 


■^f 

tt'lfll 

Ija. 

^Si 

ur     ' 

ij^ 

flU 

m 

IP 

H*.{ 

pi*i 

■ 

M 


r" 


S42 


CHAPTER   Xn. 


the  Knosinn  s;:onernfc,  thnt  he  wns  still  resolved  to  rontimie  his 
retreat,  whicli  coinmonced  acrordingly  on  the  l/)th  October. 
Mnrshal  Mortier,  who  commanded  the  rear-^unrd,  had  orders  to 
set  tiro  to  the  Kremlin,  the  palace  of  the  ancient  Czars  of  Rus- 
sia. Unnaparto  directed  his  march  towatds  Smolensko,  through 
a  country  reduced  to  an  entire  desert.  He  was  incessantly 
harassed  by  the  Russians,  whofc  troops,  marching  at  a  conve- 
nient distance,  attacked  both  his  flanks.  On  arriving  at  Smo- 
lensko (Nov.  9,)  after  having  lost  40,000  men,  the  army  was 
assailed  by  the  rigours  of  winter,  which  added  to  their  other 
misfortunes.  Kutusoflf  having  advanced  before  them,  and  tak- 
ing post  at  Kriisnoi,  they  were  obliged  to  force  a  passage  with 
the  loss  of  13,000  men,  and  70  pieces  of  catmon.  Two  days 
after,  11,000  men  of  Ney's  division,  laid  down  their  arms; 
35,000  men,  and  twenty-five  cannons  without  horses,  were  all 
that  remained  to  the  conqueror  of  Moscow. 

This  exhausted  and  dispirited  army  had  50  leagues  to  march, 
before  they  could   reach    the   Beresina,  where  other    dangers 
awaited  them.     The  passage  of  that  river  was  occupied  by  the 
army  of  TchichngotT,  amounting  to  50,000  men,  who  had  arrived 
from  Moldavia.     Another  Russian  army,  under  Count  Witgen- 
stein,  was  marching  from  the  north  to  join   the   former ;  but 
Marshal  Victor's  body  of  reserve,  which  had  arrived  from  Prus- 
sia, intercepted  them  for  a  while,  without  having  been  able  to 
prevent  their  final  junction.     Victor,  Oudinot,  and  Dombrowski, 
brought  a  reinforcement  to  Bonaparte  of  35,000  men,  exhaust- 
ed with  cold  and  famine.     The  passage  of  the  Beresina  was 
forced  with  admirable  bravery  (Nov.  27-28  ;)  but  it  cost  France 
or  the  allies,  the  lives  or  the  liberty  of  more  than  30,000  men. 
At  this  point,  the  main  body  of  the  Russians  ceased  to  pursue 
the  unfortunate  wreck  of  Bonaparte's  army ;  nevertheless,  as 
far  as  Wiina,  they  were  continually  harassed  by  the  Cossacs. 
There    was   besides  a  frightful  deficiency  of  provisions    and 
clothing,  so  that  upwards  of  2''<.00  men  fell  a  sacrifice  to  these 
privations  in  their  route  to  W.;  .c.     This  was  the  first  city  oi 
town  that  fell  in  their  way  ;  all  i'  c  others  had  been  completely 
destroyed ;  the  miserable  remnant  who  reached  that  place  (Dec. 
9,)  were  at  length  supplied  with  provisions ;  but  the  Cossacs 
did  not  leave  them  long  in  the  enjoyment  of  repose.     On  the 
following  day  they  were  obliged  to  commence  their  retreat  to 
Kowno,  from  which  they  directed  their  march  towards  the  Vis- 
tula.    Independently  of  the  corps  of  Macdonald,  who  had  the 
Prussians  under  his  command,  and  of  the  auxiliary  body  of 
Austrians  and  Saxons,  none  of  which  took  any  part  in  that 
route,  only  18,800  French  and  Italians,  and  about  23,000  Poles 
and  Germans,  found  their  way  back  from  Russia. 


I  i'':ii';i'i  iTi  .nii,»fifaig>ttiii*i''iii»m 


1  to  rontirme  his 

lo   15th   October. 

rd,  had  orders  to 

nt  C/ara  of  Kus- 

olensko,  through 

was  incessantly 

hing  nt  a  conve- 

arriving  at  Smo- 

n,  the  army  was 

ed  lo  their  other 

re  them,  and  tak- 

;e  a  passage  with 

non.     Two  days 

own  their  arms  ; 

horses,  were  ail 

leagues  to  march, 

c  other  dangers 
s  occupied  by  the 
I,  who  had  arrived 
?r  Count  Witgen- 

the  former ;  but 
rrived  from  Prus- 
i^ing  been  able  to 
and  Dombrowski, 
)00  men,  exhaust- 
the  Bercsina  was 
but  it  cost  France 
han  30,000  men. 
i  ceased  to  pursue 
;  nevertheless,  as 

by  the  Cossacs. 
f  provisions  and 
I  sacrifice  to  these 

the  first  city  oi 
[  been  completely 
d  that  place  (Dec. 

but  the  Cossacs 
repose.  On  the 
:e  their  retreat  to 
towards  the  Vis- 
ild,  who  had  the 
iiixiliary  body  of 
uiy  part  in  that 
out  23.000  Poles 
ia. 


PERIOD  !X.      A.  D.  1810—1815. 


Bi?, 


boiiapnrlo  himself  had  taken  his  departure  privately  on  the 
6th  December,  leaving  the  commiirKl  of  the  army  to  Murat. 
With  such  despatch  had  he  consulted  his  safety,  tlint  on  the  18th 
of  the  same  month  he  arrived  at  Puris. 

Prince  Schwartzenberg,  being  joined  by  General  licynicr  who 
commanded  the  Saxons,  had  fought  several  engagements  with 
the  army  of  TchichngofT,  none  of  whicii  had  proved  decisive ; 
and  after  the  nflliir  of  the  Bercsina  he;  lind  retired  towards  War- 
saw and  Pultusk.  Several  most  sanguinary  engagements, 
although  not  more  decisive  than  tlie  former,  had  taken  place 
between  Count  Witgenstein  and  the  left  wing  of  the  French 
army ;  especially  towards  the  commencement  of  the  campaign, 
when  Marshals  Oudinot  and  St,  Cyr  had  joined  Macdonald. 
On  these  occasions,  the  Prussians  had  rendered  very  important 
services  ;  but  the  moment  General  Yorke,  who  roninmnded 
these  auxiliaries,  had  been  informed  of  the  retreat  of  Bonaparte, 
he  thought  himself  authorized,  not  from  any  political  motives 
which  he  would  never  have  avowed,  but  from  the  destitute  con- 
dition in  whicli  he  had  been  left,  to  conclude  a  capitulation  with 
the  Russians,  by  which  he  withdrew  his  whole  forces  from  the 
French  army  (Dec.  29.) 

That  event  was  of  little  importance  in  itself,  although  it  pro- 
duced a  very  great  sensation  in  Prussia,  and  served  as  a  pretext 
for  Bonaparte  to  demand  new  levies,  without  being  obliged  to 
acknowledge  the  whole  extent  of  the  losses  he  had  sustained. 
One  of  his  ministers,  Regnault  d'Angely,  spoke  of  the  event,  in 
his  official  report,  as  the  Glorious  Retreat  of  Moscow!  More- 
over, a  decree  of  the  Senate,  issued  at  the  commencement  of  the 
following  j'ear  (Jan.  11,)  placed  a  new  conscription  of  350,000 
men  at  the  disposal  of  the  government.  In  order  to  raise  the 
necessary  funds  for  this  new  armament,  Bonaparte  seized  the 
revenues  of  all  the  communes  in  France  ;  their  properties  were 
sold  to  promote  his  schemes ;  and  he  promised  to  make  them 
ample  reimbursements,  by  assigning  to  them  annuities  on  the 
civil  list. 

Nothing  annoyed  Bonaparte  so  much  as  the  incessant  resis- 
tance and  opposition  of  Pope  Pius  VII.  In  the  hope  of  gaining 
a  more  easy  victory,  by  bringing  that  respectable  old  man  nearer 
his  person,  he  had  ordered  him  to  be  conveyed  to  the  Palace  of 
Fontainbleau,  about  the  middle  of  the  year  1812.  After  his  re- 
turn from  Moscow,  he  repaired  thither  himself,  and  succeeded 
in  extorting  the  Pope's  consent  to  a  new  Concordat ;  on  condi- 
tion, however,  that  the  stipulations  .«hould  be  kept  secret,  until 
they  were  examined  by  a  Consistory  of  Cardinals.  But  Bona- 
parte took  an  early  opportunity  of  publishing  this  new  Concof 


?] 


ri 


*««•■'• 


.^ 


^   I "  Mi 


r 


mtnntm 


644 


CIIAPTBR  Xll. 


dtti  as  a  lundainctal  law  of  ihe  Statc-a  circum.tttnce  which 
inducea  FiiH  VH.  10  disavow  it,  and  lo  declare  it  null  and  of 

"""USc,  a  new  and  lonnidable  league  wa.  preparing  again« 
Bona. rr    After  the  .•a,npai^^n  of  1812,  the  Kmg  of  taa 
had  demanded,  agreeal.iy  to  the  convention  of  l'ebruar>'  -Uh, 
that  Bonaparte  should  reimburse  him  for  the  ninety-  hriu,.  mil- 
1.  which  he  had  advanced  in  furnish.n-  m.pplies  to  the  I-  reach 
a  1  V   beyond  the  sum  wbich  he  owed  as  his  contingent  lor  the 
wT'     Tie  refusal  of  Bonaparte  to  pay  that  debt,  served  as  a 
pretext  for  Frederic  William  to  sbaUe  oil  an  alliance  so  contrary 
Tthe  true  interests  of  his  kingdom.  An  appeal  which  he  made 
0  the  nation  excited  a  general  enthusiasm  ;  and  as  every  thing 
had  been  lor  five  years  preparing  m  secret,  in  the  twinkling  of 
an  eve  the  Prussian  army,  which  had  been  reduced  to  42.000 
men,\vas  raised  to  12S,6oO.     This  defection  o    Prussia  fur- 
^ish;d  Bonaparte  with  a  nlea  for  demanding  new  levu^.     A  de- 
cree of  the  Senate  (April  3,  1813,)  ordered  him  180.000  addi- 

'"'The'Trty  which  was  signed  at  Kalisch  and  Breslau  (Feb. 
'27  28  )  laid  the  foundation  of  an  intimate  alliance  between  Kus- 
sia  and  the  King  of  Prussia.  Alexander  promised  to  furnish 
150  000  men,  a,rd  Prussia  80,000,  exclusive  of  the  troops  in 
garrisons  and  fortresses.  Alexander  moreover  engaged  never 
fo  av  down  arms  until  Prussia  should  be  restored  to  her  sta Us- 
tical,-  financial,  and  geographical  position,  '^""^"""'jjb'  '" /^^^^ 
state  of  that  monarchy,  such  as  it  had  been  b..fore  the  wa  of 
1806  Within  a  few  days  after,  these  two  monarchs  had  an 
interview  at  Breslau,  where  a  more  intimate  friendship  was  con 
traded,  which  subsisted  between  thein  for  a  long  time. 

Prince  Kutusoflf  issued  a  proclamation,  dated  from  Kahscli 
<March  23,  1813,)  which  announced  to  the  Germans  that  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  must  henceforth  be  regarded  as  dis- 
solved The  House  of  xMecklenburg,  without  waiting  for  that 
annunciation,  had  already  set  the  first  example  of  abandoning 
Jhat  league.  The  allies  had  flattered  themselves  that  the  King 
of  Saxony  would  make  common  cause  ^y.lh  the.n ;  but  that 
monarch  declared  that  he  would  remain  faithful  to  his  system. 
Th"s  perseverance  of  a  respectable  Prince  whose  country  abound- 
ed with  resources,  did  much  injury  to  the  common  cause.  At 
a  later  date,  it  cost  the  King  of  Saxony  the  half  of  h.s  estates 
wiolout  taking  into  account  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  which  could 
never  be  regarded  but  as  a  precarious  possession. 

The  kinfof  Sweden  had  engaged  with  Alexander  to  make 
a  diversion  5n  the  rear  of  Bonaparte  ;  pn  condition  that  he  would 


iMtiriT-^ifrf  •"[•"fT''"' '■•'""'i I  ■""• 


IMJjiWlM 


?.ircuin!<tftnce  which 
-lure  it  null  and  of 

ms  prcpiiring  ngainvt 
the  King  of  Prussia 
(if  Februiir}'  2'lth, 
ili(-  iiiiR'ly-lhroe  iriil- 
ppiies  to  iho  French 
lis  I'untirigent  for  the 
ml  debt,  served  as  a 
1  iilliante  so  contrary 
)(>cal  wiiich  he  made 
;  and  as  every  thing 
t,  in  the  twinkling  of 
n  reduced  to  42.000 
:lion  of  Prussia  fur- 
ig  new  levies.  A  de- 
d  him  ISO.OOO  addi- 

h  and  Bresiau  (Feb. 
nlliaiicc  between  Rus- 

proinised  to  furnish 
sive  of  the  troops  in 
reover  engaged  never 

restored  to  her  statis- 
1,  conformably  to  the 
•en  before  the  war  of 
:wu  inonarclis  had  an 
lie  friendship  was  con 
'  a  long  time. 
1,  dated  from  Kaliscii 
he  Germans  that  the 
■th  be  regarded  as  dis- 
thout  waiting  for  that 
icample  of  abandoning 
inselves  that  the  King 

with  them ;  but  that 
aithful  to  his  system, 
vhose  country  abound- 
e  common  cause.  At 
he  half  of  his  estates, 

Warsaw,  which  could 
isession. 

th  Alexander  to  make 
ondition  that  he  would 


PERIOD  IX.       A.  D.   1910—1819. 


64S 


ht'cure  him  the  possession  of  Norway,  or  at  least  the  province 
of  that  kingdom  callc  I  the  Bishopric  of  Drontheim.  Great  Bri- 
tain was  desirous  that  that  arrangement  should  be  made  with 
the  consent  of  the  Kint;  of  Denmark,  who  was  offered  a  com- 
pensation on  the  side  of  Holstcin,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  Swe- 
dish Poinerania.  Frederi>:  VI.  having  given  an  absolute  refu- 
sal, a  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Sweden  was  concluded 
at  Stockholm  (March  3,  1813,)  by  which  the  latter  engaged  to 
employ  a  body  of  30,000  troops  on  ihe  Continent  in  active  ser- 
vice against  France.  It  was  agreeil  that  this  army  should  act 
in  concert  with  the  Russian  troops  placed,  in  consequence  of 
other  arrangements,  under  the  command  of  the  Prince  Royal  of 
Sweden.  Great  Britain  promised  to  employ  every  necessary 
means  for  procuring  Sweden  the  possession  of"^ Norway,  without 
having  recourse  to  force  ;  unless  the  King  of  Denmark  should 
refuse  to  accede  to  the  alliance  of  the  North.  She  promised  to 
furnish  supplies  to  Sweden,  and  ceded  to  her  the  island  of 
Guadaloupe.  After  this  alliance  with  England,  Sweden  entered 
likewise  into  a  league  offensive  and  defensfvuMjyth  Prussia,  by 
a  treaty  which  was  signed  at  Stockholm  (April3!zr)  Frederic 
William  promised  to  despatch  27,000  troops  to  joir>  the  army 
which  the  Prince  Royal  commanded  in  Germany. 

Murat,  to  whom  Bonaparte  had  intrusted  the  command  of  the 
few  troops  which  he  had  brought  back  from  Moscow,  abandoned 
his  commission,  and  retired  to  Naples.  Eugene  Beauhamais 
then  assumed  the  command,  and  arrived  with  16,000  men  on  the 
Elbe  (March  10;)  but  after  being  joined  by  the  French  troops 
from  Pomerania,  the  Bavarian!),  the  Saxons,  and  a  corps  which 
General  Grenier  had  formed,  his  army  by  the  end  of  the 
month  amounted  to  87,000  men  ;  extending  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  from  Dresden  to  Hamburg.  In  a  short  time,  the 
whole  disposable  force  of  Bonaparte  in  Germany  were  again 
augmented  to  308,000  men. 

The  Prussian  army  consisted  of  128,000  troops,  including 

Sirrisons  and  bodies  of  reserve;  but  the  three  battalions  of 
lucher,  Yorke,  and  Bulovr,  who  had  taken  tite  field,  did  not 
amount  to  more  than  51,000  combatanU.  The  main  army  of 
the  Russians,  which,  since  the  death  of  KutusoiT,  had  been  com- 
manded by  Count  Witgenstein,  amounted  to  38,000  men  ;  al- 
though the  whole  of  the  Russian  forces  on  the  Vistula  and  the 
Oder,  and  between  the  Oder  and  the  Elbe,  amoanted  to  166,000 
men.  The  first  action,  which  took  place  in  Germany,  was  the 
battle  of  Lnneburg  (April  2,)  where  the  Russian  Creneral  Doren- 
berg  oUiged  General  Morend's  division,  on  their  route  from 
Pomoninia,  to  lay  down  their  arms. 

35 


■f 


>i#»'-i. 


i^lii 


m 

•J 


m 


mi 


546 


CHAPTBR  XII. 


On  the  /5th  of  April,  Bonnpnrto  look  the  command  of  his  army 
in  person  ;  and  on  ihe  ad  of  May  wilh  115.000  men,  ho  rnffHn.id 
169,000  Prussians  and  Russians,  under  the  rommnnd  ol  W  it- 
censtein.  The  advantaifo  in  ihiil  aclion  was  on  the  side  ol  Ihe 
French.  The  loss  on  hoth  sides  was  equal.  The  Pru.suins 
look  1000  prisoners,  wilh  10  pieces  of  cannon,  without  them- 
selves losing  one.  The  scene  of  this  battle,  so  glorious  for  the 
Prussians,  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gross-Oorschen,  to 
which  Bonaparte  gave  the  name  of  Lutzen,  in  commejnoration 
ot  the  famous  Guslavus  Adolnhus.  In  his  bulletins  he  rcprc 
sented  that  battle,  which  was  by  no  means  decisive,  as  a  com- 
plete victory,  because  the  ullies  did  not  renew  the  comb.it,  and 
next  day  commenced  their  retreat  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Khine, 
to  advance  nearer  to  their  reinforcements. 

They  took  up  a  position  nt  Bautzen.  Their  numbers  there 
amounted  to  96,000  men,  who  engaged  148,000  French,  under 
the  command  of  Bonaparte  (May  21,  1813.)  The  Allies  had 
determined  not  to  expose  themselves  to  a  defeat,  but  to  teriTiinate 
every  battle  the  moment  they  sow  it  could  not  turn  to  their  ad- 
vantage. Within  five  dnvs  after  that  engagement,  to  which  the 
French  gave  the  name  of  the  battle  of  Wurtchcn,  Blucher  gam- 
ed a  decided  advantage  ot  Haynau  over  the  division  of  General 
Maison,  and  captured  the  whole  of  their  artillery.  An  armis- 
lice  was  then  concluded  between  the  two  parties  at  Poischwitz. 

This  measure  was  nt  the  request  of  Bonaparte,  as  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  await  the  arrival  of  his  reinforcements , 
especially  since  he  found  himself  menaced  on  the  North  by  an 
invasion  of  the  Swedes.     It  is  probable  he  would  not  have  taken 
this  step  had  he  penetrated  the  views  of  Austria;  but  Count 
Metternich  had  dexterously  contrived  to  conceal  these  from  him, 
in  the  several  interviews  which  he  had  with  him  at  Dresden,  so 
that  the  sagacity  of  that  great  commander  was  completely  al 
fault.     The  Allies  hod  no  wish  for  an  armistice,  which  could 
only  make  them  lose  time,  as  their  armaments  were  in  a  stiite 
of  readiness ;  but  they  consented  to  it  at  the  re(iuest  of  Austria, 
who  hod  need  of  some  delay  to  complete  her   preparations, 
although  she  was  at  first  actuated  by  a  difl'erent  motive.     She 
had  still  hopes  to  avoid  the  war,  by  inducing  Bonaparte  to  accept 
those  moderate  conditions  of  peace  to  which  the  Allies  had  given 
their  consent  bv  the  treaty  of  June  27,  of  which  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  speak  immediately.  At  the  time  when  the  armistice 
was  signed,  Count  Metternich,  who  had  apprized  Bonaparte  of 
these  conditions,  had  already  certain  information  that  ''^e  j^)'" 
monarchs  were  not  deceived  in  predicting  that  they  would  be 
refused.     All  hopes  of  peace  had  now  vanished ;  but  there  still 


iiiiiiiriMirKiM 


Mik 


llMHlMltltolllllll«l1»l*l'« 


r.TurTif*"^"""'  •" ""''  ■■■■■'■''■•' 


1 


otnmand  of  his  army 

000  men,  ho  enjpitttjd 

c  romnmnd  of  Wit- 

hh  on  the  side  of  the 

nal.     The  Pruxsinns 

non,  without  ihein- 

',  so  glorious  for  tho 

Oross-Oorsphen,  to 

n,  in  coinmeniorntion 

s  hullotins  he  rcpro- 

s  dt'iMsive,  ns  a  coin- 

•nrw  the  combiit,  i\nd 

fht  hunk  of  the  Rhine, 

Their  numbers  there 
18,000  French,  under 
i;).)  The  Allies  had 
efeat,  but  to  terniinnte 

not  turn  to  their  nd- 
igeinent,  to  which  the 
irtchon,  Blucher  gain- 
\e  division  of  GenernI 
artillery.  An  arm  is- 
parties  at  Poischwitz. 
Bonaparte,  as  it  was 
of  his  reinforcements , 
»d  on  the  North  by  an 
e  would  not  have  taken 
)f  Austria ;  but  Count 
■onceal  these  from  him, 
ith  him  at  Dresden,  so 
ier  was  completely  at 
armistice,  which  could 
nments  were  in  a  state 
the  reijuest  of  Austria, 
lete  her  preparations, 
liHeront  motive.  She 
ng  Bonaparte  to  accept 
I'h  the  Allies  had  given 
r  which  we  shall  have 
mo  when  the  armistice 
apprized  Bonaparte  of 
brmation  that  the  two 
ag  that  they  would  be 
mished;  hut  there  still 


PRRIOD  IX.      A.  D.   1810 — 1810. 


547 


remained   another  motive,  which  mode  the  Court  of  Vienna 
nnxious  for  further  delay. 

By  a  convention  .signed  iit  Dresden  (Juno  ?,0,)  Bonaparte  oc- 
cepled  th<'  rnodiiitioii  of  .\u^tria  for  a  peace,  either  general  or 
Conliiientnl  ;  and  the  aniiisiice,  which  was  to  expire  on  the  20th 
July,  was  prolonged  to  the  10th  of  August.  At  the  request  of 
Francis  I.,  a  sort  of  congress  was  opened  at  Prague.  Bonaparto 
had  no  wish  for  t»eace,  as  he  never  supposed  that  Austria  would 
declare  against  him.  The  Allies  haa  no  wish  for  it,  as  they 
knew  well  the  disposition  of  that  power  ;  while  Austria,  the  only 
Cabinet  which  had  pacific  views,  had  given  up  nil  hope  of  ever 
bringing  Bonaparte  to  any  reasonable  terms  of  accommodation. 
Such  were  the  auspices  under  which  the  Congress  of  Prague 
was  opened.     They  were  discussing  the  form  in  which  the  ne- 

fotiations  wore  to  proceed,  when  the  10th  of  August  arrived, 
'he  ministers  of  Russia  and  Prussia  then  declared  that  the 
term  of  the  armistice  had  expired,  and  consequently  that  their 
diplomatic  powers  were  at  an  end. 

Within  two  days  after,  Austria  declared  war  against  Bona- 
parte ;  and  the  throe  monarchs  who  met  at  Prague,  resolved  to 
accompany  the  main  army,  which  was  under  the  command  of 
Prince  Sciiwartzenberg,  during  the  whole  campaign. 

It  will  not  be  improper  here  to  give  a  summary  of  the  treatien 
which  constituted  the  sixth  coalition,  and  procured  the  accession 
of  Austria  so  decisive  for  the  cause  of  the  allies.  (1.)  The 
treaty  of  Reichenbach  (June  14,)  between  Great  Britain  ard 
Prussia.  The  former  bound  herself  to  pay  to  the  other,  within 
the  six  months,  666,666Z.  sterling,  lor  the  maintenance  of  80,000 
troops  ;  and  came  under  the  same  engagement  with  regard  to 
the  augmentation  of  Prussia,  that  Russia  had  entered  mto  by 
the  treaty  of  Kalisch.  The  King  of  Prus.sia  promised  to  cede 
to  the  Electorate  of  Hanover  a  certain  portion  of  territory,  inclu- 
ding the  principality  of  Hildesheim,  and  containing  a  population 
of  between  Sand  400,000  souls.  (2.)  The  treaty  of  Reichen- 
bach between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  (June  15,)  by  which  the 
former  promi.'sed  to  pay  to  the  other,  before  the  expiration  of  the 
year,  1,333,334/.  sterling,  for  the  maintenance  of  160,000  men. 
(3.)  The  treaty  of  Reichenbach,  between  Austria,  Prussia,  and 
Russia  (June  27  ;)  the  first  engaged  to  declare  war  against  Bo- 
naparte, if  at  the  conclusion  of  the  armistice  he  had  not  accepted 
the  conditions  of  peace  which  they  offered  him.  The  following 
are  the  proposals  to  which  we  have  already  alluded.  Austria 
on  her  own  behalf,  demanded  only  the  restitution  of  the  Illyrian 
provinces,  and  the  territory  which  she  had  ceded  to  the  dutchy 
of  Warsaw.     Such  were  the  pledges  of  her  sincere  desire  for 


*'! 


"•m** 


548 


CHAPTER  Xn. 


V  «„»  Prussia  was  content  to  obtain  tne 
restoring  peace  to  Europe.  f'^^^^.^J^J  „„d  ^hat  of  Dantzic. 
restitution  of  her  part  othejme^^^  ^^^  ^^^    ^. 

and  the  evacuation  of  the  •°/;'^'''^^  bank  of  the  Elbe, 

thus  abandoning  all  her  poss°Mo^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^. 

Moreover,  they  f  «r'l;*k«.^^^"^„^^^^^  of  his  last  usurpation. 
main,  and  they  deprived  Bonaparte  omy  ^^^  .^ 

in  the  north  of  Germany  By  J^P^Jf  JJ,,  .ejected,  and  war 
was  stipulated,  that  »f;^««^!,^"°"T'^reJe  but  on  condition  that 
once  begun,  they  should  »«  y^f>^';;Pf;^'^^^^  on  the  footing  in 
Austria  and  Pmssia  were  to  te  ^ga  ^^Confederation  of  the 
which  they  had  b?en  in  1805 ,  ^^^l'  „f  HoHand  and 

Rhine  should  be  dissolved  ,  ^^^/"^,^E  restored  to  the  throne 
Italv  secured :  and  the  Ho«s   gf  Bou^^^^^^^^  (jrcat  Bri- 

of  Spain.     (4.    T^ie  treaty  of  merswa  ^^^^^^^^  to  sup- 

tain  and  Russia  (July  6   Ww^ch  the  lor      ^^^^.^^  ^^  ^^^^.^ 

port  a  German  legion  of  1";""",  „ ,%'  „,:.,  /gcpt.  9,)  between 
\5.)  A  definitive  all  ance  signed  a^^^opluz  (J^ep^^  J  ^^^^^  ^^ 

Austria,  Prussia,  and  R^^q-J  ^^J  Tt  ^  ag'^^'^  '°  ^'=^""'''"'^' 
assist  each  other  with  60,OUU  me".  "  fo^ching  as  near  as 

the  Austrian  nionarchy  upon  thejJaYPP-- ,^^^^^^  f  the 
possible  to  that  of  l^OS ,  to  d  «s^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^„,,  ^he  House 

bhine  and  the  kingdom  of  West,^hnlia.        ^^  ^^^^^^^  ,;     ^d  at 
of  Brunswick-Luneburg.     (b.)   ^ne  «     j 
Toplitz  between  Austr  a  arid  Great  BrUam  .^_ 

fionaparte,  on  his  side,  ''^J^^j^'^S  entered  1  Hamburg 
portant  crisis.     The  Danes  had  alr«id>enterea  ^^^^^^ 

Lh  the  ^'^"'^^'-^"^.u^rdu   (MaTsS,)^^  he  had  got 
Tettenbom  to  evacuate  that  cU>,( Way      ^^  ^^^^  ^^^.^^ 

possession  of  in  the  month  of  March      ^n       S^^^^  ^^^  ^^..^^^ 
kpneared  ofT  Copenhagen  (May  31^  aM  ^^^^^^  ^^^^,^_ 

of  Norway  in  favour  of  ^^J^j^  '  enhS,  by  which  the  former 

was  joined  to  that  of  Davoust.  ^^^^^^^  ;„ 

Tile  plan  of  the  ^J^P^ntrg  by  Ae  Emperor  of  Russia, 
the  conference  held  at  Iraclien^rg    y  ^^     ^^^^ pje,,,. 

the  King  of  Prussia,  the  P^^^^J^^yl^^rn^^"^        forces  of  the 
potentiaries  of  Austria  ?^J  ^^^^^^'^^^^^  «««««""• 

fcoalition  amounte     to  264,000  Aus^^^'^"'''j^„^  '„„^  ^^.e  than 


Is  content  to  obtain  the 
y,  and  that  of  Dantzic, 
upied  by  the  French  ; 
e  left  bank  of  the  Elbe. 
Westphalia  still  to  re- 
ef his  last  Uburpationa 
article  of  the  treaty,  it 
were  rejected,  and  war 
ice  but  on  condition  that 
placed  on  the  footing  in 
he  Confederation  of  the 
ndence  of  Holland  and 
nn  restored  to  the  throne 
Idau  between  Great  Bri- 
former  undertook  to  sup- 
er the  service  of  Russia, 
oplitz  (Sept.  9,)  between 
h  these  powers  were  to 
was  agreed  to  reconstruct 
1  approaching  as  near  as 
the  Confederation  of  the 
,  and  to  restore  the  House 
reaty  of  alliance  signed  at 
ritain. 

quired  an  ally  at  this  im- 
dy  entered  into  Hamburg 
ivoust  compelled  General 
ay  30,)  which  he  had  got 
An  English  fleet  having 
and  demanded  the  cession 
King  of  Denmark  conclu- 
logen,  by  which  the  former 
eden,  Russia  and  Prussia, 
lediately  after,  an  army  of 
r  Frederic  Prince  of  Hesse 

allies  had  been  settled  in 
»y  the  Emperor  of  Russia, 
[  of  Sweden,  and  the  pleni- 
tritain.  The  forces  of  the 
strians,  249,000  Russians, 
edes;  but  not  more  than 
mpaign  ;  of  which  192,000 
zic,  Zamoscz,  Glogau,  Cus- 
m  were  divided  as  follows  : 


fEKIOD  IX.      A.  D.  181U — 181A. 


549 


The  Army  of  Bohemia,  composed  of  Austrians,  Russians,  and 
Prussians,  under  the  command  of  Prince  Schwartzenberg, 
amounted  to  237,700  men,  with  698  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Army  of  the  North,  composed  of  Prussians,  Russians, 
and  Swedes,  under  the  command  of  the  Prince  Royal  of  Swe- 
den, amounting  to  154,000  men,  with  387  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Army  of  Silesia,  composed  of  Prussians  and  Russians, 
under  the  command  of  Blucher,  95,000  strong,  with  356  pieces 
of  cannon. 

The  Austrian  Army  of  Bavaria,  commanded  by  Prince  Reuss, 
containing  42,700  men,  with  42  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Austrian  Army  in  Italy,  under  Hiller,  50,000  strong, 
with  120  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Austrian  Army  of  Reserve,  stuiioned  between  Vienna 
and  Presburg,  under  the  command  of  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Wur- 
temberg,  60,000  strong. 

The  Russian  Army  of  Reserve  in  Poland,  under  the  command 
of  Bennigsen,  57,000  strong,  with  198  pieces  of  cannon. 

To  these  forces  Bonaparte  opposed  an  army  of  462,000  men, 
including  80,000  who  occupietl  thirteen  fortresses  ;  besides  the 
army  of  Bavaria,  which  watched  the  movements  of  the  Prince  of 
Reuss,  and  40,000  men  which  Eugene  Beauharnais  had  in  Italy. 

Hostilities  recommenced  immediately  after  the  termination  of 
the  armistice  ;  Silesia,  Saxony,  and  sometimes  the  frontiers,  be- 
came the  theatre  of  war.  The  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden 
covered  Berlin,  which  was  threatened  by  Marshal  Oudinot. 
The  battle  of  Gross-Beeren  (Aug.  23,)  which  was  gained  by 
the  Prussian  General  Bulow,  saved  the  capital.  In  Silesia, 
Blucher,  pressed  hard  by  Bonaparte,  had  retired  as  far  as  Jauer ; 
but  the  latter  having  intelligence  of  the  march  of  the  allies  on 
Dresden,  retraced  his  steps  with  a  part  of  his  army,  while  Blucher 
attacked  Marshal  Macdonald  at  the  river  Katsbach,  and  gained 
a  signal  victory  (Aug.  26,)  in  which  he  took  10,000  prisoners, 
and  103  pieces  of  cannon.  General  Puthod,  who  commanded  a 
detachment  of  8000  men,  was  obliged  to  surrender  at  Plagwitz 
to  Count Langeron  (Aug.  29.)  The  army  of  Bohemia  attacked 
Dresden  a  few  hours  after  Bonaparte  had  arrived  with  his  rein- 
forcements. The  battle  was  bloody,  and  lasted  two  days  (Aug. 
26,  27.)  Thirteen  thousand  Austrians  being  cut  ofT  on  the  lef^ 
wing,  were  obliged  to  lay  down  their  arms  ;  the  allies  retired  in 
good  order,  leaving  6000  men  killed  and  wounded  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  26  pieces  of  cannon  in  the  hands  of  the  French,  who 
had  lost  18,000  men  by  that  victory.  General  Moreau,  who  had 
come  on  the  invitation  of  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  to  take 
a  part  in  the  struggle  against  Napoleon,  was  mortally  wounded. 


'%i\^ 


IH 


!"#'■■ 


'i       1 


would  srceed  in  cutting  off  the  \mperor  Akxander  f^om  h« 
armv.  The  Russians  fought  the  whole  day  (Aug.  dV,)  wun  ine 
Sheroic  determination;  Count  Ostermann  having  had  h« 
Wt  arm  carried  off  by  a  shot,  the  command  was  taken  by 
MarsZ  MmoradowicJ;.  At  length  they  --  -nfo.e^ 
LvBrnl  Austrian  and  Russ  an  armies,  which  the  King  ot  rrussia 
had TenUoTela'sistance,  and  which  enabled  them  tj  main- 
S  the  r  position.      During  the  night.  Barcode  lolly  had 

;,i„„n^'this  enterprise.     But  he  sustained  a  complete  roul 
ecution  °f  this  enterprise      «  ^^^^^^^  .  ^^^ 

Sners    with  80  pieces  of  cannon,  and  a  1  their  baggage 

;rl^(STwede.T3;ey  'had  be.„  able  to  form  .  u„,o„  .. 

%r.T,73rr™!.°n^emi  had  pn»eded  .his  g,e.,b.ul.. 

Kvel.1  acUoraa.Wachao.Connewm,  and  Lijdenau.    Wm» 
rEe  were  prod.Ktire  of  any  docsive  re.ul.;  b«.  Btah« 


detached  with  30,00u 
e  encountered  Count 
f  8000  Austrians,  and 
,     The  King  of  Prus- 
sian general,  that  un- 
Vandamme,  the  latter 
r  Alexander  from  his 
ay  (Aug.  29,)  with  the 
nann  having  had  his 
imand  was  taken  by 
y  were  reinforced  by 
ich  the  King  of  Prussia 
nabled  them  to  main- 
Barclay  de  Tolly  had 
;xt  day  (Aug.  30,)  the 
ch  was  decided  by  the 
ts  of  NoUeiidorf,  lying 
e  latter  finding  himself 
irced  their  passage,  by 
recruits.      Vandamme 
:h   10,000  men  and  81 

)  get  possession  of  Ber- 
'as  charged  with  the  ex- 
tained  a  complete  rout 
Royal  of  Sweden  ;  and 
•"rench  there  lost  20,000 
and  all  their  baggage, 
parte  from  Dresden,  and 
where  they  could  unite 
1  entirely  to  their  wish, 
d  of  125,000  men,  with 
arate  armies.  But  the 
the  armies  of  Bohemia, 
army  of  reserve,  were 
signal.  The  plains  of 
His  army  there  amount- 
irould  have  had  301,000, 
lians,  136,000  Russians, 
able  to  form  a  union  at 

eceded  this  great  battle. 

imia  alone  fought  three 

and  Lindenau.     None 

ve  result;  but  Blucher 


rSRioo  u.     A.  0.  1810—1815. 


551 


had  encountered  Marshal  Mannont  on  the  same  day,  and  de- 
feated him  at  Mockern.  On  the  following  day,  there  were  some 
engagements,  but  without  any  decisive  result ;  they  were  fought 
by  the  three  armies  of  Sweden,  Blucher,  and  Bennigsen,  who 
were  on  their  march  to  the  field  of  battle  at  Leipsic.  Bona- 
parte then  began  to  be  aware  of  the  danger  of  nis  position. 
For  the  first  time  he  foresaw  the  possibility  of  a  defeat,  and 
sent  General  Bertrand  to  Weissenfels  to  secure  the  bridge  over 
the  Saal.  On  the  18th,  at  day-break,  he  made  proposals  of  an 
armistice  and  peace,  through  the  Austrian  General  Meerfeld, 
who  had  fallen  into  his  hands  ;  but  both  the  Oi.e  and  the  other 
were  disregarded.  This  was  the  first  day  of  the  battle  of  Leip- 
sic ;  the  French  army  resisted  with  great  heroism,  and  it  vran 
not  till  after  the  arrival  of  Blucher  and  the  army  of  Sweden, 
that  they  were  compelled  to  abandon  part  of  their  position,  and 
to  retire  to  the  very  gates  of  Leipsic.  Several  bodies  of  Saxons 
and  Wurtembergers  passed  over  on  that  day  to  the  ranks  of  the 
allies.  During  the  night,  the  French  army  effected  their  retreat 
by  Leipsic  to  Weissenfels.  Macdonald  and  Poniatowski  had 
orders  to  defend  the  city.  It  was  attacked  by  the  allies  next 
day.  The  French  made  a  vigorous  resistance.  At  ten  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  Bonaparte  escaped  among  the  fugitives,  the 
cannon,  and  the  equipage  which  encumbered  the  gate  of  Altran- 
stadt.  The  Elster,  which  runs  by  the  city,  had  only  one  bridge, 
which  they  caused  to  be  blown  up  n:^  soon  as  Bonaparte  had 
passed.  Thus  Macdonald  and  Poniatowski  found  themselves 
fairly  enclosed  with  their  divisions.  The  latter  was  drowned 
in  attempting  to  swim  across  the  Elster.  Macdonald  was  made 
prisoner,  as  well  as  the  King  of  Saxony,  who  had  remained  at 
Leipsic.  Bonaparte,  on  these  two  days,  lost  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  prisoners,  70,000  men,  and  300  pieces  of  cannon.  The 
allies  purchased  that  victory  by  the  death  of  50,000  of  their 
troops. 

Bonaparte  directed  hfe  flight  with  all  haste  towards  Mayence, 
closely  pursued  by  theVossacs,  who  made  a  great  many  pri- 
soners, besides  a  rich  booty  in  cannon  and  baggage.  When  he 
arrived  at  Hanau,  he  found  his  passage  intercepted  by  an  enemy 
which  he  did  not  expect.  Since  the  month  of  August,  a  nego- 
tiation had  been  set  on  foot  with  the  King  of  Bavaria,  for  in- 
ducing him  to  abandon  the  cause  of  Bonaparte.  To  this  mea- 
sure he  at  length  agrf-ed,  by  a  convention,  which  was  signed  at 
Ried  (Oct.  8,)  which  secured  to  Bavaria  the  possession  of  ab- 
solute and  independent  sovereignty,  and  complete  indemnity  for 
the  restitutions  which  she  was,  in  that  case,  to  make  to  Austria. 

Immediately  after  the  signing  the  convention  at  Ried,  the 


•t0t ' 


:I1T 


-f' 


552 


CHAPTER  Xll. 


F^nch  Mho  in  their  «tre.thid  .rri.ed  .t  Ge\„h.«.J  :  ihe-e. 

to  the  left  bank  of  the  Khine.  iviarsnai  oi.  \jy  ,  97  nno  men 

had  left  at  Dresden,  was  obliged  to  capitulate  with  SJ-JW  men. 

less  did  honour  to  the  French  general.  Sweden 

SmiL  prloners  Jourdan  lost  the  whole  of  his  artillery. 
jrprBona^pTrte  then  abandoned  the  throne  of  Spam  for  over^ 
The  activity  of  Marshal  Suchet  defeated  an  expedition  bysea, 
IndertXnV  Sir  John  Murmy  against  Tarragona    Lord  Wd- 

Conne.   "sTu-fa^i/ tool?  the  ^^^^  ^i^^  ^^^  ^' 
reinforcements  increased  the  army  to  40,000  men. 


a  body  of  between 

s,  began  their  march 

nd  ailer  taking  this 

ch  he  took  possession 

He  encountered  the 

Gelnhausn ;  there  a 

uccessive  days.    Bo- 

d,  and  prisoners  ;  but 

L  passage,  and  retired 

Cyr,  whom  Bonaparte 

late  with  27,000  men. 

1  Torgau  with  10,000. 

arnais  had  taken  the 

ipied  the  lilyrian  pro- 

rond  the  Adige,  before 

f  master  of  the  Tyrol 

is  campaign  neverthe- 

ice  Royal  of  Sweden 
},  the  former  of  whom 
)anes  had  retired  into 
m,  from  which  however 
ed,  as  they  had  capitu- 
Frederic  Vl.  concluded 
14 ;)  and  Denmark  en- 
We  shall  have  occasion 
ons  that  were  made  by 
rk  signed  a  peace  with 
10,000  men  to  take  the 
in  engaged  to  pay  them 
ime  time  established  be- 
;y  of  Hanover  (Feb.  8 ;) 
lat  of  Berlin  (Aug.  26.) 
rshal  Soult  from  Spain 
jton,  the  Generalissimo 
in  at  Vittoria  (June  21, 
n  the  field  of  battle,  and 
whole  of  his  artillery, 
irone  of  Spain  for  ever, 
id  an  expedition  by  sea, 
Tarragona.  Lord  Wel- 
na  (Aug.  31,)  and  com- 
dassoa,  and  to  retire  on 
land,  and  by  means  o^ 
,000  men. 


PERIOD  IX,     A.  rt.  IfllO — 1816. 


553 


In  Germany,  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  and  the  kingdom 
of  Westphalia  had  both  been  dissolved.  The  Electors  of  Han- 
over  and  Hesse,  the  Dukes  of  Brunswick  and  Oldenburg,  were 
restored  to  the  possession  of  their  ]iatrimonies,  and  joined  the 
alliance.  The  King  of  Wurtcmberg,  and  the  Elector  of  Baden, 
made  their  peace  with  the  Allies,  by  means  of  special  treaties. 
All  the  princes  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation  entered  into  the 
Grand  Leagu'e,  except  the  King  of  Saxony,  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Frankfort,  and  the  princes  of  Isemburg  and  Leyen,  who  were 
excluded  from  it,  and  their  territories  treated  as  conquered 
provinces. 

On  his  return  to  Paris,  Bonaparte  announced  his  inteniion  of 
continuing  the  war,  and  caused  the  Senate  to  grant  him  a  new 
conscription  of  300,000  men.  Nevertheless  he  appeared  willing 
to  bring  to  a  conclusion  the  negotiations  which  the  Allies  on  the 
Continent  had  set  on  foot.  According  to  the  terms  agreed  on  at 
Toplitz,  the  Rhine  was  to  form  the  frontier  of  France,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Holland  was  to  be  given  to  a  brother  of  Bonaparte ; 
but  the  movements  of  Napoleon,  and  the  warlike  preparations 
which  he  had  ordered,  gave  England  an  opportunity  of  changing 
the  sentiments  of  these  monarchs ;  and  they  determined  to  adopt 
the  scheme  which  Mr.  Pitt  had  contrived  in  1805. 

The  decree  of  the  Senate,  of  November  18,  1813,  completed 
the  immense  number  of  1,260,000  men  ;  all  of  whom,  indepen- 
dently of  the  existing  army,  had  been  sacrificed  to  the  restless 
ambition  of  Bonaparte.  The  forces  with  which  the  Allies  in- 
vaded France,  were  divided  into  three  armies. 

The  Army  of  Bohemia,  commanded  by  Prince  Schwarlzenberg, 
and  composed  of  261,000  men,  Austrians,  Russians,  Prussians, 
and  Germans,  was  destined  to  enter  France  by  way  of  Switzer- 
land. 

The  Army  of  Silesia,  under  the  command  of  Blucher,  consist- 
ing of  137,000  men,  Prussians,  Russians,  and  Germans,  were  to 
pa.ss  the  Rhine  near  Mayence. 

The  Army  of  the  North,  composed  of  174,000  Prussians,  Rus- 
sians, Germans,  Swedes,  Dutch  and  English,  were  to  occupv 
Holland  and  the  Netherlands.  They  were  to  be  commanded  by 
the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden,  and,  in  his  absence,  by  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Weimar. 

Independently  of  these  three  armies,  the  Allies  had  an  army 
of  reserve  of  236,000  men,  and  the  Austrians  had  an  army  of 
80,000  men  in  Italy.  About  the  end  of  December  1813,  and 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1814,  the  two  first  armies  entered 
France.  We  can  only  advert  to  the  principal  events  of  that 
ihort  campaign.      After  some  actions   of  minor  importance 


n^ 


CHAM'KH  XII. 

Blucher  attacked  Bonaparte  at  Rothiere  with  »  superior  force 
SK'sJitc  of  the  vigLus  resisp^^^^^^^^ 

B^iug  enclosed  by  Grouchy.  Blucher  had  to  cut  h.s  way  at  the 

P^'C'AlUe'TCh^i'r^^^^^^^^^^^  checl«,  combined 

Ihe  ^''•^; '''"'' J?J^^^^^^  but  Prince  Schwartzen- 

took  place  at  Soissons  (March  3.)     »'"'='^®'  °;,  ^;  ^l ^  Lfeated 

behind  the  Aisne.     Bonaparte  havmg  P^^^^^o^^^^^^^^ 

two  bodies  of  Russians  under  Woronzoff  and  baken  at  J^raone 

March  7  )  and  attacked  Blucher  at  Laon  (March  10.)     He  wa. 

J^^'Totaily  defeated ;  .and  that  victory  -l"-f.f  ^^^  ^^^^^^^^ 

S  ^'^-r  f  Irt'Tu^Aubf  w^r^lh   b^^^^^^^^^^^ 
®°""PTLtitTherwere  in  expectation  of  seeing  the  en- 

'";""'    i.h  S;  Rh  ne  as  weU  as  to  draw  reinforcements  from 
rTarwls  o^EoSn^a^d  Alsace,  and  thus  transfer  the  the- 

^'lut  bXe  briS'the  sketch  of  this  campaign  to  a  close, 
it  wiU  be  necessary  to%ake  notice  of  the  Congress  of  ChatUlon. 
whkh  was  opened^on  the  5th  February,  and  which  was  a  con- 
i'lionof^thene^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
^^t^r^eXtL^cIolnJ^F^^^^^        the  limUs  of  that  king 

h^  ieS^lUnJtrti^olrL^^^^^^^^        hS-i: 

?ec?  was  to  giin    imf .     Whenever  his  troops  had  gained  any 

idJaXrhf  immediately  heightened  his  tone;   and  m    he 

^n.^r,P  of  six  weeks  the  allies  broke  ofT  the  conference.     During 

heSting  of  le  Congress  of  ChatiUon,  Austria.   Great  Bri^n 

PrussTand  Russia,  signed  the  famous  Quadruple  Alliance  at 

SiaumonUMarch    .)  thich  became  the  basis  oAhe  new  po h U- 

ca  svTtem  If  Europe.     Each  of  the  allies  engaged  to  maintain 

an  army^f   5S,000^ men  constantly  in  the  field  agavnst  the  com- 

mon  eJemy.     Great  Britain  promised  to  furnish  to  the  three 

Xroow™?s  a  subsidy  of  5,000.000^  sterling  foi  the  year  1814. 

?n  such Tway,  however,  that  she  was  only  to  pay  them  propor. 

S,^Uv  unT  he  end  of  tha  month  m  wWh  the  peace  should 


{ 


mmmmlm'Usiim'''- 


[vith  a  superior  force, 
lich  he  met  with,  he 

[teen  days  afterwards, 
<toges  or  Vauchamp. 

I  to  cut  his  way  at  the 

us  checks,  combined 

t  Prince  Schwartzen- 

tion,  began  to  retreat. 

lue  on  the  defensive  ; 

visions  of  Bulow  and 

Igium  ;  their  junction 

er  took  up  a  position 

ed  that  river,  defeated 

and  Saken  at  Craone 

(March  10.)     He  was 

luced  Schwartzenberg 

Paris.     He  engaged 

)attle,  although  bloody, 

ition  of  seeing  the  en- 

arte  suddenly  resolved 

s  from  their  communi- 

IV  reinforcements  from 

1  thus  transfer  the  the- 

s  campaign  to  a  close, 
Congress  of  Chatillon. 
and  which  was  a  con- 
iken  place  towards  the 
sented  to  allow  Bona- 
the  limits  of  that  king- 
1  in  1792.  Bonaparte 
terms,  but  his  real  ob- 
troops  had  gained  any 
his  tone ;  and  in  the 
le  conference.  During 
ustria,  Great  Britain, 
(Quadruple  Alliance  at 
basis  01  the  new  politi- 
!s  engaged  to  maintain 
e  field  against  the  com- 
10  furnish  to  the  throe 
ling  foi  the  year  1814; 
\y  to  pay  them  propor- 
rhich  the  peace  should 


.MRk- 


PERIOD  iX.      A.  D.  1810—1816, 


555 


be  concluded,  adding  to  these  two  months  for  the  loturn  of  the 
Austrian  and  Prussian  troops,  and  four  for  those  of  the  Russians. 
The  main  object  of  this  alliance  was  the  re-establishment  of  an 
equilibrium  of  power,  based  upon  the  following  arrangements  :— 
German,,  to  be  composed  of  Sovereign  Princes  united  by  a  fed- 
eral bond  :  The  Confederation  of  Switzerland  to  be  restored  to 
its  ancient  limits  and  its  former  independence  :  Italy  to  be  divi- 
ded into  Independent  States,  lying  between  the  Austrian  pos- 
sessions in  that  peninsula  and  France :  Holland  to  be  a  free 
and  independent  State,  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  with  an  increase  of  territory. 

Blucher  had  made  himself  master  of  Chalons  and  Chateau 
Thierry,  when  the  allies  learned,  by  an  intercepted  letter,  what 
were  the  plans  of  Bonaparte.  In  order  to  persuade  him  that 
they  had  taken  the  alarm  at  his  march,  and  were  resolved  to 
follow  him,  they  sent  Count  Winzingerode  after  him  at  the  head 
of  a  body  of  8000  cavalry,  which  he  might  easily  mistake  for 
the  vanguard  of  the  allies.  By  this  manoeuvre  he  was  deceived, 
and  continued  his  route  eastwards  while  the  allies  directed  their 
march  on  Paris.  Schwartzenberg  attacked  and  beat  the  two 
divisions  of  Marmont  and  Mortier,  at  Sonde  St.  Croix  (March 
25,)  while  the  army  of  Silesia  compelled  Puthod  and  Amey  to 
surrender  near  Lafere  Champenoise.  This  double  encounter 
cost  the  French  6000  killed,  10,000  prisoners,  and  80  pieces  of 
cannon.  Marmont  and  Mortier  retreated  to  Paris,  but  they 
were  defeated  at  Montmartre  and  Belleville  (March  30.)  The 
heights,  which  on  that  side  overlook  Paris,  were  taken  by  the 
allies,  who  purchased  that  victory  by  the  loss  of  9000  men.  A 
capitulation  for  Paris  was  signed  the  same  night. 

The  entrance  of  the  allies  into  the  capital  of  France  took 
place  next  day.  The  Emperor  Alexander  immediately  declared 
in  his  own  name,  and  in  that  of  his  allies,  that  they  could  treat 
no  more  with  Napoleon,  or  with  any  of  his  family.  He  invited 
the  Senate  to  establish  a  provisional  government, — a  measure 
which  was  necessary,  as  the  Count  D'Artois,  who  was  appoint- 
ed the  King's  Lieutenant-General,  had  not  yet  arrived.  He 
likewise  invited  that  body  to  prepare  a  constitution,  that  is  to 
say,  to  submit  their  counsel  and  advice  to  the  King,  as  to  the 
modifications  to  be  made  in  the  government ;  for  the  French 
constitution  which  is  based  on  the  Salic  law  has  been  in  exis- 
tence for  centuries.  The  Emperor  Alexander  made  that  propo- 
sal to  the  Senate,  as  being  the  only  order  of  the  State  then  in 
existence  ;  but  that  monarch  did  not  know  tha'  the  Senate  was 
the  last  authority  to  which  the  public  opinion  would  have  granted 
any  influence,  as  to  the  settlement  of  the  condition  of  France 


m 


f 


ill 


I  1 


*'] 


■r-y 


550 


CHAPTKK  XII. 


Tl«  aoT,cr»l  Coan.n  of  the  Department  otthe  Seine,  .ndlh. 

On  .he  -»en.h  day  '•^h"  7'^  „h=  f  T^J  /„,,  ,„„„a. 
p'Siu''  A  to  .ev'erlrSnsucce^fnl  auemp..,  either  to 
feP„&r  or  to  transit '' '»  hj"-  ^  ^CE- 

Elba,  with  full  X:;'ffitkiraccetd  ^  ha^a^^^^^^^  to 

Ice  in  Holland  and  Belgium,  and  on  the  ^f/ "^  1-^^^^^^^ 
loiWeZ^Z^ii^^^^^ornihe  Duke  D'Angouleme  then  was 

^Fr  %ttr^°  wSarraaSde^^;:^ 

replace  ^^^^  «"  f^^X^  (Peb  27,)  and  compelled  that  Gen- 
the  army  of  So«lt  ^t^rthes  (teb^/,;  J       ^^^^  .^^^^.^ 

^^"Tfitalv  an  event  not  a  little  extraordinary  had  happened. 
mL  had  turned  his  back  on  his  benefactor,  who  had  raised 

r'tvSo?:ttn's2*'°K«;:i'ir.t^itti^« 


wmOKms^^ 


r  the  Seine,  and  the 

he  return  of  Louis 

1.)     In  pronouncing 

Senate  exercised  a 

Is  that  body  owed  its 

have  ceased  with  his. 

nperor  of  the  French 

in  all  haste  towards 

1  attempts,  either  to 

on,  he  was  obliged  to 

Austria,  Prussia,  and 

egates  Ney,  Macdon- 

'gesiion  of  the  Empe- 

;ssion  of  the  Island  of 

ates  of  Parma  for  his 

0  that  arrangement,  to 

stranger.     Bonaparte 

repair  to  his  place  of 

nfine  our  observations, 
tary  events  which  took 
ic  side  of  Lyons.  But 
in  the  Pyrenees  and  in 
the  Allied  Sovereigns, 
O'Angouleme  then  was, 
dated  January  27th,  to 
nonth  after,  he  defeated 
nd  compelled  that  Gen- 
e  wishes  of  the  inhabi- 
i  conducted  the  Duke 
the  first  city  in  France 
13.)  The  allies  had 
id  abdicated  his  crown, 
it  of  these  events,  fought 
Lpril  10.)  In  that  san- 
French  were  totally  de- 

irdinary  had  happened, 
efactor,  who  had  raised 
bvith  a  diadem.  From 
he  had  endeavoured  to 
use  of  Austria.  After 
ontinental  system,  from 
m  the  ports  of  his  king- 
itered  into  a  negotiation 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810 — 1816. 


657 


with  the  Courts  both  of  London  and  Vienna,  with  a  view  to  be 
admitted  into  the  grand  alliance  ;  at  the  same  time,  he  set  on 
foot  an  army  of  34,000  men,  who  entered  Rome  and  directed 
their  march  towards  Ancona.  Austria  concluded  nn  alliance 
with  him  (Jan.  11,  1814.)  which  puornntcrd  to  him  the  posses- 
sion of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  with  the  ^o^ervation  of  nn  in- 
demnity for  the  King  of  Sicily.  Inimedintcly  after,  Murat  an* 
nounced  the  change  in  his  political  conduct.  He  blockaded  the 
citadel  of  Ancona,  took  possession  of  Florence,  where  his  sister- 
in-law,  the  Grand  Dutchess,  escaped  to  save  her  life,  and  pushed 
on  as  far  as  Modena.  Lord  Bentinck,  who  commanded  the 
British  forces  in  Sicily,  then  concluded  an  armistice  with  Murat. 
Eugene  Beauharnais,  who  had  supposed  that  the  Neapolitan 
army  would  come  to  his  succour,  was  at  length  undeceived,  and 
obliged  to  retreat  on  the  Mincio ;  but  he  fought  a  battle  with 
Field-Marshal  Bellegardc  who  commanded  the  Austrians  in  the 
room  of  Hiller  (Feb.  8,)  which  cost  the  latter  the  loss  of  8,500 
men.  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  Fouche,  who  was  at 
Lucca  as  Commissary-general  of  Bonaparte,  concluded  a  con- 
vention with  the  Neapolitans,  in  virtue  of  which  Tuf^cnny  was 
restored  to  them.  The  Viceroy,  seeing  himself  pressed  on  the 
one  hand  by  the  Atistrians,  and  on  the  other  by  the  Neapolitans ; 
and  having  received  intelligence  of  the  entrance  of  the  allies 
into  Paris,  negotiated  an  annistice,  which  was  signed  at  Schia- 
rino  Rizzino  (April  16.)  A  few  days  after,  his  friends  made  an 
attempt  to  have  him  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  by  the  people  of 
Milan.  But  the  hatred  which  the  Italians  had  for  the  French 
prevailed  over  their  attachment  to  the  Viceroy,  who  wisely  adopt* 
ed  the  resolution  of  surrendering  all  the  places  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  to  the  Austrian  troops,  and  retired  with  his  family  to 

Germany. 

The  Senate  of  France  had,  with  all  expedition,  completed  and 
published  a  pretended  constitution  (April  6,)  in  which  two  things 
especially  shocked  the  opinion  of  the  public,  viz.  the  care  which 
the  authors  of  that  production  had  taken  to  secure  the  continu- 
anea  of  their  own  authority  with  the  revenues  thereto  attached, 
and  the  violation  of  the  first  principle  of  monarchy  of  which  they 
had  been  guilty,  by  arrogating  to  themselves  tlie  right  of  con- 
fernng  ihe  crown  of  France  on  him  to  whom  it  belonged  by 
bir«h-right,  and  who,  far  from  renouncing  it,  had  taken  care  to 
secure  his  rights  by  fonnalprotestations.  Within  six  days  after, 
the  Count  D'Artois,  the  King's  Lieutenant-general,  arrived  in 
Paris,  and  concluded  a  convention  with  the  allies  (April  23,)  as 
a  prelude  to  a  general  peace.  They  engaged  to  evacuate  <he 
territory  of  France ;  and  they  settled  the  terms  on  which  the 


«»•<'<' 


I 


558 


CHAPTKR  Xli. 


places  possessed  by  the  French  troorw  not  within  their  own 
territories,  wore  to  Ik-  dolivored  up.  The  King  of  France  hud 
lauded  at  Culiii!«  (April  2.'3,)  iind  was  slowly  onpronching  hia 
capital.  A  (lecliirnlion,  wliiili  he  published  at  St.  Ouen  (May 
2,)  nnniillcd  the  corislitiitioii  of  the  Senate,  and  promised  the 
nation  ii  charter,  the  nrinr.iples  of  which  were  announced  in  that 
same  declaration.     Next  day  Louis  XVIII.  made  his  solemn 

entry  into  Paris.  •  ,    .      »ir 

The  first  care  of  Louis  was  to  conclude  peace  with  the  Allies. 
A  military  convention  was  signed  (May  28,)  regulating  differ- 
ent points"  regarding  the  maintenance  and  inarch  of  the  troops, 
hospitals,  magazines,   Sec.  ;  and  immediately  treaties  of  peace 
were  concluded  with  the  four  grand  powers  (May  30.)  to  which 
the  others  acceded.     France  was  to  return  to  her  ancient  limits 
of  January  1,  1792,  with  an  augmentation  of  territory  on  the 
north  side.     She  likewise  retained  Avignon  and  the  County  of 
Vnnaissin.     Louis  XVIII.  adhered  to  the  principles  of  the  al- 
liance of  Chauinonl,  as  to  the  political  system  to  bo  established 
in  Europe.     England  retained  Malta,  but  gave  up  the  French 
colonics,  with  the  exception  of  Tobago,  St.  Lucia,  and  the  Isle 
of  Franco,  with  their  dependencies.      Guiana,  which  had  been 
taken   from  Portugal,    was  restored.      Certain    secret  articles 
pointed  out  the  manner  in  which  the  Allied  Powers  were  todis 
pose  of  the  territories  surrendered  by  France  ;  and  annulled  the 
endowments  and  donations  made  by  Bonaparte  in  these  territo- 
ries.    Certain  special  articles  were  added  with  regard  to  Prus- 
sia, which  annulled  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  and  all  its  conseauences. 
In  the  month  of  June,  the  Emperor  Alexander,  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  Prince  Metternich,  repaired  to  London,  where  they 
concluded  a  new  quadruple  alliance,  by  which  the  contracting 
powers  engaged  to  Keep  on  foot  an  army  of  75,000  men  each, 
until  the   restoration   of  order  in   Europe.      The   sovereigns 
agreed  also,  during  their  stay  in  London,  that  Belgium  should 
be  united  to  Holland,  with  which  it  was  to  form  one  and  the 

same  Slate.  .    ^..„. 

Immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  Louis  AVJll. 
published  the  charter  or  Constitution  which  he  proposed  to  the 
nation.  This  was  not  a  constitution  in  the  sense  which  had 
been  attached  to  that  word  since  the  year  1789  ;  that  is  to  say,  a 
body  of  laws  or  regulations,  fully  and  finally  settling  the  prero- 
gative of  the  King,  and  the  powers  of  the  different  authorities, 
as  well  as  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  citizens.  It  was  a 
declaration  by  which  the  King,  in  conformity  with  the  principle.s 
which  had  prevailed  for  a  century,  modified  the  Royal  power 
in  certain  respects,  and  promised  nevter  to  exercise  it  in  futur<? 


mmimm: 


It  within  their  own 
I  King  of  Franre  hud 
Iwly  anprouching  hia 
Id  at  St.  Ouen  (May 
Ic,  and  promised  the 
fre  announced  in  that 
II.  made  his  aolcnin 

icace  with  the  Allies. 
8,)  regulating  difler- 
march  of  the  troops, 
ely  treaties  of  peace 
■s  (May  30,)  to  which 
to  her  ancient  limits 
I  of  territory  on  the 
m  iind  the  County  of 
principles  of  the  nl- 
tern  to  bo  established 
gave  up  the  French 
.  Lucin,  and  the  Isle 
ana,  which  had  been 
jrtain    secret  articles 
d  Powers  were  to  dis 
ice  ;  and  annulled  the 
iparte  in  these  territo- 
with  regard  to  Prus- 
l  all  its  consequences, 
exander,  the  King  of 
)  London,  where  they 
ivhich  the  contracting 
of  75,000  men  each, 
le.      The   sovereigns 
that  Belgium  should 
to  form  one  ond  the 

I)eace,  Louis  XVIIL 
h  he  proposed  to  the 
he  sense  which  had 
789  ;  that  is  to  say,  a 
lly  settling  the  prero- 
diirerenl  authorities, 
e  citizens.  It  was  a 
y  with  the  principles 
ied  the  Royal  power 
>  exercise  it  m  futur<? 


FBRIOU  IX.      A.  D.  1810 — 1816. 


65\) 


?x«-epi  according  to  the  established  Umux.  Thus  the  Royal 
authority,  which  Louis  XVIII.  derived  from  his  iinm-Miors,  nnd 
which  was  founded  on  the  oncient  order  of  succession,  remained 
inviolate  and  entire  in  .ill  its  brunches. 

The  peace  of  Paris  gave  rise  to  u  multitude  of  ireniies  be- 
tween the  diirercnt  powers  of  Europe.  Of  these  we  can  only 
notice  a  small  number,  which  we  shall  do  when  wo  come  to 
speak  of  the  history  of  these  countries.  Meantime,  we  must 
confine  our  remarks  to  general  alliiirs,  and  more  particularly  to 
those  in  which  France  is  concerned. 

An  orticio  in  the  treaty  of  Paris,  of  May  30th,  had  stipulated 
that  within  the  space  of  two  months,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  all 
the  powers  who  had  taken  part  in  the  late  events,  France  in- 
cluded, should  meet  in  u  general  Congress*  at  Vienna,  to  concert 
the  necessary  arrangements  for  completing  the  conditions  and 
regulation.s  of  the  treaty.  The  reconstruction  of  Germany  into 
a  body  politic  ;  the  replacing  of  Prussia  and  Austria  on  a  foot- 
ing analogous  to  the  power  which  they  had  enjoyed  in  1806 
and  1805;  the  fate  of  Poland;  the  establishment  of  nn  inde- 
pendent state  between  France  and  Germany  ;  the  neutrality  of 
Switzerland ;  the  organization  of  Italy,  which  had  been  com- 
pletely subverted  by  Bonaparte  ;  the  regulating  of  the  indem- 
nities which  might  be  claimed  by  the  difTerent  States  who  had 
taken  a  part  in  the  war ;  and  the  settling  of  the  territorial  ex- 
changes to  which  these  claims  might  give  rise,  were  the  im- 
portant objects  about  which  the  plenipotentiaries  were  neces- 
sarily to  be  employed.  To  these  England  added  one  subject 
which  might  appear  foreign  to  the  business  of  that  Congress, 
viz.  the  question  as  to  the  abolition  of  Negro  Slavery  ;  ano- 
ther arose  from  the  most  unexpected  event  of  Napoleon's  return, 
which  compelled  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  again  to  toke  arms, 
and  to  conquer  France  a  second  time. 

Owing  to  different  causes,  the  opening  of  the  Congress  did 
not  take  place  till  towards  the  end  of  the  year.  We  may  men- 
tion, with  regard  to  the  form  of  the  Congress,  thot  although  it 
was  composed  of  the  plenipotentairies  of  all  the  allies,  great  and 
small,  they  never  held  any  general  Session.  The  affairs  of 
Germany  were  kept  distinct  from  those  of  the  rest  of  Europe  ; 
theCongro89,c<msi8ting  of  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  five  great 
powers,  namely,  Austria,  France,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  and 
Russia ;  and  the  other  of  the  plenipotentiaries  of  these  and 
the  remaining  powers ;  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Sweden,  being 
added  to  the  first  five.  The  questions  relating  to  Gerinanvi 
were  discussed  at  first  by  Austria,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Hanover, 
and  Wurtcinberg ;  although,  afterwards,  all  the  sovereigns  of 


1 


^c"'. 


1^ 


f 


=rt 


5G0 


CIIAPTCn  Xlfc 


Qtimitm   were  callod  i.Uo  Uiesc  dcliboralion«.      There  wore 
cerlurkir,  which  were  prepared  and  d.BCU«ed  by  .pcc.al 

'"S'thj^ct  which   n.-caMoned  the  greatest  dilTu-ulty    and 
xvhi<h  wa«  even  on  the  po.n,  of  di.lurbing  ihe  ""'"'"""y  «   »'«' 
Cub.nel.,  wa«  the  ree,...«tr.clio..  of  .he   1  rus.m..  "I"""  '^y- 
Pru  sux  ^ns  to  be  restored  to  all  that  she  hod  possesxe.!  i.  1S05, 
exrepl  t»'c  principaliti.-  of  Franconia  which  w.rem  the  poS- 
«esMm,  of  Bavuria;  the  diMricl  of  Bialy«to.-k  which   was  un- 
m"  d  to  Ku.siu;  and  the  gra.»d  dntchy  of  Po«nanm,  which 
Al'jxunder  had  declared  hi«  intention  of  coniprehendm^  in  the 
kin«.Unn  of  Poland  which  he  proposed  to  restore      Frederic 
William   proinined  to  cede  to  Hanover  a  ^^•7''«0;  '"hj^  'J^d  ^^^^^ 
between  three  and  four  hunt^red   thouHand   ««"1'-^.  J  'J  'Jj  v 
los«eH  he  claimed  an  indemnity  ;  and  a.  ^'^-I'^-'y^^/^Vw  iS 
kinirdoin  which  could  offer  him  compensation,  Grea'  Brnain, 
Russia,  and   Austria,  had  consented  to  an  acquisif.n  which 
smn' d  to  be  justified  by  the  conduct  of  the  King  of  Saxonj-^ 
whi,  in  1907  hid  shared  the  spoils  of  Prussia,  an  J  in  lSl3  bad 
made  common  cause  with  Bonaparte.  .     .  .        , 

The  Emperor  Alexander  thus  uut  Prnsaiu  in  posHession  of 
Saxony,  which  her  troops  had  till  then  ^cumed      The  man- 
ner,  h.iwever,  in  which  public  opinion  ,n  England  and  in  Eu- 
rope  generally  had  expressed  itself  against  the  designs  of  Prus- 
sii    und   the   insinuations  of  the   French  minister  at  Vienna, 
'      induced  Austria  and  the  Cabinet  of  London  to  oppose  the  exe- 
cution  of  this  plan,  not  only  by  interesting  themselves   for  the 
preservation  of  Saxony,  but  by  disput  ng  the  claims  advanced 
by  Prussia,  and  refusing  to  allow  the  dutchy  of  War.aw  to  fall 
'mirelv  into  the  hands  of  Russia.     The  Emperor  Alexander, 
who  concurred  entirely  with  Prussia,  supported  it  with  nil  his 
efforts.     Being  apprized,  however,  that  Austria,  France,  and 
Great  Britain  had  just  concluded  an  alliance  or  agreement  which 
appeared  to  have  some  reference  to  the  fate  of  Saxony,  anc 
Wishing  to  remove  every  ground  of  misunderstanding,  he  offerea 
to  augment  the  portion  of  Prussia  on  the  side  of  Poland    and 
advised  her  to  be  content  with  the  moiety  of  Saxony  which  was 
offered  her,  and  to  accept  the  provinces  beyond  the  Rhine,  which 
were  also  destined  for  her.  . 

The  five  powers  having  come  to  an  agreement  on  these  points 
(Feb  12.)  the  king  of  Saxony  was  invited  to  come  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Vienna.  Ever  since  the  battle  of  Le.psic,  that 
Prince  had  remained  in  a  kind  of  captivity  at  Fredericsfeldt  near 
Berlin.  He  accepted  the  invitation  and  repaired  to  Vienna,  bUv 
he  refused  to  conient  to  the  cessions,  which  they  demanded  of 


MHWM 


if 


tions.      There  wura 
iliBCUsieil  by  special 

ntc«t  (iifficulty,  and 

he  uiuiiiiinity  of  tho 

ruBxiaii  iiiuiinnhy. 

il  possessed  in  1S05, 

ii  wcrt!  in  tlic  pus-' 

stork  which   was  un- 

(if  I'nsnania,  which 

itniprehendin^'  in  the 

to  restore.     Frederic 

erritory  inhiihited  by 

nd  souls.     For  these 

Siixony  was  the  only 

isiition,  Grca'  Britain, 

nu  atquisifjn  which 

the  Kintf  of  Saxony, 

issia,  nnu  in  1813  had 

usdiu  in  pos.session  of 
occupied.  The  man- 
Englund  and  in  Bu- 
st the  designs  of  Prus- 
h  minister  at  Vienna, 
don  to  oppose  the  exe- 
ig  themselves  for  the 
J  the  claims  advanced 
Ichy  of  Warsaw  to  fall 
L*  Lmpcror  Alexander, 
pported  it  with  all  his 
Austria,  France,  and 
ice  or  agreement  which 
!  fate  of  Saxony,  anc! 
iderstanding,  he  offerea 
c  side  of  Poland,  and 
'f  of  Saxony  which  was 
yond  the  Khinc,  which 

reemcnt  on  these  points 
d  to  come  to  the  neigh- 
battle  of  Lcipsic,  that 
y  at  Fredericsfeldt  near 
repaired  to  Vienna,  but 
lich  they  demanded  of 


rRRioD  IX.     A.  0.  1810—1815. 


Ml 


him.  Kin  refusal  mduced  iho  five  great  powers  to  go  to  greater 
excess;  'hey  ordained  that,  until  the  King  should  have  come  to 
n  determination,  Prussia  should  remain  in  possession  of  the 
whnio  of  Saxony.  Frederic  Augustus  was  obliged  to  yield  to 
the  course  of  events,  and  ratified  a  treoty  whicii  was  signal  at 
Vienna  (May  18.)  Thot  port  of  his  kingdom  which  was  ceded 
to  Prussia  wos  named  the  Dulchy  of  Soxony. 

The  organization  of  Germany  into  a  Confederacy,  to  be  com- 
posed of  sovereign  States,  wa» .  next  to  the  settlement  of  Prussia, 
the  object  which  occasioned  the  greatest  embarrassment.  But 
as  France  and  Russin  took  no  direct  part  in  it,  and  as  for  that 
reason  it  can  scarcely  bo  said  to  belong  to  tho  class  of  general 
affairs,  we  shall  not  now  speak  of  it.  The  same  must  bo  done 
with  regard  to  all  the  negotiations  concerning  Switzerland  and 
Italy,  of  which  wf  shall  speak  elsewhere. 

Ureat  Britain  had  introduced  the  question  as  to  Negro  Sla- 
very, of  which,  in  the  name  of  humanity  and  religion,  she  de- 
manded the  entire  aix)lition,  by  a  derree  of  all  Europe.  Den- 
mark had  prohibited  thai  ifiiffic  long  before  Engkind.  Neither 
Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  n«;r  Sweden,  had  any  motive  for 
favouring  it ;  but  it  was  not  the  cnse  with  Portugal,  Spam,  and 
France,  who  referred,  with  reason,  to  the  example  of  England 
h'Tself,  for  resisting  the  introduction  of  any  sadden  change 
which  would  be  pernicious  to  the  state  of  their  colonies,  and 
might  ruin  the  fortune  of  their  subie  is.  These  powers  readily 
agreed  to  combine  with  England  foi  the  abolitmn  of  the  trade  ; 
but  they  «rished  that  it  should  be  left  to  each  of  them  to  fix  the 
term  on  which  they  could  do  so  to  the  most  advantage.  This 
question  was  made  the  subject  of  discussion  in  the  conferences 
between  the  eight  powers  at  Vienna.  Lord  Castlereagh  de- 
manded, in  the  name  of  the  British  government,  that  all  the 
powers  should  announce  their  support  of  the  general  principle 
of  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and  their  wish  to  carry  that 
measure  iirto  effect  with  the  shortest  possible  delay.     This  pro- 

Ksition  was  unanimou!>ly  adopted  ;  but  the  other  proposal  which 
made,  to  inquire  into  the  possibility  of  an  immediate  aboli- 
tion, or  at  least,  into  the  period  when  each  of  the  powers  might 
be  able  to  fix  its  ultimate  abolition  ;  and  a  third  by  which  he 
wished  to  obtain  an  immediate  partial  abolition  of  that  traffic,  met 
with  the  most  decided  resistance  on  tho  part  of  the  three  States 
who  had  foreign  colonies.  As  the  four  other  powers  had  no 
right  to  interfere  in  the  internal  legislation  of  these  States,  the 
Declaration  which  the  Congress  published  (Feb.  9,)  proclaimed 
the  principle  recognised  by  them  all,  viz.  that  the  determination 
of  the  period  when  the  trade  was  to  cease  generally  should  be 
ieA  to  the  negotiations  of  the  contracting  powers. 

36 


■m. 


4 


4 


h 


ii 


if* 


H 


.t    'iA 


,/  I*! 


562 


CHAPTER  Xn. 


Europe  was  in  the  enjoyment  of  apparent  tranquillity,  when 
Bonaparte  quitted  Elba,  landed  with  a  thousand  adventurers  on 
the  shores  of  France  (March  1,)  invited  his  former  friends  to  join 
him,  and  deceiving  the  inhabitants  by  pretending  to  be  supported 
by  Austria,  marched  towards  Paris,  which  he  entered  within 
twenty  days  after  his  landing.  The  King  and  the  Royal  Family 
were  again  obliged  to  retire  to  Lille.  When  Louis  arrived  in 
that  city,  he  signed  an  order  for  disbanding  the  army  ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  troops  had  already  ?worn  allegiance  to  Napo- 
leon, r  inding  himself  insecure  at  Lille,  the  King  retired  to 
Ghent  (March  30.)  Bonaparte  published  a  new  constitution 
(April  22,)  under  the  title  of  The  Additional  Act  to  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  Empire.  One  of  the  articles  which  it  contained, 
pronounced  the  perpetual  banishment  of  the  Bourbons.  In  order 
to  flatter  the  partisans  of  the  sovereign  people,  this  act  was  sub- 
mitted for  their  acceptance,  and  Bonaparte  summoned  an  assem- 
bly of  extraordinary  deputies,  to  meet  in  the  Champ  de  Mai.  He 
likewise  summoned  aChamber  of  the  Representatives,  or  Legis- 
lative Body.  The  meeting  of  the  Champ  de  Mai  was  held ;  and 
two  days  after,  a  Chamber  of  Peers,  created  by  Bonaparte,  and 
a  Chamber  of  the  Representatives  of  the  Nation,  opened  their 
sessions. 

So  soon  as  the  news  of  the  landing  of  Bonaparte  in  France 
was  received  at  Vienna,  the  eight  contracting  powers  published 
a  declaration,  importing,  that  as  Bonaparte  had  thus  broken  the 
convention  which  had  placed  him  in  the  Island  of  Elba,  he  had 
destroyed  the  only  legal  title  on  which  his  existence  depended, 
and  had  thus  forfeited  all  relations,  civil  and  social.  The  allied 
sovereigiM  refused  to  receive  the  letters  by  which  he  announced 
to  them  that  he  had  again  taken  possession  of  the  throne  of 
France.  Being  of  opinion,  that  the  time  was  come  for  executing 
the  engagements  tkey  had  contracted  at  Chaumont,  the  four 
powers  who  were  parties  to  that  treaty,  renewed  their  engage- 
ments by  new  treaties  of  allianoe  (March  25.)  They  promised 
to  combine  all  their  ferces  for  maintaining  the  treaty  of  Paris  of 
May  30th  1814,  and  to  set  on  foot,  each  of  them,  an  army  of 
180,000  men.  By  an  additional  convention,  Great  Britain  un- 
dertook to  pay  to  the  three  others,  subsidies  to  the  amount  of 
5,000,0002.  Sterling  per  annum.  All  the  princes  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation* — Portiigal,  Sardinia,  the  Netherlands,  Switzer- 
land, and  Denmark^  acceded  to  thie  alliaDce ;  and  Great  Bri- 
tain granted  subsidies  to  them  all,  proportioned  to  the  forces 
which  they  might  fiend  into  the  field.  Of  all  the  powers  having 
plenipotentiaries  at  Vienna,  Spain  and  Sweden  only  declined 
•entering  into  thi«  ailianoe.     The  KilMT  of  S^in  refused  his  ^i" 


HMMMIM 


£t3«^- 


jnt  tranquillity,  when 

usand  adventurers  on 

former  friends  to  join 

jnding  to  he  supported 

ch  he  entered  within 

and  the  Royal  Family 

Then  Louis  arrived  in 

ng  the  army  ;  but  the 

«n  allegiance  to  Napo- 

!,  the  King  retired  to 

ed  a  new  constitution 

mal  Act  to  the  ComtU 

les  which  it  contained, 

he  Bourbons.  In  order 

eople,  this  act  was  sub- 

e  summoned  an  assem- 

he  Champ  de  Mai.    He 

[presentatives,  or  Legis- 

p  de  Mai  was  held  ;  and 

aied  by  Bonaparte,  and 

e  Nation,  opened  their 

of  Bonaparte  in  France 
acting  powers  published 
irte  had  thus  broken  the 
:  Island  of  Elba,  he  had 
his  existence  depended, 
1  and  social.  The  allied 
by  which  he  announced 
session  of  the  throne  of 
was  come  for  executing 
at  Chaumont,  the  four 
renewed  their  engage- 
;h  25.)  They  promised 
ng  the  treaty  of  Paris  of 
ich  of  them,  an  army  of 
mtion,  Great  Britain  un- 
bsidios  to  the  amount  of 
J  princes  of  the  Germanic 
e  Netherlands,  Switzer- 
llt«Dce  ;  and  Great  Bri- 
roportioned  to  the  forces 
Of  all  the  powers  having 
1  Sweden  only  declined 
of  Spain  refused  his  <«<•• 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810 — 1815. 


563 


cession,  as  being  contrary  to  his  dignity ;  he  would  have  had  no 
objections  to  have  become  a  principal  party,  and  he  coH)perated 
as  such  in  the  war.  Sweden  was  too  much  occupied  with  tiie 
conquest  of  Norway  to  take  any  part  in  the  deliverance  of  Franco. 

There  was  still  another  monarch  who  had  not  joined  the  alli- 
ance of  Vienna,  and  that  was  Murat.  The  King  of  France  had 
refused  to  acknowledge  him  as  King  of  Naples,  and  Lord  Cas- 
tlereagh  had  declared  at  Vienna,  that  Great  Britain  could  not 
treat  with  Murat,  as  he  haH  not  fulfilled  his  engagements  ;  and, 
therefore,  that  it  depended  on  the  Congress  to  decide  as  to  the 
fate  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  These  declarations  induced 
Murat  to  take  arms ;  nevertheless,  he  continued  to  dissemble, 
until  he  learned  that  Bonaparte  had  arrived  at  Lyons.  Then 
it  was  that  he  threw  oflf  the  mask.  He  marched  at  the  head  of 
his  armv  towards  the  Po,  and  issued  a  proclamation  (March  30,) 
by  which  he  proclaimed  liberty  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Italy. 
The  Austrian  army  in  that  peninsula,  immediately  put  them- 
selves in  motion  to  oppose  him.  Being  defeated  at  Tolentino  by 
General  Bianchi  (May  2,)  he  retreated  first  to  Naples,  and  after 
a  short  stay  there,  he  took  refuge  in  France.  The  government 
of  Ferdinand  IV.  was  again  restored. 

Meantime,  as  the  partisans  of  Bonaparte,  and  the  revolution- 
ists every  where,  were  at  great  pains  to  propagate  and  cherish 
doubts  as  to  the  determination  of  the  allied  sovereigns  to  follow 
up  the  act  of  the  13th  March,  which  had  been  adopted  at  a 
time  when  it  was  hoped  that  France  would  have  no  more  need 
of  foreign  aid ;  the  allied  sovereigns  deemed  it  necessary  to 
make  known  the  expression  of  their  principles  by  a  solemn  act ; 
to  which  they  gave  the  form  of  a  proeis-verbal,  or  edict,  signed 
by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  eight  powers.  The  publication 
of  that  act  was  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war  against  Bona- 
parte. It  opened  the  eyes  of  those  credulous  followers  who  had 
till  then  believed  that  Austria  and  Russia  were  on  friendly 
terms  with  him. 

All  the  negotiations  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  beine  termi- 
nated by  the  signing  of  the  Act  of  the  Germanic  Confederation, 
which  took  place  on  June  8th,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  eight 
contracting  powers  next  day  signed  the  Act  of  Congress,  which 
was  a  recapitulation  or  abstract  of  all  their  preceding  regula- 
tions, eidier  by  particular  treaties  or  by  declarations  and  edicts, 
(or  protocols,  aa  they  are  sometimes  called  at  Vienna,)  relative 
to  Poland,  die  territorial  amingements  in  Germany,  the  Ger- 
manic Confederation,  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  Switzer 
land,  Italy,  Portugal,  the  navigation  of  rivers,  the  rank  of  dip- 
lomatic agents,  and  the  form  of  accessions  and  ratifications  of 


m 


OBAPTEB  XII. 

but   the  «n.gg>«  '««'°L?3Cfoteignere»tfootonll» 
200,000)  »°i"»Vi:°"l ?rhSd  &  tat  amie.,  vix. 

,ta.,  under  the  .otttnmnd^arBtel^at^  Sch«.men 

"~« .-^^f  *  M'^iififKifr  trr.'j;:i"dt' 

c»niiund  ot  BBcUy  de  My.     inev  „^,,  „  „,„,e 

of  147,000  of  the  national  g^    *mi^g     ^hit  of  the  north. 
He  had  divided  ^^  ^J^^o  «  ght^^^^^^^^      ^^^ 
which  he  commanded  him8eW,con«^^^         ^^^^  j^       l,y  de- 
Bonaparte  opened  ^J^^^^g^bre,  to  attack  the  Prussian 
tochingasecondcornsacrossUieba^^  ^  the  superior 

General  Zieten.  who  ^„*^  "towards  Fleurus.  Next  day 
strength  of  *«  ^'^^-^Y;  Ao  i  k^BrusseU  at  the  head  of 
the  Duke  of  B™"'^^^  Russians,  was  killed  at  QuatreBrw^ 
12,000  men  to  support  the  t]^«»""  '  p       h,  sustained  a  consi- 

Mwshal  Ney,  who  ^^'^Zl^Z^^\^^'^^^  «««  ^^^S""^^ 
derahle  loss ;  on  the  same  d  jy  Marsha  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^ 

atLigny.but  he  '^^^^J.*"  ^^^^^  atuck  WeUington,  who 

parte  from  that  """Xtlrlooir  Mont  St.  Jean.    The  combat 
Jave  him  battle  »  Waterloo,  ^ra^^^^^  j„     ^in  fou, 

5,as  continued.  wUh  ^'^^  2^„''  "f  General  Bulow's  di- 
o'clock.  when  the  P^'J^^J^'in^  person,  approached  the 
vision,  and '^«"^*Pff  iUron  the  right  wing  of  the  French, 
field  of  battle.  .nJ  ^^  «^Wt**the  whole  Prussian  army  was 
while  Bonaparte  supposed  „U  had  sent  against  them  with  a 
:nga«.d  wiK  Groudgr,  whom  ^«„^J,*Xt  ^"^,5  "'  W 
detochment  of  40.000  «»";  "J^  ^  j^  ^gs  General  Grouchy, 
Prussians.  Bonaparte  sy^d  tha^^^^^^^^  ^  marchiiig  to  the 
who  after  having  defeated  the  rrus  ^^^^^  ^j^  i. 

^£S.SS^  h?Srh,««  W.™.  BLche. 


hembly  tenninate  it* 

ng  to  invade  France, 
s  decided  by  about 
gners  set  foot  on  the 
jur  armies,  viz. 
ied  by  Lord  Welling- 
)verians,  and  Bruns- 
ds  and  Nassau, 
ing  of  140,000  PruB- 

inded  by  Schwartzen- 
and  124,000  German 

000  strong,  under  the 
irere  to  be  stationed  be- 
y  were  unable  to  arrive 
campaign  was  decided 

213,000  men.exchisive 
employed  in  garrison. 
is.     That  of  the  north, 
I  of  108,000  men. 
the  16lh  June,  by  de- 
■e,  to  attack  the  Prussian 
)  yield  to  the   superior 
rds  Fleurus.     Next  day 
Brussels  at  the  head  of 
as  killed  at  Quatre  Braa ; 
rench,  sustained  a  consi- 
al  Blucher  was  defeated 
!8t  order  to  Brie.     Bona- 
attack  Wellington,  who 
t  St.  Jean.    The  combat 
,  from  morning  till  four 
r  of  General  Bulow's  di- 
i  person,  approached  the 
right  wing  of  the  French, 
hole  Prussian  army  was 
sent  against  them  with  a 
;  first  appearance  of  the 
it  was  General  Grouchy, 
ans,  was  marching  to  the 
t  is,  that  General  Thiel- 
hy  near  Wavre,  Blucher 


■tttfMBff' 


PEUIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1810 — 1816. 


665 


had  sent  him  word  to  defend  himself  the  best  way  he  could, 
and  did  not  allow  himself  to  be  diverted  from  his  original  plan 
of  falling  upon  the  right  wing  of  Bonaparte.  When  Bonaparte 
at  length  discovered  his  error,  he  lost  ail  resolution.  His  army 
were  panic-struck,  and  fled  in  all  directions.  He  was  himself 
nearly  taken  prisoner,  having  escaped  with  great  difficulty. 
The  Germans  have  given  this  battle  the  name  of  Belle  Alliance, 
from  the  ho\i  ",  where  Blucher  and  Wellington  met  after  the 
action.  Of  120,000  French,  60,000  were  either  taken  or  killed 
in  the  two  days  of  the  16th  and  18th  June  1815 ;  64,000  Eng- 
lish, and  50,000  Prussians  were  engaged  in  the  battle.  The 
Encflish  lost  14,000  men  on  the  18th,  and  the  Prussians  33,000 
in  the  two  engagements  of  the  16th  and  18th. 

Bonaparte  made  his  escape  to  Paris,  but  the  Chamber  of 
Representatives,  composed  of  the  partisans  of  the  Revolution  of 
1789,  and  of  Republicans  who  had  no  wish  to  promote  the  in- 
terest of  Bonaparte,  except  as  an  instrument  for  the  execution 
of  their  own  plans,  determined  to  take  advantage  of  the  con- 
tempt into  which  he  had  fallen  to  get  rid  of  his  presence.  They 
required  him  to  abdicate,  which  he  did  June  22d,  in  favour  of 
his  son.  The  Chambers  appointed  a  government  commission, 
at  the  head  of  which  they  placed  Fouche,  who  sent  deputies  to 
Heidelberg,  where  the  head-quarters  of  the  Allied  Sovereigns 
then  were,  with  a  commission  to  treat  with  them  on  the  basis 
of  the  national  independence,  and  the  inviolability  of  the  soil 
of  France.  But  as  there  was  no  mention  made  in  the  proposi- 
tions about  the  restoration  of  the  King,  the  allies  refused  to 
treat  until  Bonaparte  should  first  be  delivered  up  to  them. 

Bonaparte  had  demanded  of  Wellington  and  Blucher,  pass- 
ports  for  quitting  France ;  and  on  being  refused,  the  govern- 
ment commission  conveyed  him  to  Rochefort,  where  he  was  to 
embark  on  board  a  frigate  and  go  to  America.  But  Captain 
Maitland,  who  was  cruising  off  that  port  with  an  English  ves- 
sel, prevented  him  from  leaving  the  place  unless  he  would  sur- 
render to  the  English,  on  which  condition  he  promised  to 
guarantee  his  life.  The  danger  becoming  every  day  more 
pressing,  he  at  length  saw  himself  compelled  to  submit.  The 
Bellerophon,  with  Bonaparte  on  board,  arrived  in  Torbay  (July 
24,)  but  the  English  government  would  not  permit  the  General 
to  set  foot  on  land.  By  a  convention  signed  bv  the  allies  at 
Paris  (Aug.  2,)  England  took  upon  herself  the  charge  of  keep- 
ing guard  over  him  at  St.  Helena.  He  was  accordingly  trans- 
ported to  that  island,  where  he  remained  till  his  death,  which 
happened  May  5th,  1821. 

After  the  battle  of  the  18th  June,  Wellington  and  Blucher 


f'  i'f 


m 


"^i' 


CHAPTBB  XII. 

were  enabled  to  form  ^XrHe^S^S^^^-'^  '^^ ^^''' 
some  attempte  to  defe'^d Jans.^^^^^^^  announced  to 

at  Sevres  and  Jl^X '  *[^«'^^rAris  vL^      the  point  of  surren- 
tr  'it^S'tf^n  r:  ^7  S.  C  Jd  Umy  30  and 
Wrench  arJ.y  retired  ^^f^f^^Xiy,  ,„d  Louis  XVIII 
The  allies  occumed  Pans  »»^«^T^„\i7dkys  after,  the  Allied 
entered  on  the  ¥^7^"^ ^J;  JgU^J^^^^  twenty 

Sovereigns  arrived.     A  a«"^|  °]  Imworthv  of  their  country, 
nine  in3iv««'  "^k  Vlllr  of  B^naprt^^^^^^^^  the  ban- 

as  having  sat  ^V**"  ^^n?  NitfeeHerso^^^  "^  »»'^^i"« 

ishment  of  the  Bourbons.  J»«^f "  P^^'  ^„e  remitted  to  the 
betrayed  the  Kmg  before  the  pSdMarcn.wer  ^^ 

tribunals;  thirty-e.ght  other  '^^^'fj^egici^ 

Paris.    These  latter  were  m  general  rflaPf «^ '^f ,    .  'j^  iqIS. 

JS^L  who.  after  having  o^ed  Pardo"  -  JSU  »>ad  m  Ib^^^ 

Sgned  the  banishment  °f  ^^?J"''^f'^Je '  prTmary  regicides,  t^ 
broke  his  word  of  honour  given  to    he^P^^^^^^^  g^^^ 

leave  them  to  the  remonstrances  of  their  o^^^^  ^^^ 

months  after  (Jan.  12^  1816)  the  £^^^^^  elapsed 

changed  into  a  law;  7»J  .J^^  J^f^oTof  France.  Of  the  in- 
regicides  were  to  ^^^'^^"^XTribunals  two  only  were  executed, 
dividuals  ar^ign^d  before  the  triW^^^  ^,  ^^ 

SX  the^^oifr^e^^^^^^^^^^  »^  ^^«  ^»« 

threw  a  veil  over  all  other  "imes.  ^^^ 

as  It  was  a  P"^/j^*^ /^^  of  the  commandanU  refused  to  re- 
tresses ;  and  t^e  5^*'f^' P*7/i  length  convinced,  that  in  order 
ceive  them.    The  allies  were  ai  le  g  necessary  to  take 

to  secure  the  t"^««l"»"'*yr/K\adX^  in  18l4;  but  it 
more  vigorous  measures  than    hejjiad^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^ 

&  «-y/i{^^£rrt's^'ekTnuiteS^^^^^ 

tween  France  and  the  Allies  ^^  ""IfJ      ^^de  several  lerri- 
Switzerland,  and  the  King  of  Sardmia^  ^^^_ 


1. 


I  the  army  of  Schwart* 

joined  the  fugitives : 

)  save  his  division,  they 

too  men,  which  made 

igagements  took  place 

iDavoust  announced  to 

Jn  the  point  of  surren- 

t.  Cloud  (July  3.)  and 

uly,  and  Louis  XVIII 

ro  days  after,  the  Allied 

July  declared  twenty- 

orthy  of  their  country, 

rte,  and  sworn  the  ban- 

'sons  accused  of  having 

were  remitted  to  the 

were  ordered  to  quit 

lapsed  regicides,  that  is, 

in  in  1814,  had,  in  1816, 

for  the  King  never 

le  primary  regicides,  to 

own  conscience.  Some 

icree  of  July  24th  was 

cation,  that  the  relapsed 

il  of  France.     Of  the  in- 

,  two  only  were  executed, 

;  a  third  (Lavalette,^  ?  na 

e  clemency  of  the  King 

>  the  King  ;  but  the  war 
n  the  frontiers  of  France, 
iea  to  occupy  all  the  for* 
namandants  refused  to  re* 
I  convinced,  that  in  order 
it  was  necessary  to  take 
id  done  in  1814 ;  but  it 
that  their  plan  was  suf- 
negotiations  with  France, 
nter ;  and  the  treaty  be- 
ligned  until  the  20th  No- 
rance  made  several  lerri* 
russia,  Austria,  Bavaria. 

ay  to  the  allies  a  pecuni- 
is  of  francs;  that  150,000 


FEBIOD  IX.      A.  D.  I8l0 — 1815. 


507 


of  the  allied  troops  should  occupy  certain  places  in  France  fox 
6ve  years ;  and  that  they  should  be  paid  and  maintained  by 
France.  By  an  additional  article,  they  engaged  reciprocally  to 
concert  measures  for  obtaining  the  entire  and  final  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade. 

The  same  day,  Austria,  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Russia, 
concluded  an  alliance  for  the  following  purposes : — (1.)  The 
maintenance  of  the  treaties  and  conventions  which  had  just  been 
concluded:  And,  (3.)  The  perpetual  exclusion  of  Napoleon  Bo- 
nai)arte  and  his  family  from  the  sovereignty  of  France  ;  the 
maintenance  of  tranquillity  in  that  country  ;  and  the  suppression 
of  revolutionary  principles,  so  that  they  might  never  again  dis- 
tract France,  or  threaten  the  repose  of  Europe.  For  this  two- 
fold object,  the  allies  agreed  to  furnish  their  contingents  as  de- 
termined by  the  alliance  of  Ghaumont;  finally,  they  agreed  to 
have  another  personal  conference  in  the  course  of  the  year  1818. 

Prior  to  this  quadruple  alliance  which,  by  securing  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  on  the  throne  of  France,  forma 
one  of  the  bases  of  the  new  political  system  of  Europe,  the  Em- 
perors of  Austria  and  Russia,  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  signed 
at  Paris  (Sept.  26,)  an  Act,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Holy 
Alliance,  which  forms  the  second  basis  of  the  same  system.  The 
real  object  of  this  alliance  was  doubtless  a  mutual  guarantee 
against  any  encroachments  which  might  be  made  on  their  sov- 
ereign power ;  to  disguise  this,  it  set  forth  their  firm  determina- 
tion to  take  no  other  rule  for  their  conduct  than  the  precepts  of 
the  Christian  religion.  They  promised  to  continue  in  the  in- 
dissoluble bonds  of  brotherly  union,  and  to  be  ready  on  all  occa- 
sions, and  in  all  places,  to  succour  and  assist  each  other — to 
consider  themselves  but  as  members  of  the  same  Christian  na- 
tion, and  as  delegated  by  Providence  to  govern  three  branches 
of  the  same  family ;  and  finally,  to  receive  into  the  same  alliance 
all  other  powers  who  were  willing  to  profess  the  same  principles 
which  had  dictated  that  act.  All  die  Christian  powers  in  Eu- 
rope acceded  to  the  treaties  and  conventions  of  the  20th  Novem- 
ber 1815,  except  Sweden,  who  had  taken  no  share  in  the  war. 
They  all  entered  into  the  Holy  Alliance,  except  the  King  of 
Great  Britain,  who,  while  he  fully  sanctioned  the  principles  set 
forth  in  that  Act,  was  prevented  from  signing  it,  because,  accord- 
ing to  the  constitutional  custom  of  England,  the  Soverei|p  signs 
nothing  without  the  countersi^ing  of  a  responsible  minister. 

Here  it  will  be  necessary  briefly  to  point  out  the  more  impor 
tant  events  which  happened  since  1811  in  the  other  European 
States,  and  the  changes  which  were  produced  by  the  Congress 
•f  VJAnna. 


i»{.i« 


568 


CnAPTKK  Xl(. 


Portugal  seemed  destined  to  be  nothing  more  in  future  than 
a  dependency  of  Brazil,  in  a  political  point  of  view,  as  she  al- 
ready was  o^  England  with  respect  to  agriculture,  industry,  and 
commerce.  The  latter  power  attached  so  great  an  importance 
to  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  that  by  a  treaty  signed  during 
the  conferences  at  Vienna,  she  had  purchased  the  eflective  co- 
operation of  Portugal  in  this  measure,  by  giving  up  all  the  ad- 
vantages which  she  had  reserved  to  herself  by  the  treaty  of  Rio 
Janeiro  of  February  19th  1810,  which  she  consented  to  annul ; 
nevertheless,  Portugal  only  prohibited  her  subjects  conditionally 
from  carrying  on  the  slave  trade  in  that  part  of  Africa  lying  to 
the  north  of  the  Equator. 

In  Spain,  the  Extraordinary  Cortes  then  assembled  at  Cadiz, 
after  having  published  a  decree,  January  1,  1811,  importing  that 
they  could  make  no  treaty  with  France  until  the  King  enjoyed 
full  liberty,  and  that  he  could  not  be  regarded  as  at  liberty  until 
he  had  taken  the  constitutional  oath,  finished  the  work  which 
they  alleged  had  been  intrusted  to  their  hands.  Their  constitu- 
tion, which  was  founded  on  the  principle  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  people,  intrusted  the  legislative  power  to  a  popular  assembly, 
and  the  execution  of  the  laws  to  a  functionary  with  limited  au- 
thority, decorated  with  the  title  of  a  King,  was  published  on  the 
18th  of  March  1812.  In  violation  of  historic  truth,  it  was  an- 
nounced to  the  world  as  the  genuine  ancient  constitution  of  Spain. 
The  Cortes  terminated  their  session  on  the  20th  September 
1813.  The  new  or  ordinary  Cortes,  convened  in  the  constitu- 
tional form  at  the  rate  of  one  deputy  for  every  70,000  inhabitants, 
without  distinction  of  fortune  or  estate,  transferred  their  sitting 
to  Madrid  towards  the  end  of  the  year.  It  was  this  extraordi- 
nary meeting  of  the  Cortes  that  concluded  a  treaty  of  friendship 
and  alliance  (July  28,  1813)  with  the  Emperor  of  Russia  at 
Weliki-Louki,  where  he  had  then  his  head-quarters.  Alexan- 
uu  «here  acknowledged  the  Cortes  and  their  constitution.  That 
acknowledgment  was  extremely  simple.  Alexander  could  no* 
treat  except  with  the  government  then  established.  That  gov- 
ernment acted  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  their  acts 
were  to  be  regarded  as  legitimate  so  long  as  that  prince  had  not 
disavowed  them.  The  Emperor  of  Russia  had  neither  the  will 
nor  the  power  to  lend  his  sanction  to  an  order  of  things  which 
had  not  the  approbation  of  a  King,  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  lib- 
erty It  was  in  this  same  sense  that  the  King  of  Prussia  enter- 
ed into  an  alliance  with  the  Spanish  government,  by  a  treaty 
which  was  signed  at  Basle  (Jan.  20,  1814.) 

After  returning  from  the  campaign  of  1813,  Bonaparte  con- 
sidering Spain  astlost,  resolved  to  set  Ferdinand  VII.  at  liberty  . 


more  in  future  than 
It  of  view,  as  she  a!> 

[culture,  industry,  and 
I  great  an  importance 
treaty  signed  during 

lased  the  effective  co- 
giving  up  all  the  ad- 

If  by  the  treaty  of  Rio 

e  consented  to  annul ; 
subjects  conditionally 

part  of  Africa  lying  to 

en  assembled  at  Cadiz, 
1,  1811,  importing  that 
until  the  King  enjoyed 
irded  as  at  liberty  until 

Eished  the  work  which 
ands.  Their  constitu- 
of  the  sovereignty  of 
r  to  a  popular  assembly, 
ionary  with  limited  au- 
ig,  was  published  on  the 
listoric  truth,  it  was  an- 
;nt  constitution  of  Spain. 
)n  the  20th  September 
nvened  in  the  constitu- 
very  70,000  inhabitants, 
transferred  their  sitting 

It  was  this  extraordi- 
3d  a  treaty  of  friendship 

Emperor  of  Russia  at 
lead-quarters.  Alexan- 
their  constitution.  That 
Alexander  could  no* 
istablished.  That  gov- 
knd  VII.,  and  their  acts 
;  as  that  prince  had  not 
«ia  had  neither  the  will 
I  order  of  things  which 
le  full  enjoyment  of  lib- 
!  King  of  Prussia  enter- 
Ifovemment,  by  a  treaty 
14.) 

f  1813,  Bonaparte  con- 
irdinand  VII.  at  liberty  . 


PBSIOD  u.     A.  D.  1810—1815. 


569 


but  in  the  hope  of  turning  that  tardy  net  of  justice  to  his  advan- 
tage by  making  that  prince  his  friend,  he  represented  Spain  as 
overrun  with  Jacobinism,  which  was  labouring  to  overturn  the 
throne,  and  to  substitute  a  republic  in  its  place  ;  and  he  accused 
England  as  having  favoured  that  project.  Ferdinand  VII.  de- 
manded that  a  deputation  of  the  Regency  should  be  admitted  to 
a  personal  interview  with  him,  who  might  inform  him  as  to  the 
real  state  of  matters.  Bonaparte,  who  executed  with  despatch 
whatever  he  had  once  resolved,  found  this  mode  of  proceeding 
too  slow.  He  empowered  M.  de  la  Forfit,  whom  he  had  sent  to 
Valencay  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  his  captive,  by  which  the 
latter  was  acknowledged  King  of  Spain ;  and  promised,  on  his 
part,  to  cause  the  English  troops  to  evacuate  the  whole  of  that 
kingdom. 

Ferdinand  VII.  sent  his  minister,  the  Duke  of  San  Carlos,  to 
Madrid,  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  communicating  that  treaty 
to  the  Regency,  but  in  reality  to  take  cognizance  of  the  state  of 
affairs.  The  Regency  refused  to  acknowledge  the  treaty  of 
Valencay,  because  the  King  was  not  at  liberty.  Bonaparte  being 
apprized  of  this  difficulty,  immediately  released  Ferdinand  (Mar 
7,  1814.)  He  set  out  on  his  return  to  his  dominions,  but  per- 
formed his  journey  slowly,  that  he  might  have  leisure  to  obtain 
personal  information,  as  to  the  spirit  which  reigned  among  the 
Spaniards.  He  was  soon  convinced,  that  the  people,  attached 
to  their  religion,  and  to  the  family  of  their  lawful  prince,  were 
very  indifferent  about  the  constitution  of  the  Cortes,  and  that 
that  assembly  enjoyed  very  little  influence  or  authority.  Sixty 
members  of  the  Cortes  had  even  protested  against  an  Act  which, 
by  degrading  the  Royal  Dignity,  was  preparing  the  way  for  es- 
tablishing a  democracy.  On  his  arrival  at  Valencia,  Ferdinand 
abrogated  the  constitution  of  1812,  and  directed  his  course  to- 
wards Madrid,  which  he  entered  on  the  17th  May.  The  people 
every  where  expressed  their  attachment  to  a  prince,  whose  ar- 
rival they  hailed  as  the  return  of  justice  and  order ;  though  it 
is  foreign  to  our  purpose  to  narrate  why  that  hope  has  not  been 
realized. 

Great  Britain  was  the  power  which  acted  the  most  conspicuous 
part  during  the  era  of  which  we  have  given  the  preceding  his- 
torical sketch.  The  fortitude  and  perseverance  with  which  she 
had  prosecuted  her  system  of  policy,  after  the  breaking  of  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  was  crowned  with  the  most  complete  success ; 
and  the  plan  conceived  by  Mr.  Pitt,  but  which  that  great  states- 
man had  despaired  ever  to  see  carried  into  execution,  became 
the  corner-stone  of  the  future  policy  of  Europe.  Great  Britain 
was  the  mainspring  of  the  alliance,  which  in  1813  undertook  the 


m 


§ 


m 


670 


CHAPTBR  Xn. 


deliveranco  of  Europe.  She  made  the  most  extraordinary  efljrta 
in  raising  armies,  and  granting  supplies  for  maintaining  the 
troops  of  the  Continental  nations. 

A  mental  calamity,  with  which  George  III.  had  been  afflicted 
towards  the  end  of  the  year  1810,  obliged  the  Parliament  to 
establish  a  regency.  That  important  charge  belonged  of  right 
to  the  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown  ;  but  as  the  ministry  were 
apprehensive  that  the  Prince  of  Wales  might  in  some  respects 
change  the  system  of  the  existing  Government,  the  Parliament 
passed  an  Act  (Dec.  31,)  which  restricted  the  authority  of  the 
Regent  to  one  year.  The  Prince  Regent  submitted  to  these 
modificutions.  He  exercised  the  regency  at  first  with  a  limited 
power ;  but,  after  the  year  1812,  when  the  prospects  of  his  Ma* 
jesty's  recovery  were  considerably  diminished,  he  continued  to 
exercise  the  Royal  authority  until  his  father's  death,  which  hap- 
pened January  29,  1820,  when  the  Prince  then  assumed  the 
title  of  George  IV.  The  Regent  found  the  kingdom  at  war  with 
Russia  and  Sweden ;  but  it  was  only  in  appearance,  and  without 
effective  hostilities.  Lord  Castlereagh,  who,  since  the  year 
1812,  had  been  at  the  head  of  foreign  affairs,  listened  with  eager- 
ness to  the  first  advances  which  these  two  powers  made  towards 
a  mutual  accommodation.  Peace  was  signed  at  Orebro  (July 
12,)  first  with  Sweden,  and  a  few  days  after  with  Russia.  The 
former,  in  indirect  terms,  abandoned  the  principles  of  the  armed 
neutrality  of  the  North.  We  shall  have  occasion  hereafter  to 
revert  to  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  signed  with  Russia. 

She  was  now  assailed  by  a  new  enemy.  A  misunderstand- 
ing had  existed  for  years,  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  in  consequence  of  the  various  restrictions 
she  had  imposed  upon  the  commerce  of  Neutrals,  the  humilia- 
ting conditions  to  which  she  wished  to  subject  it,  and  the  im- 
Eressment  of  seamen.  The  Government  of  the  United  States 
ad  sought  by  various  retaliatory  measures,  to  operate  upon  her 
interests  and  induce  her  to  abandon  her  system  of  arbitrary  do- 
minion over  the  great  highway  of  nations.  From  1806  to  1812 
the  pacific  disposition  of  the  American  Government  was  mani- 
fested by  the  several  expedients  of  NoU'lmportatUm,  Embargo, 
and  Non-Intercourse,  to  which  they  had  resorted,  to  prevent  an 
open  rupture,  but  as  none  of  these  resulted  in  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  her  rights  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  an  appeal  was 
made  at  last  to  the  Ultima  ratio  Regum.  On  the  18tn  of  June, 
1812,  an  Act  of  Congress  was  passed,  declaring  War  against 
Great  Britain  ;  the  reasons  for  this  measure,  as  stated  in  th« 
President's  manifesto,  were  "  The  impressment  of  American 
•eamen  by  the  British,  the  blockade  of  her  enemies'  ports  sup 


|o8t  extraordinary  efTirtn 
38  for  maintaining  the 

[e  III.  had  been  afflicted 

iged  the  Parliament  to 

harge  belonged  of  right 

>ut  as  the  ministry  were 

might  in  some  respects 

irnment,  the  Parliament 

ed  the  authority  of  the 

tgent  submitted  to  these 

cv  at  first  with  a  limited 

the  prospects  of  his  Ma> 

inished,  he  continued  to 

ither's  death,  which  hap- 

rince  then  assumed  the 

the  kingdom  at  war  with 

appearance,  and  without 

:h,  who,  since  the  year 

iairs,  listened  with  eager- 

wo  powers  made  towards 

I  signed  at  Orebro  (July 

after  with  Russia.     The 

>e  principles  of  the  armed 

ave  occasion  hereafter  to 

signed  with  Russia. 

3my.     A  misunderstand- 

it  Britain  and  the  United 

r  the  various  restrictions 

of  Neutrals,  the  humilia- 

to  subject  it.  and  the  im> 

ent  of  the  United  States 

ures,  to  operate  upon  her 

it  system  of  arbitrary  do- 

>n8.    From  1806  to  1812 

1  Qovernment  was  mani- 

a-Importation,  Emiargo, 

id  resorted,  to  prevent  an 

ulted  in  an  acknowledg- 

Lt  Britain,  an  appeal  was 

»t.     On  the  18th  of  June, 

1,  declaring  War  against 

aeasure,  as  stated  in  the 

ipressment  of  American 

her  enemies'  ports  sup 


pruiod  iz.    a.  v.  1810 — 18  lA. 


571 


porteil  by  no  adequate  force,  in  consequence  of  which  the  Ame« 
rican  commerce  had  been  plundered  in  every  sea,  and  the 
Britifh  Orders  in  Council." 

The  remoteness  of  the  two  contending  nations  from  each 
other,  rendered  it  impossible  for  them  to  bring  together  great 
armies  to  meet  in  a  general  conflict.  On  the  one  side,  the  Ga- 
nadas  were  attacked  by  the  Americans  in  many  points  with 
various  success,  and  on  the  other,  the  cities  and  settlements 
along  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic,  were  subjected  to  constant  an- 
noyance and  depredation  from  the  British  maritime  forces.  In 
acts  of  hostility  of  this  kind,  and  in  naval  combats,  the  war 
was  continued  for  nearly  three  years,  during  which  abundant 
proofs  were  given  that  the  veteran  forces  of  Great  Britain  could 
claim  no  other  superiority,  than  that  of  experience,  either  in 
officers  or  soldiers,  to  ."ler  enemy.  Many  of  the  land,  and  all 
the  sea  battles  were  fought  with  great  skill  and  bravery,  and 
gallantry  by  the  Americans.  The  last  important  occurrence  of 
the  war,  was  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  where  the  American 
forces,  under  the  command  of  their  heroic  leader  General  Jack- 
son, gained  a  brilliant  victory. 

The  situation  of  Europe  was  now  so  entirely  changed,  that 
(he  grievances  of  which  America  had  complained,  and  for  the 
redress  of  which  she  had  fought,  must  naturally  cease,  and  as 
neither  party  deemed  it  expedient  to  continue  the  war  for  ab- 
stract rights,  a  peace  was  settled  at  Ghent,  between  the  pleni- 
potentiaries of  the  two  nations,  Dec.  24th,  1814,  which  restored 
friendship  and  amity,  without  settling  any  of  the  great  points  in 
dispute  which  had  induced  a  resort  to  arms. 

The  financial  system  of  Great  Britain  underwent  an  essen- 
tial alteration,  by  the  adoption  of  a  plan  presented  by  Mr.  Van- 
sittart.  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  introducing  certain  modi- 
fications relative  to  the  accumulation  of  the  sinking  fund.  The 
expenditure  of  the  government  in  1815,  amounted  to  77,337,475/. 
sterling,  of  which  Ireland  cost  8,651,335/.  sterling.  The  inter- 
est of  the  national  debt  amounted  to  36,607,128/.  sterling,  of 
which  13,188,510/.  were  applied  to  the  sinking  fund.  Great 
Britain  paid  to  the  States  of  the  Continent,  in  1813, 11,400,000/. 
sterling,  under  the  name  of  subsidies  ;  24,107  ships,  and 
105,030  seamen,  were  employed  in  commerce.  In  1814,  these 
numbers  were  augmented  one-seventh  more.  At  this  latter  pe- 
riod, their  navy  consisted  of  1044  ships  of  war,  100,000  sailors, 
and  32,600  marines ;  the  land  forces  amounted  to  302,490  men, 
including  63,000  militia. 

Holland,  and  the  other  powers  which  had  anciently  formed 
the  Republic  of  the  United  Provinces,  after  having  been  for 


**-''* 


Mii 


jl> 


r.7'2 


CHAPTER  Xn. 


two  years  united  to  France,  resumed  once  more  their  national 
independence.  After  the  battle  of  Leip^ic,  when  the  corp»  ot 
Generals  Bulow  and  Winzingerodc  approached  that  country, 
;he  parlixans  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  at  the  Hague,  with  M.  ae 
liogendurps  at  their  head,  mounted  the  ancient  cockade,  estab- 
lished a  provisional  government  (Nov.  17,  1813,)  and  invited  the 
heir  of  the  last  Stadtholder  to  return  and  place  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  government.  The  French  troops,  finding  themselves  ton 
weak  to  defend  the  country  at  once  against  the  allies  and 
against  the  inhabitants,  quietly  took  th^ir  departure.  The 
Prince  of  Orange  having  arrived  at  Amsterdam  (Dec.  1,)  was 
proclaimed  Sovereign  Prince  of  the  Low  Countries  ;  but  he  ac- 
cepted  that  dignity,  on  the  condition  that  his  power  should  be 
limited  by  a  constitution  ;  a  plan  of  which  he  caused  to  be 
drawn  up,  which  was  adopted  and  sworn  to  in  an  assembly  of 
the  Representatives. 

During  the  sojourn  of  the  allied  sovereigns  in  England,  it 
was  agreed,  that  in  order  to  oppose  a  barrier  to  Frano<f  on  the 
side  of  the  North,  Holland  and  Belgium  should  be  united  under 
the  same  government.  A  treaty,  concluded  at  the  samt  time 
'in  London  (Aug.  13,  1814,)  restored  to  the  Dutch  all  theii  an- 
cient colonies,  with  the  exception  of  the  Cape  of  Good  !lope, 
Essequibo,  Bcrbice,  and  Demarara.  According  to  the  regula- 
tions of  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  bishopric  of  Liege,  and  the 
diitchy  of  Luxemburg  were  ceded  to  the  sovereign  prince,  on 
condition  that  he  should  make  a  part  of  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation. It  was  at  this  time  that  he  received  the  title  of  King 
of  the  Netherlands.  By  the  second  treaty  of  Paris,  this  new 
kingdom  obtained  a  slight  increase  of  territory,  and  a  sum  of 
sixty  millions  of  francs,  for  constructing  a  line  of  fortresses. 
The  superficial  extent  of  that  kingdom,  w^ith  the  dutchy  of  Lux- 
emburg, amounted  to  1164  German  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  5,460,000  souls ;  besides  the  population  of  its  colonies, 
amounting  to  1,726,000  inhabitants. 

Switzerland  vainly  flattered  herself,  when  the  allies  approach- 
ed the  Rhine,  about  the  end  of  1813,  that  they  would  grant 
her  the  privilege  of  neutrality.  The  allied  troops  had  to  tra- 
verse the  territory  of  the  Confederacy,  in  order  to  enter  France. 
The  public  opinion  then  declared  itself,  by  annulling  the  Act 
of  Mediation  which  united  Switzerland  to  France ;  but  this 
opinion  was  not  unanimous  aa  to  the  future  constitution  of  the 
country.  Of  the  thirteen  ancient  cantons,  eight  concluded  a 
Confeaeration,  on  the  principle  which  granted  an  equality  of 
rights  to  every  component  part  pf  the  union  ;  and  to  this  the 
new  cantons  gave  in  their  adherence.     Berne,  Friburg,  and 


It 


nee  more  their  nalional 

ip»ic,  when  the  corp«  oi 

pproached  that  country, 

t  the  Hague,  with  M.  ae 

c  ancient  cockade,  estab- 

17, 1813,)  and  invited  the 

phice  himself  at  the  head 

>8,  finding  themselves  too 

e  against  the  allies  and 

c   th»»ir  departure.     The 

msterdam  (Dec.  1,)  was 

Dw  Countries  ;  but  he  ac- 

that  his  power  should  be 

which  he  caused  to  be 

vorn  to  in  an  assembly  of 

sovereigns  in  England,  it 

barrier  to  Frano<^  on  the 
im  should  be  uniteJ  under 
ncluded  at  the  samt  time 

to  the  Dutch  all  theii  an- 
1*  the  Cape  of  Good  !iope, 

Accordmg  to  the  regula- 
ishopric  of  Liege,  and  the 
0  the  sovereign  prince,  on 
part  of  the  Germanic  Con- 
e  received  the  title  of  King 

treaty  of  Paris,  this  new 
of  territory,  and  a  sum  of 
icting  a  line  of  fortresses, 
m,  with  the  dutchy  of  Lux- 
square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
e  population  of  its  colonies, 

r,  when  the  allies  approach- 
13,  that  thoy  would  grant 
le  allied  troops  had  to  tra- 
^,  in  order  to  enter  France, 
(self,  by  annulling  the  Act 
riand  to  France ;  but  this 
3  future  constitution  of  the 
antons,  eight  concluded  a 
ich  granted  an  equality  of 
he  union ;  and  to  this  the 
ice.     Berne,  Friburg,  and 


rsRioD  IX.    A.  D.  ISIO — \916. 


373 


Underwaldcn,  refused  to  take  a  part  in  it.  The  Orisons  re- 
established their  anrient  form  of  government.  The  interven- 
tion of  foreign  powers  quashed  the  civil  war  with  which  thot 
country  was  threatened  ;  and,  after  many  diflictiltics,  a  new  Con- 
federation of  the  nineteen  cantons  was  signed  at  Zurich  (Sep* 
S,  1814.)  There  still  remained,  however,  several  litigated 
points  to  be  decided,  which  were  settled  by  the  Congress  of  Vi- 
enna, who  declared  that  the  perpetual  neutrality  of  Switzerland 
should  be  acknowledged  by  all  the  other  power!) ;  and  that  the 
Valais,  the  territory  of  Geneva,  and  the  principality  of  Neuf- 
chatel,  should  make  a  part  of  the  Confederation,  as  three  addi- 
tional cantons.  The  Swiss  States  having  acceded  'u  this  de- 
claration (May  27,  1815,)  it  was  renewed,  confirmed,  and 
sanctioned  by  the  Allied  Powers,  in  a  second  declaration  signed 
at  Paris  (Nov.  20.) 

In  consequence  of  a  convention  concluded  at  Turin  with 
Prince  Borghese,  Governor-General  of  the  French  provincis 
beyond  the  Alps,  Field-Marshal  Bellegarde  had  taken  posscn- 
sion  of  Piedmont  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Sardinia.  Soon 
after,  Victor  Emanuel  took  the  reins  of  government  into  his 
own  hands.  By  the  first  peace  of  Paris,  he  recovered  Nice, 
and  about  two-thirds  of  Savoy.  A  secret  article  of  that  treaty 
secured  him  the  possession  of  the  State  of  Genoa,  which  was 
confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  ;  but  he  ceded  to  the  canton 
of  Geneva,  certain  districts  in  Savoy.  The  second  peace  of 
Paris  restored  him  that  part  of  the  province  which  had  been 
given  to  France  in  1814.  The  Sardinian  monarchy  thus  com- 
prehended an  extent  of  1277  German  square  miles,  with  3,700,000 
inhabitants. 

The  convention  of  Fontainbleau  had  disposed  of  the  dutchics 
of  Placentia,  Parma  and  Guastalla,  in  favour  of  the  Archdutchess 
Maria  Louisa,  and  her  son  Napoleon.  This  disposition  was 
keenly  opposed  at  Vienna  by  the  House  of  Bourbon,  who  es- 
poused the  interest  of  the  young  King  of  Etruria,  the  lawful 
heir  to  these  estates.  Nevertheless  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ad- 
judged the  States  of  Parma  to  the  Archdutchess,  without  making 
mention  of  her  son,  or  deciding  the  question  as  to  their  rever- 
sion ;  a  point  which  was  not  determined  till  the  treaty  of  Paris 
of  June  10,  1817,  between  Austria  and  Spain.  After  the  death 
of  the  Archdutchess,  the  States  of  Parma  are  to  pass  to  the 
Queen-Dowager  of  Etruria  and  her  son.  They  contain  about 
102  German  square  miles,  and  380,000  inhabitants. 

The  Archduke  Francis,  the  heir  of  Hercules  IIL,  the  last 
Duke  of  Modena  of  the  House  of  Est6,  was  restored  to  the 
dutchy  of  Modena  and  its  appurtenances,  about  the  beginning 


%¥ 


iH'! 


^1 


I  i  ^ 


574 


CHArriR  zii. 


of  1814.  The  whole  comprehends  a  surface  of  96  Oemian 
■quart)  inile»,  with  3HR,00()  inhabitants. 

According  "i  nn  article  of  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  Lucca,  uii* 
iter  the  title  of  u  dutchy,  was  given  up,  not  to  the  young  King 
of  Etruria,  the  lawful  heir  of  the  States  of  Parma,  but  to  his 
mother,  and  her  descendants  in  the  male  line.  Besidns,  the 
(£m|)eror  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  were  bound  to  pay 
her  II  supplementary  annuity  of  500,000  francs  until  the  deatn 
of  the  Archdutchess  Maria  Louisa,  when  the  Dutchess  of  Lucca, 
or  her  heirs,  are  to  have  the  States  of  Parma ;  and  the  dutchy 
of  Lucca  is  to  devolve  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  on  con* 
dition  of  ceding  to  the  Duke  of  Modena  certain  districts  con* 
tiguous  to  his  estates.  The  dutchv  of  Lucca  is  the  most  popu* 
lous  country  in  Europe.  It  contains  about  137,500  inhabitants 
within  19}  German  square  miles. 

T-he  grand  dutchy  of  Tuscany,  which  Murat's  troops  had  oc- 
cupied about  the  beginning  of  the  year  1814,  was  restored  to 
Its  lawful  sovereign,  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  III.  (May  1,) 
who  then  gave  up  the  Principality  of  Wurtzburg  to  the  King  of 
Biivnria.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  that  prince  obtained  the 
Stote  of  Presidi,  part  of  the  island  of  Elba,  and  the  Imperial 
fiefs  included  in  these  States  ;  containing  395  German  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  1,178,000  souls.  The  property  of 
Piombino  was  restored  to  the  family  of  Buoncompagni,  wnom 
Bonaparte  had  dispossessed.  The  Grand  Duke  is  to  succeed 
to  the  dutchy  of  Lucca  ;  but  he  must  then  give  up  his  territo* 
ries  in  Bohemia  to  his  brother  the  Emperor,  which  are  very 
considerable,  and  destined  for  the  young  Duke  of  Reichstadt, 
son  of  the  Archdutchess  Maria  Louisa. 

Bonaparte  having  found  it  impossible  to  overcome  the  per* 
severance  of  Pius  VII.,  had  set  him  at  liberty  about  the  begin* 
ning  of  the  year  1814.  The  Sovereign  Pontiff  returned  to  his 
Estates  amidst  the  general  acclamations  of  the  people,  and  re* 
stored  every  thing  to  the  footing  in  which  thev  had  been  before 
the  usurpation  of  the  French.  Nobody  was  molested  on  the  score 
of  his  political  conduct.  The  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  suppressed  in 
1772,  was  restored  by  a  Bull,  as  a  necessary  barrier  to  oppose 
the  doctrines  of  the  Revolution.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  re- 
stored to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  the  Marches  and  Legatines, 
with  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  territory  situated  to  the  north 
of  the  Po,  which  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Venetian 
Lombardy.  The  Ecclesiastical  States  at  present  contain  a  sur- 
face of  714  German  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  2,424,150. 

The  extravagant  conduct  of  Mjint,  promoted  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons  to  the  throne  of  Naples.    This  was  effected 


surface  of  96  Oernmn 

of  Vienna,  Lucca,  un- 
I,  not  to  the  young  King 
lies  of  Parma,  but  to  his 
lale  line.     Bcsidns,  the 
ly  were  bound  to  pay 
10  francs  until  the  death 
n  the  Dutchess  of  Lucca, 
Parma  ;  and  the  dutchy 
uke  of  Tuscany,  on  con* 
■na  certain  districts  con- 
Lucca  is  the  most  popu* 
ilraut  137,600  inhabitants 

:h  Murat's  troops  had  oc- 
ar  1814,  was  restored  to 
Ferdinand  III.  (May  1,) 
Wurtzburg  to  the  King  of 
that  prince  obtained  the 
)f  Elba,  and  the  Imperial 
ning  396  German  square 
I  souls.  The  property  of 
of  Buonconipagni,  whom 
Qrand  Duke  is  to  succeed 
It  then  give  up  his  territo* 
Emperor,  which  are  very 
)ung  Duke  of  Reichstadt, 
sa. 

ible  to  overcome  the  per- 
at  liberty  about  the  begin* 
ign  Pontiff  returned  to  his 
ions  of  the  people,  and  re- 
rhich  they  had  been  before 
y  was  molested  on  the  score 
if  the  Jesuits,  suppressed  in 
scessary  barrier  to  oppose 
le  Congress  of  Vienna  re- 
B  Marches  and  Legatines, 
rritory  situated  to  the  north 
the  kingdom  of  Venetian 
es  at  present  contain  a  sur- 
1  a  population  of  2,424,160. 
t,  promoted  the  restoration 
Naples.     This  was  effected 


PIRIOD  tx.     A.  D.  ISIO— 1816. 


575 


by  the  expedition  which  Austria  had  despatched  in  1816  against 
Murnt,  in  consequence  of  the  alliance  nflfenaivc  and  dcfensivn 
which  that  Court  had  concluded  at  Vienna  with  Ferdinand  IV. 
(April  29,  1816,)  who  made  his  entry  into  Naples  on  the  17th 
June.  A  short  time  after,  Muraf,  at  the  hou.l  of  a  s.imll  bond 
of  adventurers,  thought  of  imitating  the  example  of  his  brother- 
in-law.  He  landed  at  Pizzo,  in  Calabriu  (Oct.  9,)  where  he 
hoped  to  be  welcomed  by  his  former  adherents ;  but  the  peosanlry 
combined  against  him ;  he  was  arrested,  tried  by  a  court-martial, 
and  shot  (Oct.  10.)  The  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  has  iiti  ex- 
tent of  a.OS-l  German  souare  miles,  and  6,600,000  inhabitants. 

After  Ferdinand  IV.  had  retired  into  Sicily,  that  Island  was 
put  under  the  protection  of  the  English,  who  had  there  an  army 
of  16,000  men,  with  a  considerable  fleet.  T^^neral  Lord  Ben- 
tinck,  who  commanded  the  English  troops,  used  all  his  influence 
to  introduce  the  British  constitution  into  thai  island.  The  Queen, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  the  opposite  party,  was  obliged  to  leave 
her  family.  From  that  moment  the  English  remained  masters 
of  Palermo.  But  after  the  first  peace  o(  Paris,  Ferdinand  IV. 
resumed  the  reins  of  government ;  and  before  embarking  for 
Naples,  he  annulled  the  constitution  of  1812. 

Corfu,  the  only  one  of  the  Ionian  islands  which  was  not  yet 
in  the  power  of  the  English,  was  given  up  to  them  by  the  Con- 
vention of  Paris  (April  23, 1814.)  The  fate  of  these  islands  was 
decided  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  the  same  place  between  Aus- 
tria and  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Russia.  They  were  com- 
bined into  a  free  and  independent  State  (Nov.  6,)  under  the 
name  of  the  United  States  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  placed 
under  the  immediate  and  exclusive  protection  of  Great  Britain. 

By  the  events  of  the  years  1813  and  1814,  the  House  of  Aus- 
tria gained  possession  of  all  that  belonged  to  her  in  Italy,  either 
before  or  in  consequence  of  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio.  A 
small  portion  of  Ferrara  to  the  north  of  the  Po  was  ceded  to  her, 
as  were  the  Valteline,  Bormio,  Chinvenna,  and  the  ancient  re- 
public of  Ragusa.  The  Emperor  constituted  all  these  posses- 
sions into  a  separate  and  particular  State,  under  the  title  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Venetian  LombardV'  Independently  of  these,  Aus- 
tria recovered  the  Illyrian  provinces,  of  which  she  also  formed  a 
distinct  kingdom.  By  a  treaty  signed  at  Vienna  with  Russia, 
she  likewise  gained  possession  of  the  part  of  eastern  Galicia 
which  she  had  ceded  to  Alexander  in  1809,  and  the  jxclusive 
property  of  Wieliczka,  which  was  then  divided  between  her  and 
the  dutchy  of  Warsaw.  The  Austrian  monarchy,  in  it&  present 
state,  contains  a  surface  of  12,000  German  square  miles,  ud  a 
population  of  twenty-nine  millions. 


hi,.u. 


■!l>( 


illl 


I 


J76 


CHAPTBR  Zn. 


It  was  a  more  difficult  matter  to  reorganize  the  monarchy  of 
Prussia.  We  have  mentioned  the  negotiations,  in  consequence 
of  which  she  acquired  ahout  a  half  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  restored  to  her  not  only  a  part  of  an- 
cient Prussia,  now  called  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Posnania,  and 
all  the  other  possessions  which  she  had  lost  by  the  convention 
of  Vienna,  (Dec.  IJ,  1805,)  and  the  peace  of  Tils?t  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  Bialystock,  Anspach,  Baireuth,  Westfriesland,  and 
Hildeshcim,)  but  also  a  considerable  territory  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Berg,  the  Dutchy  of  Westpha 
lia,  Swedish  Pomerania,  and  the  sovereignty  of  several  othei 
principalities  and  counties.  These  territorial  arrangements 
were  not  concluded  till  1819.  The  Prussian  monarchy  contains 
a  surface  of  4882  German  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
nearly  1 1  millions. 

The  sovereign  princes  and  free  cities  of  Germany  were  uni- 
ted by  an  Act  signed  at  Vienna,  under  the  name  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation.  All  the  members  of  the  Confederacy  enjoy 
full  sovereignty,  and  all  take  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
Diet  in  matters  relating  to  the  general  interests  of  the  Union. 
The  thirty-nine  members,  however,  in  ordinary  cases,  have  only 
seventeen  votes ;  eleven  of  the  States  have  each  a  vote,  while 
six  collective  votes  belong  lo  the  other  twenty-eight.  Never- 
theless, in  constitutional  questions,  the  thirty-nine  members  have 
in  all  seventy  votes  ;  each  State  having  at  least  one,  and  several 
of  them  two,  three,  and  four  votes.  The  members  have  the 
right  of  concluding  every  kind  of  alliance,  provided  these  are 
not  directed  against  the  safety  of  the  Union  or  of  its  constituent 
members.  The  equality  of  civil  and  religious  rights  was  secured 
to  all  who  professed  the  Christian  religion. 

Various  States,  forming  the  Germanic  Confederation,  under- 
went certain  changes  in  their  territorial  possessions;  but  the 
negotiations  by  which  they  were  definitively  settled  did  not  take 

Silace  till  1819.  The  kingdom  of  Bavaria  received  indemnity 
or  the  various  restitutions  which  had  been  made  to  the  Court 
of  Vienna.  Its  superficial  extent  amounts  to  1505  square  miles, 
and  3,300.000  inhabitants.  The  grand  dutchy  of  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt obtained  considerable  augmentations  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  and  has  a  surface  of  314  German  square  miles,  and 
six  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Olden- 
burg, the  Duke  of  Saxe  Cobourg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Homberg,  and  the  House  of  Orange-Nassau,  obtained  territorial 
indemnities  on  the  Rhine.  The  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel  obtained 
the  grand  dutchy  of  Fulda ;  his  dominions  consisted  of  200  Ger- 
.•iMUi<%quare  miles,  and  540,000  inhabitants.     The  King  of 


.ni'ze  the  monarchy  of 

iations,  in  consequence 

Ihe  kingdom  of  Saxony. 

not  only  a  part  of  an- 

tchy  of  Posnania,  and 

lost  by  the  convention 

e  of  Til9?t  (with  the  ex- 

th,  Westfriesland,  and 

itory  on  the  lef^  bank  of 

the  Dutchy  of  Westpha 

eignty  of  several  othei 

territorial  arrangements 

issian  monarchy  contains 

iles,  and  a  population  of 

of  Germany  were  uni- 
te name  of  the  Germanic 
the  Confederacy  enjoy 
the  deliberations  of  the 
il  interests  of  the  Union, 
ordinary  cases,  have  only 
have  each  a  vole,  while 
ler  twenty-eight.     Never- 
I  thirty-nine  members  have 
g  at  least  one,  and  several 
The  members  have  the 
iance,  provided  these  are 
Union  or  of  its  constituent 
ligious  rights  was  secured 
igion. 

nic  Confederation,  under- 
}rial  possessions;  but  the 
litively  settled  did  not  take 
ivaria  received  indemnity 
1  been  made  to  the  Court 
lunts  to  1505  square  miles, 
id  dutchy  of  Hesse-Darm- 
ations  on  the  left  bank  of 
Grerman  square  miles,  and 
^he  Grand  Duke  of  Olden- 
the  Landgrave  of  Hease- 
f  assau,  obtained  territorial 
ir  of  Hesse-Cassel  obtained 
lions  consisted  of  200  Ger- 
babitants.     The  King  of 


r 


Battle  of  Waterloo ;  contest  of  the  42d  Regiment  for  the 
French  Eagles.    P.  365. 


BatUe  of  Waterloo.    P.  505. 


-  II  t 


J 


ii! 


r 


"~i 


PERJODIX.      A.  D.  18I<V-1816. 


577 


S^£n^t"1I!S"'J.«e  hundred  .„dnine„.h™.  .b».- 
sand  inhabitants.  Oprinftn  Confederation,  an 

the  city  of  Cracow,  a  d;«^"=»  S°"''\'7/„X^;^^^^^ 

burg  instead  of  Pomejama.  ^^ ^h  wf^j^^^^^^  ,»,  «,^ect8,  and 
It  r^Suce'd  ToTntxC:  in^^^^^^^  Icel-d.  of  242^  Gennan 
Tqlare  miles,  and  1,700,000  il'hab.^m^.  ,  „^ 


578 


CHAPTER  XII. 


^  Cwav  to  the  crown  of  Sweden,  as  an  independent  kingdom. 

W  an  act  signed  between  the  two  kingdoms  (July  31, 1816.)  By 
KeatyTvienna.  Sweden  ceded  to  Prussia  her  part  of  Po- 
meranTe^^and  thus  was  separated  from  Germany  of  wh,ch  she 
had  been  a  constituent  member  since  the  time  of  Guf  ™s  Ado^ 
phus.  The  Swedish  monarchy  contams  an  extent  ol  16,16U 
Can  square  miles,  with  3,330,000  inhabitants. 

.^rbJ^=t-nKi-^raS3 

the  commaS  having  been  obliged  to  send  five  divisions  of  his 
army  roPo  and.  caused  Silistria  to  be  demolished^  presemng 
onTv  Rudsdiuk  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube.    The  indolent 
jiff  Pacha  who  had  n'ever  stirred  from  his  c-P  ^^t  .Schu^^^^^ 
was  renlaced  by  Achmet  Aga,  an  active  and  enterprising  Uene 
XvhS?fo?a  reinforcement  of  35.000  men,  mostly  composed 
^excellent  cavalry,  and  supported  by  a  form^ab  e  art  Her  j 
served  by  French  officers.     Achmet  marched  against  Kutusott 
and  thei?  first  encounter  took  place  two  leagues  from  R«d  ^huk 
(July  4  )     Eight  thousand  Russians,  who  were  opposed  to  the 
vanlua  d  of  the  Ottomans,  under  the  command  of  Ah  Pacha 
werfdriven  back  to  their  entrenchments.     Two  days  af  er  the 
Grind  vSer  attacked  the  Russian  entrenchments  and  disbdged 
the Toops,  who  threw  themselves  into  Rudschuk.  It  was  chiefly 
the  infaS^  of  the  Russians  who  suffered  in  that  battle,  owing 
to  the  suSiority  of  the  Turkish  cavalry,  who  would  have  cut 
Lm  toTe  e"  but  for  a  bold  manoeuvre  of  Count  Langeron, 
wCsaUi^d  from  Rudschuk,  at  the  head  of  the  garrison,  and  pro- 
«cted  the  fugitives.     The  Grand  Vizier  advanced  under  the 
lery  cannoi  S  the  fortress.     He  attempted  three  times  m  one 
day  to  carry  it  by  force,  but  was  repulsed  each  Ume  (Ju  y  »•) 
KnVEollowing  night  the  Russians  quitted  Rudschuk  and 
p3the  Danube*   But  the  Turks  having  got  mtelhgencej 
Entered  the  town,  and  prevented  them  from  carrying  off  all  theit 
urtillerv  and  ammunition.  ui     . , 

The  army  of  Kutusoff.  weakened  by  disease  was  unable  w 


.  16  )  The  National 
!0,)  decreed  the  union 
I  independent  kingdom, 
sentative  constitution, 
established  in  Sweden 
King  of  Norway  (No> . 
d  Norway  were  sealed, 
Tis  (July  31, 1815.)  By 
'russia  her  part  of  Po- 
ermany,  of  which  she 
time  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
is  an  extent  of  16,150 
habitants. 

ing  the  period  of  which 
mention  any  event  of 
oncerned.  She  was  at 
'ersia,  when  Bonaparte 
11.  The  Russians  acted 
rince  Kutusoff,  who  had 
?nd  five  divisions  of  his 
!  demolished,  preserving 
Danube.  The  indolent 
m  his  camp  at  Schumla 
!  and  enterprising  Gene* 
JO  men,  mostly  composed 
Y  a  formidable  artillery 
arched  against  KutusoiT 
leagues  from  Rudschuk 
who  were  opposed  to  the 
command  of  Ali  Pacha, 
Its.  Two  days  after  the 
enchments  and  dislodged 
iludschuk.  It  was  chiefly 
ired  in  that  battle,  owing 
Iry,  who  would  have  cut 
rre  of  Count  Langeron, 
of  the  garrison,  and  pro- 
ier  advanced  under  the 
ipted  three  times  in  one 
Ised  each  time  (July  9.) 
IS  quitted  Rudschuk  and 
having  got  intelligence, 
rom  carrying  off  all  their 

r  disease  was  unable  lo 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1916. 


579 


orevenl  the  Grand  Vizier  from  taking  possession  of  the  islands 
of  the  Danube,  where  they  constructed  bridges,  by  means  of 
which  they  made  frequent  incursions  into  Wallachia.  A  body 
of  15,000  troops,  commanded  by  Ismael  Bey,  took  up  the  same 
post  on  the  right  bank,  so  that  the  Grand  Vizier  passed  the  river 
at  the  head  of  the  main  body  of  the  forces  (Aug.  3.)  But  the 
face  of  affairs  soon  changed.  General  Ouwaroff  having  brought 
a  reinforcement  of  50,000  men  to  Kutusoff,  the  latter  detached 
Markoff,  with  a  considerable  body,  who  passed  to  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube,  marched  in  all  haste  against  the  Turkish  reserve 
before  Rudschuk,  seized  their  camp,  and  thus  cut  off  the  retreat 
of  the  Grand  Vizier.  The  latter  found  means  to  enter  Rudschuk 
in  a  small  bark,  leaving  his  army  in  Wallachia,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Seraskier  Tchaban-Ogfou,  who  was  blockaded  at  Slo- 
bosia  by  Kutusoff,  and  after  being  reduced  to  25,000  men,  they 
were  obliged  to  capitulate  and  lay  down  their  arms  (Dec.  8.) 

The  Grand  Vizier  then  Hemanded  a  suspension  of  arms, 
which  was  signed  at  Guirdt  ov.  Negotiations  were  opened  at 
Bucharest,  but  the  Turks  refused  for  a  long  time  to  make  the 
smallest  cession  of  territory.  At  length  the  mediation  of  Eng- 
land, Swed  3n,  and  Russia,  overcame  the  obstinacy  of  the  Divan, 
and  peace  was  signed  (May  28,  1812.)  The  Porte  ceded  to 
Russia  about  one-third  of  Moldavia,  as  far  as  the  Pruth,  the  for- 
tresses of  Choczin  and  Bender,  and  the  whole  of  Bessarabia, 
with  Ismael  and  Kilia  ;  an  amnesty  was  granted  to  the  Servians. 
Although  England  had  appeared  at  Bucharest  as  a  mediating 
power,  nevertheless  her  treaty  of  peace  with  Russia  was  not  de- 
finitively signed,  although  actual  hostilities  had  long  ceased  be- 
tween the  two  powers.  The  treaty  was  at  length  concluded  at 
Orebro  (July  18,)  the  stipulations  of  which  are  not  all  known. 
The  peace  with  Persia  was  signed  in  the  Russian  camp,  near 
the  river  Seiwa,  under  the  mediation  of  England,  and  confirmed 
the  following  year  at  Teflis  (Sept.  16,  1814.)  Persia  ceded  to 
Russia  Daghistan,  Shirvan,  Derbent,  and  in  general  the  whole 
western  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  renounced  her  pretensions  on 
Georgia,  Imirete,  Guriel,  and  Mingrelia,  and  recognised  the  ex- 
clusive right  of  Russ'a  to  the  navigation  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

At  the  Congress  o.'  Vienna  the  Emperor  of  Russia  had  ob- 
tained the  kingdom  of  Poland,  as  we  have  already  noticed.  In- 
dependently of  that  acquisition,  the  Russian  Empire  had  an 
extent  of  346,000  German  square  miles,  80,000  of  which  are  in 
Europe,  the  population  of  which  amounts  to  thirty-eight  mil- 
lions. The  population  of  the  whole  Empire  is  estimated  at  forty- 
six  millions. 

A  concurrence  of  fortunate  circumstances  has  saved  the  Otto- 


>v 


i|'!j 


580 


CIUFTBK  Zn. 


man  Empire  from  that  ruin  with  which  it  has  mow  than  o«»j 
Ln  threatened,  and  for  which  the  total  d'««o\"'«'»  ?f  "•f'" 
order  in  the  provinces  has  along  time  prepared  the  wav.     If 
"ill  survives  the«e  evils,  its  preservation  'M«'»»?P»  »°  ^Xe 
bed  to  that  Holy  Alliance  which  has  sometimes  be."  *e  objm 
of  terror  to  the  torte,  he  having  been  persuaded  that  th«Ch"j;- 
San  League  was  directed  against  IVfahometanism.    I    w  this 
lurnicSTthe  offspring  of  ignorance  and  weakness,  which  at  u 
recJit  date  had  Searly  precipitated  him  into  imprudent  mea 
S;     If  the  wisdom  ofliis  powerful  neighbour  had  known,  in 
S  circumstances,  to  unite  his  own  glory  with  the  maintenance 
*pS?ranquillity.  of  which  Europe  stands  so  m«ch  in  need 
Se  Porte,  enlfghtened  as  to  his  true  interest  by  Austria,  Great 
BriSnndVs  other  allies,  will  feel  that  he  cannot  prolong  his 
orexistence.  except  hy  substituunp:  the  "'gnof  J'»»'"'  '^^ 
the  principles  of  humanity,  to  despoUsm  and  cnMlty. 


"f-l 


i 


t  has  more  than 
|1  dinsolution  of  social 
pared  the  way.  If  it 
perhaps  to  be  ascri- 
times  bebii  the  object 
luaded  that  that  Chris- 
imetanism.  It  is  this 
weakness,  which  at  u 
1  into  imprudent  mea  - 
ghbour  had  known,  m 

<f  with  the  maintenance 

ands  so  much  in  need, 
rest  by  Austria,  Great 
he  cannot  prolong  his 

e  reign  of  justice,  and 

and  cruelty. 


A.  O.  1815—1880. — FftAMOt. 


C?l 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

From  ih»  Second  Restnration  of  the  Bourbons,  A.  D>  1815,  to 
the  Revolution  in  Poland,  A.  D.  1830. 

France  had  undergone  a  complete  change  since  the  Revolu. 
tion,  which  the  Bourbons,  on  their  return  could  not  understand. 
Their  unfitness  to  reign  over  this  people,  was  immediately  per- 
ceived,  and  gave  rise  to  a  prevalent  saying,  that  "  the  Bourbons, 
in  their  misfortunes,  had  learned  nothing,  and  had  forgotten 
nothing.'* 

The  open  acknowledgment,  made  by  Louis  XVIII.,  that  he 
owed  his  throne  to  the  Prince  Regent  of  Bngland,  was  a  dis- 
honor,  and  a  source  of  deep  mortification,  to  the  pride  of  France ; 
and  the  country  was  farther  humiliated,  by  the  presence  of  the 
Allied  troops,  occupying  two.thirds  of  its  territory  to  enforce 
tranquillity. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris,*  concluded  November  20th,  1816,  be- 
tween Louis  XVIII.  and  the  three  Allied  powers,  France  was  to 
pay  700  million  francs,  give  up  seventeen  citadels  for  a  pe- 
riod  of  three  to  five  years,  and  support  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  foreign  troops,  within  her  territories ;  besides  satisfy- 
ing all  public  and  private  claims,  to  the  countries  belonging  to 
the  Allied  sovereigns,  and  restoring  the  productions  in  the  arts, 
and  the  treasures  of  literature,  with  which  as  spoils.  Napoleon 
had  enriched  the  capital.  This  last  requisition  was  enforced, 
while  the  Allied  troops  were  in  possession  of  Paris. 

Richlieu,  the  new  minister,  signed  this  treaty  in  September, 
1815,  which  occasioned  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  French  na- 
tion. The  King  opened  the  new  chamber,  November,  4, 1816, 
with  a  speech  which  diacloaed  the  unfavorable  condition  of 
France. 

February  5,  1817.  The  liberals  and  independents  obtained 
the  law  of  election  ;  and,  on  March  6,  1818,  the  recruiting  law  ; 
but  were  not  successful  in  their  attacks  on  the  laws  of  excep. 
t-on,  which  prevented  the  complete  operation  of  the-  charter. 
The  machinations  of  the  ultras,  led  to  troubles  in  OvenoMe,  in 

*  •••  pafai  nSuM  SM,  vol.  a. 


'»■<     , 


ciii\i*rER  xni« 
T  ifli7      Julv    1819,  their  intrijruc*  wore 

1816.  and  in  Lyons  l^^^-,  . ''"'LMThU  to  engage  the  Allies 
di«:ovc.red.  which  were.  »*;i'"8  »««  t'^^/"  ^he  minirtry  then 
to  assist  them  in  abolishing  "'°  ^Jr^;;*  ^  A  loan  of  24 
Sclined  towards  t)'ejibc«rals,  and  nat^^^^^^^^  Allied  troop, 

million,  was  required  toeffectth^ecva^^^^^^^  ^^  j^^^,, 

stationed  in  Franco,  in  »»»«  *"'"7"A?x.la.Chapcllc,  October  9, 
mined  upon  by  the  ^o"?"^  °J,,^^  elaimifor  the  oxjicnscs 
1818;  akd  for  the  ^^'"^"i.lSSf  He^  wa.  a  successful 
of  the  war,  and  «»TVlnmtv  t  th««  settl.menU,  in  the 
exhibition  of  French  .J'Pl"";"^^^;  ^"f  tK^ 
matter  of  liquidations,  the  paymtm  ot  i  ^  .^^.^^^  ^^ 

the  treaty  of  1815.  ••«du«e^iXn,  in  payment  of  these  1390 
postponed  till  ^^y«^;]jKanc  /equivalent  to  a  capital  of 
millions,  a  rent  of  l^'O*"'"""  "j      This  was  about  a  seventh 

I    pelle,  to  265  million  francs.     ^  „..„_j  :„to  Uie  Quadruple  alii 

^November  12.  /'««««  ^°^J'.'"""t^^^^^ 
1    ance  of  the  great  E>|">pe•"^f^J^^«'^^  ^^^  So  of  election,  and 

lieu,  dcclai-cd  himself  against  the  exB^^^^^^^^  ^^^^^  j^^  ^^ 

against  the  operation  ol  ^*'«j;".f  K^°"„i^;,  Dccazes  was  vi^ 
^division  in  the  nunistry,  ^^^"'^YSon,  and  liberal  princi- 
torious  over  the  ultras,  m  the  luw  ol  elec^n  ^  j  ^^.^ 

pies.  A  new  niinirtry  was  ""^es  waTmade  president  of  the 
Lee  1815.  The  ^^  «  i^  o^rthi^Tn,  Nov.  19, 1819 ;  Des. 
ministerial  ~»n«l»V*'^!*=\rdrnde™  of  the  charter,  resigned. 
«,les,  St.  Cyr  and  Louis,  ^e  defenders  ot  ^^„^^^,„y  ^es. 

Decaxes  now  became  P""?^  ™'" '^^^^^  the  cen«.rship  of  the 
pecting  the  construction  f  ^fP  ^J.^"^^;^^^^  were  writers 

Be'=U,'£tSubS'iui,  an^d  Ficvee  for  the 

"X  session  fn>m  1819  to  iSiroTtle^'r^r^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
ofthe  most  violent  kind;  ^*»«2  "rrmnh^r  *.  Uecazes,  pre..- 
ed  in  excluding  Grogoire  ^^^^^^^  ,.*;7J7„,^,rate  cou 
dent  of  the  'ninistry  attemiHed  ^J^o..^  ,^,,,o„«,  Febru- 
several  judicious  bdls.     1"  ^ne  "i.  -..j^j^d.    a  new  law 

ary  13,  1820,  the  Duk«  ^^  "f/^JL'fp'.'^t  and  Decazes  resign- 

Vaiele. 


^J 


•tijlii^' 


their  intriffuc*  were 

to  cngaf^e  the  Allina 

The  ministry  then 

party.     A  loon  of  24 

tion  of  the  Allied  troop* 

818,  which  was  deter> 

a-Chapeiie,  October  9, 

cldima  for  the  oxiicnsea 

Here  wax  n  successful 

hcse  setthiinents,  in  the 

le  debt  acknowledged  by 

0  to  1390  millions  was 

payment  of  these  1390 

equivalent  to  n  capital  of 

lis  was  about  a  seventh 

three  millions  was  grant- 

claims  of  British  subjects. 

3r  reduced  at  Aix>la>Cha> 

d  into  tlie  Quadruple  alii 
^he  prime  minister.  Rich, 
ling  mode  of  election,  and 
lonal  system,  which  led  to 
comber,  Decazcs  was  vie- 
lection,  and  liberal  princi- 
y  Louis  XVIII.  the  third 
vas  made  president  of  the 
jwn,  Nov.  19, 1819 ;  Des- 
I  of  the  charter,  resigned. 
In  the  controversy  res- 
■  and  the  censorship  of  the 
d  Dunoyer,  were  writers 
naU,  and  Fiovee  for  the 

IS  one  of  continued  conflict 
5  of  the  royalists  succeed- 
;hnmher:  Decazes,  presi- 
3w  a  m<xli!rato  course,  by 
>f  tlujse  agitations,  Febru- 
(issassinuted.  A  new  law 
lost,  and  Uticazes  resign- 
as  president  was  formed, 
illy  increased  their  powei 
r  1822,  to  the  tnlento  of 


■|JH 


A.  D.   1816 — 1880. — FRANCE. 


583 


Attempts  were  made  for  continuing  restrictions  of  the  press, 
till  the  close  of  the  s(>sHion  of  1820,  and  to  impose  further  re*, 
trictions,  which  met  with  decided  opposition,  and  ended  in  the 
resignation  of  the  ministry,  December  17,  1821,  when  a  sixth 
Ministry  was  formod  in  which  ultra-royulism  was  triumphant. 
The  censorship  of  the  press  ceased  February  6,  1822. 

A  conspiracy  in  favor  of  young  Na|K)le<)n,  was  discovered  in 
lS21,and  the  following  year  s«!veral  revolts  were  projected  in 
difTercnt  garrisons.  Villelc,  minister  of  finance,  displayed 
great  adroitness  in  the  management  of  ufTuirs,  and  was  appoint- 
ed president  of  the  ministry,  having  great  influence  over  public 
opinion.  The  ultras  were  dissatisfied  with  his  moderation ;  he 
is  represented  to  have  perfectly  scicn  that  France  could  no  longer 
be  governed  by  an  alisolute  monarchy.  The  most  important 
events  of  the  session  of  1822,  were  re-lutive  to  the  new  tariflf, 
and  the  foreign  ]Mjlioy  in  regard  to  Greece  and  Spain.  The 
liberal  party  wer<!  ilefeatcd  on  the  great  question,  whether 
Franc(!  should  by  forc(!  supjircss  democratic  principles  in  Spain 
On  the  28th  January,  1823,  the  King  announced  in  the  opening 
of  ;lie  session,  the  march  of  an  army  of  100,000  French  troops 
for  Spain.  This  <,<x|)edition  evinced  the  determination  of  the 
fanatic  party,  to  put  down  liberal  principles,  and  restore  Ferdi- 
nand to  despotic  power.  In  this  attempt,  they  were  but  too  suc- 
cessful. 

A  Loan  of  100  millions  was  required  for  the  extraordinary 
expenses  of  1823.  The  Spanish  campaign  of  six  months 
tended  to  strengthen  legitimacy,  and  cost  Franco  207,827,000 
francs. 

In  1824,  the  estimate  of  expenditure  amounted  to  900  mil- 
lions. This  was  owing  to  the  payment  by  government  of  the 
clergy,  now  become  dci>cndent  upon  the  state.  The  greatest 
eflforts  were  now  made  by  the  ecclesiastics,  to  regain  for  the 
church  its  former  splendor,  in  spite  of  the  feelings  and  habits  of 
the  people.  They  wielded  their  immense  power,  in  the  most 
arbitrary  and  bigoted  manner;  but  with  all  their  zeal,  were  un- 
able to  check  the  diflusion  of  knowledge — and  so  far  from  re- 
Uirding  the  marcli  of  liberty,  they  hastened  the  overthrow  of 
despotism  und  bigotry,  and  eventually  brought  on  their  own 
downfall. 

Louis  XVIII.  died  September  16,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Charles  X.  We  have  now  hastily  sketched  the  events 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVIII.,  enough  to  show  the  temper  of 
the  French  people,  and  the  obnoxious  measures  which  tended 
to  bring  about  a  new  revolution  in  France. 

Charles  X.  commenced  his  reign  by  a  declaration  ofhu  inten- 


584 


CUAPTKR  XIII. 


Uoiu  of  coiifirining  tliu  churtor.  Ho  uppuinUtd  iia  a  member  of 
the  ininiatorial  council,  tlio  Duke  d'Angouleine,  und  suppre«ed 
the  cenaorahip  of  the  journals,  Sept.  29.  Ap|)uintud  the  Ck>unt 
do  Clermont-Tonnere,  minuter  of  war.  Viliule  gained  the  cuu> 
fidcnco  of  the  King,  by  his  prudent  nieusuroM,  while  Chateau, 
briond  proved,  in  the  Journal  des  I)<;buts,  (his  paper,)  a  [wwer. 
ful  and  eloquent  opponent.  In  the  session  of  I8i25,  Villele  was 
triumphant :  a  bill  granting  1,000,000,000  francs  in  rents,  as  an 
indemnification  to  the  emigrants,  proved  u  source  of  great  dis- 
satisfaction  to  the  nation,  which  became  uppwMid  to  the  course 
now  pursued.  The  civil  list  of  the  King  was  established  at 
26,000,000  francs,  annually,  for  life,  tuid  thut  of  the  royal  fami. 
ly  at  7,000,000.  On  the  29th  May,  the  splendid  coronation  of 
Charles  X.  took  place  ut  Uheims,  at  which  time  he  took  the 
oath  to  govern  according  tu  the  charter.  In  the  session  of  1826, 
thirty  .one  new  peers  were  created  to  strengtlicn  the  ministry. 

In  August,  1824,  General  Lafayette  landed  in  New  York, 
upon  an  invitation  of  James  Monroe,  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  received  with  the  warmest  expressions  of  grati- 
tude, a  nation  could  bestow ;  and  passed  through  the  twenty, 
four  states  of  the  union,  with  more  than  the  splendor  of  a  tri> 
umphal  procession.  Me  sailed  hence,  in  the  Brandywine,  a 
Umted  States  ship,  September  7,  1825,  and  arrived  at  Havre, 
where  every  demonstration  of  attachment  and  respect  was  shown 
him.  The  following  particulars  respt^cting  the  "  Nation's  (xuest," 
on  his  return  to  France,  in  1825,  cannot  fail  to  be  interesting, 
[t  shows  that  the  affectionate  and  enthusiastic  welcome  of  him 
by  liis  countrymen,  on  his  return  to  France,  and  portrays  the 
sullen  hatred  of  the  Bourbons  to  every  thing  that  partook  of 
liberty.  At  Rouen,  the  "  Guest  of  the  American  people,"  the 
veteran  defender  of  liberty  in  the  two  hemispliert^,  was  honor- 
ed  with  a  public  dinner,  accompanied  by  his  family  and  friends. 
In  the  evening,  a  great  concourse  of  citizens,  among  whom 
were  many  females,  repaired  to  the  house  of  M.  Cabanon,  where 
Lafayette  appeared  on  the  balcony,  and  the  greatest  tranquillity 
reigned.  Notwithstanding  the  crowd,  a  serenade,  given  to  the 
General,  was  heard  with  perfect  silence.  At  this  juncture  there 
arrived,  from  two  opposite  directions,  a  detachment  of  the  guard 
royal,  and  a  detachment  of  gendarmes.  The  former  conduct- 
ed itself  with  moderation  ;  the  latter  proceeded  to  dis|)erae  the 
CoeaMe  citizens,  whose  meeting  had  occasioned  no  distur- 
ce,  and  made  a  charge  upon  the  populace,  treating  them  as 
rioters ;  when  many  were  thrown  down  and  murdered ;  and  thn 
whole  assembly  was  put  to  flight,  by  the  sabres  and  bayonets  of 
the  gendarmes ;  and  by  them  many  were  arrested.     To  justify 


inU'd  UM  a  meniber  of 

Ic'ine,  und  supprened 

Ap|M>intu(l  tho  Count 

'illulu  ^uinud  tho  cuii. 

lusurcs,  wiiilu  Chutoau. 

,  (hia  paper,)  u  power. 

in  of  lH'i5,  Villtilo  was 

•0  francs  in  ronts,  as  an 
u  sourco  of  Kruut  (lis- 

3  uppoMid  to  tho  courao 

in^  was  established  at 

that  of  tho  royal  fami> 
splendid  coronation  of 

hic^h  tinie  ho  took  the 
In  tlio  st-ssion  of  1826, 

n^thcn  the  ministry, 
landed  in  New  York, 
President  of  tho  United 
lest  expressions  of  grati< 
Kid  through  tlie  twenty, 
iui  the  splendor  of  a  tri* 
,  in  tho  Brandy  wino,  a 
,  and  arrived  at  Havre, 
nt  nnd  respect  was  shown 
ig  the  "  Nation's  (iuest," 
lot  fail  to  be  interesting, 
lusiastic  welcome  of  him 
ranee,  and  portrays  tho 
y  thing  that  partook  of 
)  American  people,"  the 
fiemispheres,  was  honor- 
y  his  family  and  friends. 

citizens,  among  whom 
»e  of  M.  Cabanon,  where 
I  the  greatest  tranquillity 
a  serenade,  given  to  the 
!.  Atthis  juncture  there 
detachment  of  the  guard 
8.  The  former  conduct- 
)roceeded  to  dis|)erao  the 
id  occasioned  no  distur. 
>pulace,  treating  them  aa 
I  and  murdered ;  and  the 
e  sabres  and  bayonets  of 
ere  arrested.    To  justify 


A.  D.   1810—1880. — FRANCK. 


585 


this  proceeding,  the  Prefect  at  Rouen  issued,  in  a  public  journali 
n  note,  in  which  ho  said,  "  That  the  citizens  groaned  to  see  the 
tranquillity  menaccHl  by  the  presence  of  u  man  whose  sad  celeb. 
rity  connects  itself  with  the  moat  disastrous  iieriod  of  tho  Revo. 
lution !" 

On  the  return  of  Lafayette  to  Ln  Urangi;,  the  villii;^i  ra  united 
in  u  public  fi-stivul  on  the  occasion ;  und  uddr  his  weie  pre. 
aented  although  tho  govfjrimient  took  every  up|M<aiinity  to  pre. 
vent  any  (leiiionNtratiun  of  respect  bcitiK  hIiomii  to  liiin.  Not 
less  than  rt,000  persons  assembled  on  this  juyouH  iieciiMJon,  to 
commemorate  the  return  of  him,  wliom  th«'y  designated  tho 
"  Amerieun  Nation's  (iuest." 

The  Jesuits  coininenred  pnjseeutions  against  two  of  the  libo. 
ral  papers.  This  led  to  much  hostility  between  the  liberals  and 
tho  royalists  ;  and  s(K>n  after,  a  law  against  the  Jesuits  was  at. 
tempted  to  be  passed,  und  the  liU-rty  of  the  press  was  carried, 
April  27,  1827.  Tho  national  guards  of  Paris,  45.000  in  num. 
her,  were  disbanded,  u  measure  highly  obnoxious  to  the  people. 
This  was  followed  by  a  rigorous  censorshi|>  of  the  press,  (June 
24,  1827,)  which  tended  still  more  to  irritate  tlie  state  of  public 
feeling  against  the  ministry.  The  iHipers  of  tho  opposition  fre- 
quently apiieured  with  wholo  colunms  blank. 

A  war  commenced  this  year  with  Algiers,  said  to  have  ariaen 
from  a  controversy  re8|K>cting  a  debt  for  corn,  purchased  for  tho 
French  government  in  1739.  The  ministry  dissolved  the  cham. 
ber  which  had  still  three  years  to  run.  In  the  now  chamber,  a 
majority  was  gained  by  the  liberals ;  out  of  8,000  votes  in  Paris, 
only  1114  were  on  the  ministerial  side;  tho  same  decided  result 
took  place  in  the  different  depart/nents.  This  occasioned  great 
joy  in  Paris,  and  led  to  some  disasters :  about  fifty  persons  wore 
killed  by  the  gendarmes.  By  nn  ordinance  of  November  5, 
1827,  seventy-six  new  peers  wore  created.  Of  these  scarcely 
any,  Soult  excepted,  were  entitled  by  services,  to  the  honor. 
Three  others  were  added,  Jan.  4,  1828 — these  wore  Villelo, 
Peyronnet,  and  Corbiore. 

On  opening  the  aeasion,  Febn.Hry  .5,  1828,  Charles  X.  con- 
gratulated the  nation  on  tho  occasion  of  tlio  victory  of  Navari- 
no.  In  1828,  tho  French  troops  returned  from  Spain ;  and  in 
August,  (shortly  afterwards,)  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  for 
the  delivery  of  Greece  from  Turkish  thraldom.  The  command 
of  the  expedition  was  given  to  General  Muison.  The  number 
of  troops  amounted  to  14,000.     {Sec  Ilevolution  in  Greece.) 

The  appointments  announced,  August  0,  1829,  were  the  fol. 
lowing :  Prince  Jules  do  Polignac,  minister  of  foreign  affairs ; 
M.  Courvoiaier,  keeper  of  the  aeala,  and  minister  of  justice ; 


if 


8RB 


ciurrxR  XIII. 


1 


Count  Fldiirmont,  miriwUT  of  war;  Admiral  Rifi^y,  minister  of 
mnriiio;  ('omit  (l<-  In  noiirdnnnnyn,  ininiBtor  of  tlw  interior; 
Haron  do  MorithnI,  ministor  of  prclcniiwtioul  uffuira  and  public 
inatniction  ;  Count  ('hiihroi  d»i  Crouwjj,  minixtfr  of  finnnc*'. 
Admiriil  llij^iiy  docliiifd  the  oHi-n-d  port  folio,  which  wns  g\vin 
to  M.  d'HaUHStv/.,  I'rofcct  of  th«i  (Jirondo.  TliiH  was  an  idtra. 
royalist  iniiiintry.  liourinont  had  Ik'ch  a  aoldifr  under  Niipo. 
l«!on,  declared  lor  Louis  XVIII. — njjnin  took  oflicn  under  Nn|)o> 
l«!on,  and  drsertei!  hini  at  tin;  battle  of  Watf-rloo,  fli;d  to  the 
BourlMiuH  at  iliiiiit,  was  elevated  to  the  peerage,  and  entrusted 
with  the  comniati'l  of  the  army  ofocTUpation  in  Hpain,  after  the 
return  of  the  Oiikc  d'Angouleme. 

I'riiice  Poli^nar  was  one  of  the  old  royalists,  anri  was  early 
attached  to  C-'hiirlos  X.  lie,  with  his  brothers  Armnnd,  was 
implicated  in  I'ieliejrru'M  t'otispiracy,  and  received  the  pardon 
of  Napoleon.  Hinec  1R2H,  in-  had  been  amimssador  at  the  Hritish 
court,  and  his  eiiviition  was  said  to  have  been  through  Knp- 
linh  infliunce,  more  especially  that  of  the  Duke  of  WcHinpton. 
lie  professed  a  jjreat  fonrlness  for  I'Ingland ;  but  how«!ver  thin 
may  be,  certain  if  is,  he  was  no  favorite  with  the  l''rench  pec- 
pie.  The  niitiister  of  the  interior,  La  Bourdonnaye,  hud  disfin- 
piiished  himself  for  his  violence,  and  active  measures  for  the  ul- 
tras. No  sooner  wos  the  ministry  formed,  than  La  Bourdonnaye 
was  dis[K)Hed  to  dissolve-  the  cbamlKir,  n«  Villele  had  done  to 
secure  a  majority ;  trustiii);  for  success,  to  the  activity  of  tl»e 
royalists,  and  the  aid  of  the  clergy.  When  this  hazardous 
proposition  was  rejected.  La  Bourdonnaye  resigned,  and  Polig- 
nuc  was  made  president  of  the  ministerial  council.  Baron  Mont, 
bel  was  tiansfitrred  to  the  deportment  of  the  interior,  and  Count 
G.  de  Rainvillo  wns  made  mmister  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  An 
ordinance  to  this  effect  was  issued  on  the  17th  November,  1829. 
Such  was  the  organization  of  the  ministry  at  the  end  of  that 
year. 

The  eflbrtfl  of  the  Bourbons  to  build  up  aristocracy  and  abso- 
lute monarchy,  had  failed — their  measures  having  had  on  oppo- 
site  effiHJt ;  and  the  poverty  of  the  nobles  having  impaired  their 
former  influence,  they  now  followed  instead  of  leading  the  nation. 
The  French  wcrf;  now  too  much  enlightened  to  suffer  them- 
selves  to  be  deprived  of  tlieir  privileges.  The  country  was,  nl 
this  time,  in  o  state  of  prosperity.  The  struggle  that  followed, 
was  for  the  protection  of  their  liberties,  and  not  the  result  of 
suffering  ond  want.  This  noble  regord  for  the  cause  of  free- 
dom,  gave  n«!W  glory  to  France,  ,und  to  liberty,  a  fresh  impulse 
throughout  the  world. 

1680,  March  2.     The  speech  from  the  throne  announced  that 


I  a 


nmmm 


liirnl  Rif^ny,  ministfroT 
liniiitor  of  thi!  interior  ; 
)irul  afTuira  iinH  piihlio 

,  minintrr  of  finiinc*'. 

folio,  which  wild  given 

p.     Thii)  wiiH  nil  ultra- 

n  soldirr  under  Nnpo- 
took  oflico  under  NniKi- 
f  Wut«rl<K),  flod  to  the 

[K-criifft!,  and  entruated 
)atiou  in  Hpain,  after  the 

royaliMtM,  and  waa  early 

brothers  Armnnd,  waa 

nd  received  the  imrdon 

iiiiiliaasndor  nt  the  BritiNh 

(nvc  Iwen  throufch  Knp- 

the  Duke  of  WcUinpton. 

pland  ;  but  how«!ver  this 

Irite  with  the  l''rench  peo- 

[  nourd<>nnuy(>,  had  distin- 

ictive  measures  for  the  ul- 

ned,  than  La  Bourdonnaye 

'.r,  tiH  Vill<;le  had  done  to 

ess,  to  the  activity  of  the 

When  this  hazardous 

inaye  resifpicd,  and  Polig- 

!rinl  council.  Baron  Mont- 

of  the  interior,  and  Count 

'ecclesiastical  aflairs.     An 

the  17th  November,  1829. 

niniatry  nt  the  end  of  that 

d  up  aristocracy  and  nbao- 
surcs  havinp  had  an  oppo- 
)ble8  hnvinp  impaired  their 
stead  of  londinfi;  the  nation, 
niightened  to  suffer  them- 
Dfes,  The  country  was,  at 
rhe  strupf»le  that  followed, 
rties,  and  not  the  result  of 
fard  for  the  cause  of  free- 
1  to  liberty,  a  fresh  impulse 

n  the  throne  announced  that 


A.  f..  1815 — 1880. — rsANCE. 


687 


w»r  nnd  been  cnrnnicrii-ed  with  Alf^iers,  and  ende«l  with  th^ae 
worda  :  "  I'eora  of  l-'runee,  deputi<!s  of  the  depnrtiiienta,  I  do 
not  doubt  your  co.o|)eration  in  the  giKxl  I  (l<;aire  to  do.  You 
will  repel,  with  contempt,  the  iM-rfidious  inHiniiations  which  ma. 
Iftvolence  is  busy  in  propagating.  If  guilty  intrigues  should 
throw  luiy  obstacles  in  the  way  of  my  government,  which  I  can- 
not aiui  will  not  anticipate,  I  should  find  force  to  overcome  them, 
in  my  resolution  to  preserve  the  public  peace;  in  tlioconfidi-uco 
I  have  in  the  French  nation,  anil  in  the  love  which  they  have 
uiwuys  evinced  for  their  kings." 

As  suoii  as  this  spivHih  was  made  public,  the  funds  full,  nnd 
the  ministers  had  a  d(K:ided  majority  opposed  to  them  in  the 
ciiamber  of  deputies.  Uoyer-Coilnnl  was  re-elected  president. 
On  th<!  iWtli,  a  deputation  of  IIk;  chamber  presented  an  answer 
to  the  King's  speech.  This  addntHS  reM|M!Ctfully  hut  frankly 
informed  him,  "  That  a  concurrence  did  not  exist  between  the 
views  of  the  government,  and  the  wishes  of  th<!  nation  ;  that  the 
administration  was  aetunted  by  a  distrust  of  the  nation  ;  and  tha» 
the  nation,  on  the  other  liiind,  wits  agitated  with  npprnhonsionb. 
which  would  become!  fatal  to  its  prosperity  and  rejKwe."  "Sire, 
(continued  the  address,)  France  does  not  wish  for  imarchy,  any 
more  than  you  wish  for  (le8[)Otism."  'I'his  was  a  firm  nnd  pru- 
dent warning  hero  given  to  the  King  ;  who,  in  reply  expressed 
hia  regret,  that  the  concurrence  which  he  had  a  right  to  expect 
from  the  deputies,  did  not  exist.  He  declared  his  resolutions 
wore  fixed,  and  that  the  ministers  would  make  known  his  inten- 
tiona.  The  answer  of  the  peers  to  the  King's  speech,  on  the 
10th,  waa  a  mere  echo  of  the  same.  Chateaubrinnd  made  u  bold 
attack  on  the  ministers.  Both  chambera  were  convoi<ed  for 
the  19th,  when  they  were  declared  to  be  prorogued  to  tiio  1st 
of  September  of  the  same  year — a  measure  that  was  immediately 
productive  of  great  public  excitement  throughout  France.  Roy. 
aliats  and  Jesuits  blindly  exulted  in  this  measure ;  while  the 
liberal  journals  increased  their  activity,  and  boldly  predicted 
the  course  of  events  that  speedily  followed.  Prince  Folignac 
and  the  ministry  were  contemned  for  their  imbecility.  In  Paris, 
a  society  furnished  the  printing  of  journals,  where  they  wore 
destitute  through  the  efforts  of  the  government;  and  in  Brittany 
an  itssociation  was  formed,  determined  to  refuse  the  payment  of 
taxes,  not  regularly  granted  by  the  chambtsr  of  deputies. 

But  it  is  now  time  to  turn  to  the  war  with  Algiers,  a  city  that 
had  long  been  the  seat  of  the  most  extensive  piracy.  The  main 
object,  however,  of  the  ministry  in  prosecuting  this  war,  waa 
evidently  popularity.  Knowing  the  inordinate  fondness  of  the 
oation  for  military  glory,  it  waa  anticipated  that  the  subjugation 


Tl 


''•f 


h, 


'i* 


'^     fc{ 


588 


CHAFTBR  XIII. 


of  Algiers  would  establish  Charles  X.  and  his  ministry  in  the 
aiTcctions  of  the  people,  and  secure  a  favorable  majority  in  the 
chamber.  In  this  hope  they  were  disappointed ;  for  though  the 
success  of  the  army  was  announced  during  the  election,  it  did 
not  silence  the  opposition :  a  strong  majority  being  elected. 

The  army,  commanded  by  Count  Bourmont,  consisting  of 
37,577  infantry,  and  4,000  horse,  embarked  on  the  10th  of  May, 
at  Toulon.  The  fleet  consisted  of  07  vessels,  of  which  eleven 
were  siiijMi  of  the  line,  and  24  frigates.  On  the  14th  of  June, 
the  army  began  to  disembark  at  Sidi  Fcrrajh,  on  the  African 
coast ;  and  on  tiiu  5th  of  the  following  month,  Algiers  surren- 
dered.  This  event  was  mude  known  in  Paris  on  the  9th  of  July, 
by  a  telegraphic  despatch.  The  treasure  found  in  Algiers 
amounted  to  90,000,000*  of  francs  in  money,  and  10,000,000  f 
in  gold  and  silver  bullion  and  plate  ;  besides  about  25,000,000;). 
not  in  the  inventory,  stated  subsequently  in  the  Journal  du 
Commerce,  to  be  43,000,000  francs. 

Having  given  very  briefly  the  successful  issue  of  the  French 
arms,  over  barbarism  in  Africa,  we  now  return  to  our  narrativ* 
of  the  events  in  France. 

The  success  attendant  on  the  French  arms  in  Africa,  occa- 
sioned  great  exultation  in  France ;  but  it  did  not  divct  the  pub- 
lic from  struggling  for  their  liberty,  against  a  detested  muiistry. 

The  chamber  was  dissolved  on  the  17th  of  May,  by  a  royal 
ordinance,  and  new  elections  ordered ;  and  the  two  chambers 
convoked  for  August  3d. 

The  elections  for  the  new  chamlxir  took  place  in  June  and 
July.  The  o|>position  displayed  great  activity  and  talents,  in 
this  momentous  struggle ;  and  it  was  soon  seen,  by  men  of  Intel- 
ligence,  that  a  change  of  ministry  would  be  the  result.  They, 
however,  were  determined  not  to  yield,  and  had  the  infatuation, 
rather  to  violate  the  charter,  and  expose  France  to  civil  war, 
than  to  retire.  The  King  appears  to  have  been  blinded  by  a 
bigoted  priesthood,  and  the  ministers  utterly  regardless  of  the 
sacred  rights  of  the  people,  expressed  by  their  representatives. 
In  the  new  chamber  270  were  liberals,  145  for  ministers,  and 
15  undecided.  In  consequence  of  this  result,  the  ministry  made 
a  report  to  the  King,  July  20,  on  the  dangers  of  a  free  press. 
In  the  chamber  of  deputies,  convoked  March  2d,  then*  were 
221  members  hostile  to  government,  on  which  account  l,he  Kbg 
had  prorogued  both  chambers,  and  had  appointed  the  23d  of  June, 
and  third  of  July,  for  the  election  of  now  members,  to  assemble 
on  the  third  of  August.  The  elections  were  not  all  finished,  tUI 
the  19th  of  July ;  before  which  time,  it  was  sufliciently  appa- 

*»I«,«U,ON.  t  «I,Sr4,iro.  t  •8,008,030 


■(■njl, 


I  :'!i 


A.  D.  1630. FRANCE. 


589 


jd  his  ministry  in  the 

oruble  majority  in  the 

jinied ;  for  though  the 

■ing  the  election,  it  did 

ity  being  elected. 

tourmont,  consisting  of 

ccd  on  the  10th  of  May, 

vessels,  of  wiiich  eleven 

Oa  the  14th  of  June, 

''crrujii,  on  the  African 

month,  Algiers  surren- 

Paris  on  the  9th  of  July, 

lisurc   found  in  Algiers 

noncy,  and  10,000,000  f 

sides  about  25,000,000  i 

itly  in  the  Journal  du 

Bsful  issue  of  the  French 
V  return  to  our  narrativ« 

h  arms  in  Africa,  occa- 
it  did  not  diven  the  pub- 
[ainst  a  detested  ministry. 
I7th  of  May,  by  a  royal 
, ;  and  the  two  chambers 

took  place  in  June  and 

it  activity  and  talents,  in 

loon  seen,  by  men  of  intel- 

ild  be  the  result.     They, 

,  and  had  the  infatuation, 

pose  France  to  civil  war, 

have  been  blinded  by  a 

utterly  regardless  of  the 

by  their  representatives. 

lis,  145  for  ministers,  and 

I  result,  the  ministry  made 

dangers  of  a  free  prem. 

id  March  2d,  therp  were 

tn  which  account  t,he  Kmg 

I  appointed  the  23d  of  June, 

low  members,  to  assemble 

IS  were  not  all  finished,  till 

,  it  was  sufficiently  appa. 

t«8,0M,SM 


rent,  how  the  elections  would  terminate.  When  the  list  was 
completed,  tl«5  opposition,  was  found  to  have  increased  from  221. 
to  270.  It  will  now  be  seen,  how  affairs  stood  in  France  between 
tno  crown  and  the  people :  the  ministry  represented  the  former, 
and  the  chamber  ol  deputies  the  latter.  The  ministers  whow 
auty  it  was  to  have  withdrawn,  resolved  upon  the  mad  project 
of  iictting  the  voice  of  the  nation,  and  the  constitutional  chartei 
at  defiance ;  in  other  words,  of  annulling  the  late  elections.  Tliis 
plan  seems  to  have  been  arranged  about  the  middle  of  July.  It 
was  subsequently  stated  on  the  trial  of  ministers,  that  these 
measures  were  concerted  between  the  10th  and  15th  of  that 
month.  M.  Montbel  in  a  pampliiet  which  he  has  published,  says. 
the  ordinances  were  presented  to  the  King,  in  a  council  hold  on 
the  21st.  They  were  signed  at  the  next  council  held  on  Sunday 
the  25th,  the  day  previous  to  their  public  appearance. 

The  report  made  to  the  King,  signed  by  seven  ministers  and 
published  at  the  same  time  with  the  ordinances,  was  intended 
to  justify  themselves  for  the  course  they  had  resolved  upon.  In 
this  flimsy  document  they  called  for  the  suspension  of  the  press, 
remarking,  "  At  all  epochs,  the  periodical  press  has  only  been, 
and  from  its  nature  must  ever  be,  an  uistrumcnt  of  disorder  and 
sedition." 

By  the  first  ordinance,  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  suspended. 
By  the  second  ordinance  the  chamber  of  deputies  was  dissolved. 
And  a  third  ordinance  abrogated  the  existing  law  of  election 
itself,  reducing  the  number  of  members  from  430  to  258,  and 
sweeping  off  three-fourths  of  the  former  constituency,  abolishing 
the  ballot  and  nearly  extinguishing  the  representative  system. 
In  defiance  of  these  ordinances,  the  conductors  of  all  the  liberal 
journals  determined  to  publish  their  papers. 

The  only  papers  allowed  by  government  to  appear  were  the 
Mooiteur  Universal,  Quotidienne,  Gazette  de  France,  and  Dra- 
peau  blanc.  The  seizure  of  the  liberal  journals  on  the  morning 
of  the  27th  July,  was  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary 
drama.  These  ordinances  were  nothing  less  than  a  determi. 
nation  on  the  part  of  the  crown  to  deprive  the  nation  of  its 
liberty,  and  to  establish  despotism.  The  audacious  attempt 
however  failed.  Had  the  French  ministry  succeeded  in  silencing 
the  pi-ess,  and  bringing  the  representation  to  a  state  of  subser. 
viency,  they  might  for  u  time  perhaps  have  succeeded  in  their 
mad  projects.  Nothing  shov.s  more  strikingly  the  rashness  and 
entire  want  of  discernment  of  the  ministry,  at  the  time  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  than  the  issumg  of  orchnances  ao  obnoxious, 
without  even  anticipating  resistance  of  any  kind,  much  leM  • 
resolution. 


Of 


j*»* 


'%. 


W""- 


'"Hi-)'.. 


i^if 


CHAPTEB  X»l« 

Chautelauze,  and  Montbel,  at  the  .       corning.      Aa 

nmnuscript    for   P^bUcation   on   thejo^  .Jerked,  he  ^enied 
Lavo  glanced  over  the  con  en^j^M«mDe^^  ^^ 

L  w^U  "  At  an  early  hour  o^/Jj'J/CnTteul  and  Bulletin 
obnoxious  oi---t,;Ttc  Seine -^  -tounded  at  seemg 
dc9  Lois.  The  prefect  of  tc»e  ^^j^^^j^^  any  thing  of 
them,  about  5  o'clock,  no  J'^^^J  ^/ J  pear  to  have  had  any 
the  kind,  nor  does  M^"^,^/^^^^^^^^  he  received 

knowledge  of  these  "[^^^^^^V  Komiero^vski,  one  of  his  aids 
of  the  fatal  ordinance  was  by  ^  exclaimed  that  it 

wh  le  he  was  breakfastmg  at  bt-  »        ^^  ^^^^ 
was  not  possible  the  report  could  be  ^J"  ^iU  his  arrival 

he  set  out  for  Paris,  not  ^avng  ^,^"  \^^2  where  he  met  his 
?„  the  city.  He  then  w  nt  to  tl^  ns^.^^  ..  ^^''"1^1 
friend  M.  Arago--"  Well,  ^J^  "  the  fools  have  driven 

things  are  proceeding  ««  ^  ^^"^J J^^^y  [o  mourn  in  your  capa- 
matters  to  extremities,    ^ou  have       y  ^^^^  ^^^,^         ^^, 

dty  of  a  citizen  and  a  good  Fj-*J  ^,,1  ^haps  be  obliged 
caLhave  I  to  lamcn  ,  who^^J^  J  ^  ^^hor,  and  for  people 
irerESg^-Sestudiedonlyhowtooverwhelm 

Uc :  this  however  ^^  J^ '^oJ^ment.  For  severa  hou« 
read  by  those  connected  witn  b^Ji  ,  r^>^^^  class  who  first 
To  unusual  excitement  wa^m^f^Btejl.     1^^^^  ^^^ted,  that  at 

?elt  its  effects  were  he  JO«jf;„,  ^ere  engaged  in  printing 
this  period  thirty  thousand  P^!f°"'  wasTo  throw  them  out 
T?Ir^.    The  «ffec^,:^tdutoro?  journals  repres^^cl  ^^ 

them,  they  must  go  -"d^"fVilp?ayed  great  courage :  seeing  the 
oaliste,  on  this  emf  ge^^y.  d«playej  g  ^^  ^  ^^ 

ordinakces  would  be  rumous  to  J^e''  °        ^'  publishing  second 
Xthey  fearlessly  ^t  them  aUefianc^^^^^^  p^  ^^^^^ 

elitions  of  their  P^f'^' ^^^„'^""lt  five  o'clock,  the  prefect  of 
them  more  ge^^f'^^^L'^Snction  to  the  printing  offices,  to 
police,   Mangin,  issued  ^^^^^^^^  ^  ;„  conformity  to  the  new 


„  fatal  ordinancea  were 

listers,  and  ut  11  P.  M. 

initeur,  received  from 

le   of  the   former,  the 

[lowing  morning.      As 

il  remarked,  he  seenM^d 

the    King,  God  save 

e  answered,  "we  hope 

rnoming  the  26th,  the 

Moniteur,  and  Bulletin 

vaa  astounded  at  seeing 

prehended  any  thing  of 

ippear  to  have  had  any 

t  intimation  he  received 

irowski,  one  of  his  aids. 

He  exclaimed  that  it 

uc.     At  half  past  seven, 

newspaper  till  his  arrival 

(Stitute  where  he  met  his 

him,  "  you  perceive  that 

n  ;  the  fools  have  driven 

y  to  mourn  in  your  capa- 

uu :  but  how  much  greater 

ier  shall  perhaps  be  obliged 

Il  I  abhor,  and  for  people 

led  only  how  to  overwhelm 

r  in  Paris,  among  the  pub- 
Mraiiteur  being  principally 
iment.     For  several  hours 
;ed.     That  class  who  first 
It  has  been  stated,  that  at 
were  engaged  in  printing 
ices  was  to  throw  them  out 
of  journals  represented  to 
»nger  any  employment  for 
jir  good  King.     The  jour- 
,  great  courage :  seeing  the 
business,  and  destroy  their 
fiance,  by  publishing  second 
lilernoon,  m  order  to  make 
five  o'clock,  the  prefect  of 
to  the   printing  offices,  to 
)t  in  conformity  to  the  new 
[nation  to  ba  circulated  and 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  MONDAY,  JULY  26,  1830. 


591 


pained  on  the  walls  with  tlie  penalties  to  the  keepers  of  reading 
rooms,  &c. 

The  journalists  assembled  and  drew  up  in  great  haste  an 
•iddrcss  to  tlieir  countrymen ;  tliis  was  signed  and  published. 
It  was  u  noble  display  of  courage  and  patriotism :  they  stated, 
"  as  they  were  first  called  on  to  obey,  so  they  ought  to  give  the 
llrst  example  of  resistance  to  authority,  now  that  it  had  stri|>|)ed 
itself  of  tiie  character  of  law.  This  day,  the  government  lias 
violated  all  law,  we  are  set  free  from  obedience ;"  and  declared 
tiiuir  determination  to  publish  their  journals,  regardless  of  the 
ordinances.  "  We  will  do  our  cndoiivors,  that  for  one  day 
more,  at  least,  th^jy  may  be  circulated  over  all  Fruiicc.  It  be- 
longs  not  to  us  to  point  out  its  duties  to  the  chamber,  which  has 
been  illegally  dissolved.  But  we  may  supplicate  it  in  the  name 
of  France,  to  take  its  stand  on  its  manifest  rights,  and  resist,  us 
far  as  it  shall  have  the  power,  the  violation  of  the  laws.  Its 
rights  are  equally  cei-tain,  with  those  on  which  we  ourselves 
rest.  The  charter  (article  50,)  says  the  King  may  dissolve  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  but  for  that  power  to  be  exercised,  the 
chamber  must  have  met  and  been  constituted — nay,  must  surely 
have  done  something  to  warrant  its  dissolution.  Before  the 
chamber  has  met  and  been  constituted,  there  is  no  chamber  to 
dissolve.  There  are  only  elections  to  annul ;  now  no  passage 
\n  the  charter  gives  the  King  the  right  of  doing  this.  The  ordi- 
nances which  have  this  day  appeared,  do  only  in  fact  annul  the 
elections,  and  are  therefore  illegal ;  as  doing  that  which  the 
charter  does  not  authorize. 

"  We  assume  the  attitude  of  resistance  in  so  far  as  we  are 
ourselves  concerned  ;  it  belongs  to  France  to  consider  to  what 
extent  she  will  adopt  the  same  course."  This  address  was  signed 
with  the  names  of  forty-four  of  the  journalists. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  agitation  had  already  begun  in  the 
streets ;  the  crowd  assembled  at  the  Palais  Royal,  to  hear  the 
papers  and  news  discussitd,  was  continually  increasing,  till  their 
increased  numbers,  and  violence  of  language,  alarmed  the 
authorities,  who  sent  a  party  of  gendarmes  to  watch  over  them. 
By  3  o'clock  in  the  afiemoon,  the  crowd  spread  from  the  square 
of  the  palace,  to  the  adjoining  streets.  They  then  began  to 
assail  the  gendarmes,  who  kept  their  stations,  making  as  yet  no 
attempt  to  drive  the  people  back. 

About  8  o'clock,  there  was  a  gi«at  addition  to  the  crowd 
about  the  Palais  from  the  printing  and  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. Their  masters,  in  dismissing  their  hands,  afler  their 
day's  work,  had  notified  them  they  should  have  no  further  em- 
ployment for  them.     Here  then  was  a  great  addition  of  nteu 


<m 


iW 


w 


592 


CHAPTER  xm. 


under  hi.h  oxcucont,  determined  upon  resistance,  wh.ch  w» 

by  sympathy,  and  each  speech  was  reccrvc^^^  ^^^ 

^'4  te  r tvl""  T.r:  shops  were  now  dosed. 

'Zrsnt-^^T'':^Z^^^^  crowd  in  the 

The  iK)lico  and  sendarmes  "dvancea  T*  j^g  jt,  without 
Pafais,\uul  succeeded  for^  .  —  Jfjed  to'the  hotel  of 
.nflicting  any  ^«™\/Bo„irard  de^  Capuchins,  who  was 
Prince  PoUgnac,  on  the  """fj^^^i  this  fact,  many  went  on 
at  this  time  at  St.  Cloud.  >'"/"\2  his  carriage,  he  was 
purpose  to  intercept  ""»/.  !^"'  "^er  the  escort  of  two  gen- 
Lablcd  to  return  w.thout  .njury,  unde   t  ^^^^^^^  ^^ 

d^rmcs.     The  windows  of  h.s  hotu  ^^^^  court,  the 

carriage  assailed  w,th  «r«^-     Aj^r^emente  to  set  fire  to  his 
mob  threatened  to  return  withremjorce^^^^^         ^^  ^^^ 

hotel.     During  the  ™g*'\'.^f,t,  eSguished,  and  the  windows 

did  not  return  tUl  late  to  St-  ^'oud.  ^^  ^^^.^^  ^j,^  g 

Tlie  whole  effective  ^f''Pj'''J\^^ovd\mnces,  was  11,550 
day  previous  to  the  pfj— ^°  ^J^so  „en  of  this  number, 
men,  8  cannon,  and  4  howitzers  ^^.^^^^  ^^  ^^^  p^^^s 

includes  the  guards  «^d  gendarmes  aa.y  ^^^^^  ^^^^ 

S  the  Capital,  St.  Cloud,  ''f  J»^^Vhrdlpo^We  force,  there- 
all  seized'and  disarmed  m  detail.    J^  he  msp      ^^^  ^^^^^^^  ,^^^ 

fore,  did  not  at  most  «''«^^«d,  »'J^?  ^  "  ,  and  a  few  artillery, 
three  regiments  of  S^^rds,  two  ol  cavairy,  ^^^^^  ^^^^ 

4,200,  were  all  that  ^^^^^go^iSy  beR^^ 

besides,  1000  ««^valry,  and  300  in  W^         s^^^  ^^    ^     ^ 

Versailles,  and  St.  Germam,  buUjiese  we  ^^      ^^^  ^^^^^^^ 

staff  officer  of  the  g"«^'-<^«' ^t  ^^^^Sken  a  fortnight  previous, 
Tatedifsuitable  precaution  had  b«e„t^enat^  ^^g^  P^.^^  ^^ 

that  it  would  have  ^«"  ry;°^"„lfS  Paris, 
forty  thousand  men,  with  ^^y /=^"°°;,'"  x  several  of  the  jour. 
On  the  morning  of  th«  ^.^t^  (l"«^^y  j^^^  ^^re  the  jour- 
nals  were  printed  and  ^^'^^  «**,'.  f^i^The  ConstUtUionel 
ialists  to  discharge  their  duty  otl^^^  K  papeL  by  the  police 
was  prevented  from  the  distribution  rt^ts  p  pe      J^^^       ^^^ 

haviSg  stationed  a  ^^ftfj.^lJZj\TM-^  at  an  ear.y 

SSrJld^'^Si^rr  ^^  wS-  amig  the  people,  and 


resistance,  which  was 

eople,  drawn  together 
,ed  with  loud  cries  or 
down  with  the  nunw 
lops  were  now  dosed. 

,pon  the  crowd  in  tne 
,   clearing  it,  without 
ceded  to  the  hotel  of 
,  Capuchins,  who  was 
his  fact,  many  went  on 
2  his  carriage,  he  was 
the  escort  of  two  gen- 
were  broken,  and  his 
entered  the  court,  the 
mente  to  set  fire  to  his 
™  several  of  the  streets 
.ished,  and  the  windows 
I  these  acts  sufficiently 
aw.     This  day  the  King 
Mse  at  Ranibouillet,  and 

ationed  at  Paris,  the  Sun- 
,  ordinances,  was  !!,&&" 
50  men  of  this  number, 
Iv  stationed  at  the  posts 
aces  near.  These  were 
e  disposable  force,  there- 
J,  and  of  this  number,  uut 
airy,  and  a  few  artillery, 
»ded  upon.  There  were 
■y,  belonging  to  St.  Cloud, 
e  were  never  engaged.  A 
ngaged  during  the  conflict, 
;  taken  a  fortnight  previous, 

assembled  from  thirty  to 
1,  in  Paris.  . 

•sday)  several  of  the  jour- 

determined  were  the  jour- 
public.  T\ie  ConstUuttonel 
l(  its  papers  by  the  police 
door  of  the  office.  The 
„.  were  printed  at  an  early 
,W8  among  the  people,  and 


ji' 


"?^ 


Street  fighting  before  the  Church  of  St.  Roch, 
July  2Sth,  1830. 


Place  du  Chatelet,  July  28,  1S30.    P.  596, 


II 


FRENCH  KEVOLUTION,  TUESDAY,  JULY  27,  1830. 


693 


St.  Roch, 


P.  596, 


rapidly  tlispcraed  through  the  city.  These  papers  contained 
the  oidinances,  and  the  noble  protests  of  the  journiilists.  The 
autiiorities  commenced  their  operations  against  tiie  printing 
oilices  that  had  set  the  ordinances  at  defiance,  and  part  of  lliuir 
printing  presses  were  taken  away,  so  ns  to  rundor  tliem  useless. 
The  National  distributed  to  the  crowd  7,000  copies  in  less  tiian 
an  liour.  Thus  far  the  journalists  hud  manfully  discharg(Ml 
tiieir  duty.  This  day  a  considerable  number  of  the  newly 
elected  members  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  assembled  at  iJ 
P.  M.  at  the  house  of  M.  Casimir  Perrier ;  when  a  protest  was 
drawn  up  and  signed. 

The  King  this  morning  appointed  Marshal  Marmont,  com- 
mander in  chief  of  the  forces  in  Paris.  He  immediately  esta- 
blished  his  head  quarters  at  the  Tuileries.  At  half  past  four, 
an  order  was  issued  at  the  barracks  for  several  regiments  to 
march  to  difTerent  stations.  One  battalion  of  guards,  and  two 
pieces  of  artillery,  were  stationed  on  the  Boulevard  des  Capu- 
chins,  in  front  of  Polignac's  hotel,  the  interior  of  which  was 
protected  with  soldiers  of  the  5th  regiment  of  the  line.  A 
squadron  of  lancers  protected  this  part  of  the  Boulevard. 
Several  battalions  of  the  line  occupied  the  portion  of  the  Boule- 
vards  from  the  [ion-:  St.  Martin  towards  the  place  de  la  Bastilo, 
and  also  the  place  Vendome.  Three  battalions  of  the  guard 
were  placed  in  the  Carrousel,  and  the  place  of  the  Palais  Royal: 
and  two  battalions  of  the  guards,  with  two  cannon,  were  sta> 
tioned  in  the  jjlace  Louis  XV. 

While  these  dispositions  of  the  troops  were  making,  the  streets 
were  filled  with  the  multitude,  as  yet  unarmed  :  they  now  began 
to  supply  themselves  with  arms  from  the  shops  of  gunsmitha; 
and  were  soon  in  actual  conflict  with  the  military. 

The  battalions  of  the  regiments  of  the  line,  stationed  in  front 
of  the  Palais  Royal,  were  received  by  the  crowd  with  cries  of, 
"  the  line  forever,  the  line  does  not  fire,  the  line  is  on  our  side." 
Both  men  and  officers,  were  averse  to  firing  upon  the  people. 
But  the  guards  considered  themselves  obliged  to  remain  faithful 
to  the  government.  The  mob  had  already  begun  in  several 
instances  to  attack  the  soldiers  with  stones,  and  every  kind  of 
missile :  these  they  carried  to  the  upper  stories,  and  roofs  of 
houses,  and  hurled  them  on  the  soldiers  beneath.  They  now 
began  to  barricade  the  streets,  and  thus  sheltered,  they  were 
enabled  to  oppose  the  patroles. 

This  night  the  remaining  lamps  were  demolished,  a  judicious 
precaution  p\A  not  proceeding  from  mere  wantonness ;  as  it 
enabled  th  ,m  to  erect  barricades  during^  the  night,  and  rendered 
their  opeiations  more  secure  from  the  vigilaoca  of  the  nuli> 

38 


M: 


hi 


504 


CHa]>TER  xiii. 


tnry.  Marshal  Marmont  hud  written  to  the  Kin^,  informing 
him  that  public  tranquillity  was  restored,  and  therefore  made 
no  preparations  during  tho  iiifjht,  nor  sent  dispatches  for  more 
troops.  He  did  not  even  guard  tho  great  depots  of  arms  and 
ammunition. 

During  the  nigiit,  tho  greatest  activity  prevailed  on  tlu!  part 
of  the  people.  'J'lxs  inhabitants  were  enrolled  into  bands,  and 
arrangements  made  for  supplying  them  with  muskets,  ammu- 
nition,  tXic.  The  ttilegraphs  had  been  rendered  us<!lcss  in  tho 
night ; — this  was  an  effectual  means  of  preventing  signals  for 
further  succors.  Bands  of  men  supplied  themselves  freely  from 
the  gunsmiths  shops,  and  the  arms  used  at  the  difleront  theatres, 
and  in  tact,  every  kind  of  offensive  weapon  was  seized  and 
pressed  into  service. 

Wednesday,  2Stli. — At  an  early  hour,  tho  throng  assembled 
in  the  streets,  and  directed  their  march  upon  the  Hotel  lie  Ville, 
soon  fdling  tho  square  in  front  of  tliat  building.  This  morning 
the  national  guard  appeared  in  their  uniform,  among  the  liirong. 
Measiu-es  were  soon  taken  to  organize  this  favorite  corps ;  a 
commission  was  nominated  to  proceed  to  Oen.  Lafayette,  and 
receive  his  orders.  He  did  not  however  assume  the  command 
of  the  guards,  till  the  morning  of  the  'iOth.  The  re-organiza- 
tion  of  the  national  guard  went  on  promi)tly  during  the  day : 
the  number  that  appeared  was  considerable,  mostly  in  uniform, 
and  with  them  appeared  the  famous  Tri-colored  flag,  so  dear  to 
the  hearts  of  all  Frenchmen.  Uy  nine  o'clock  it  waved  on 
the  pinnacles  of  Notre  Dame,  and  at  eleven,  it  surmounted  tho 
central  tower  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  which  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  populace,  and  who  immediately  stationed  tliemselves 
at  the  windows  with  fire-arms.  The  tocsin  had  been  ringing 
from  the  bells  of  Notre  Dame,  and  the  church  of  St.  Gervais,  with 
all  other  means  that  could  be  devised,  to  give  tho  greatest  |)ub. 
lie  excitement;  and  to  fill  the  populace  with  courage,  vehement 
speeches  were  made,  and  placards,  with  imprecations  against 
the  ministry,  were  stuck  up  in  uU  the  public  thoroughfares. 

At  eight  o'clock  this  morning,  the  different  regiments  Ujft  the 
barracks,  and  at  nine  took  their  stations  at  the  following  places : 
six  battalions  of  French  guards,  about  1320  men,  with  three 
squadrons  of  lancers,  of  100  men  each,  and  8  guns,  were  drawn 
up  in  the  place  du  Carrousel.  500  cuirassiers  were  quartered 
in  the  barracks,  near  the  Raatile,  and  were  in  commimication 
with  the  5th,  50th,  and  53d  regiments  of  the  line,  who  occupied 
nearly  the  whole  extent  of  the  northern  Boulevards  and  place 
Vendome. — The  15th  light  infantry,  were  ordered  to  the  place 
de  Greve,  Pantheon,  and  Palais  de  Justice.     The  place  de  Greve 


fi' 


ic  Kinfif,  informing 
iiid  tlioreforo  made 
lisputciics  for  more 
IcpoU  of  arms  and 

iViiiled  on  tlid  part 
led  into  biuuls,  and 
th  miisltots,  ammu. 
(!rcd  iistjli'ss  in  tlio 
jventinf,'  siffnals  for 
insi.'ivi'S  fri'ciy  from 

0  difleront  tiioatres, 
on  was  sei/.od  and 

3  throng  assembled 

1  tho  Hotoi  lie  Ville, 
nff.  This  morning 
,  among  tliu  liirong. 
s  favorite  corps  ;  a 
Jen.  Lafayette,  and 
isume  the  command 

Tiio  ro-organiza- 
ly  during  the  day : 

mostly  in  uniform, 
ared  flag,  so  dear  to 
'clock  it  waved  on 
,  it  surmounted  the 
vns  taken  possession 
itationed  tliemsclves 
in  had  been  ringing 
I  of  St.  Gervais,  with 
vc  tho  greatest  |)ub. 
I  courage,  vehement 
mprecations  against 

thoroughfares, 
nt  regiments  hid  the 
;ho  following  places : 
20  men,  with  three 
I  8  guns,  were  drawn 
liors  were  quartered 
e  in  communication 
e  line,  who  occupied 
oulcvards  and  place 
Drdered  to  the  place 

The  place  de  Greve 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  WEDNESDAY,  JULY  28,  1830.         595 

had,  from  an  early  hour,  been  fdled  with  the  armed  populace; 
a  dctachiiKiit  of  soldiers  no  sooner  arrived  there, than,  arcorrl. 
ing  til  the  testimony  of  Jiiiut.  St.  (Jermain,  seven  or  eight  hun- 
dred persons,  most  of  whom  bore  (ire-arms,  rushed  upon  them, 
with  a  loud  outcry,  auil  lircil  a  volley,  by  which  two  nun  were 
killed,  luid  most  of  tin-  detaebmeiit  wounded,  with  tlw;  ollicer  in 
command.  The  soldiers  then  (iri;(l,  and  several  of  the  peo|)le 
fell.  They  immediately  retn'iited,  pursued  by  the  crowd.  At 
the  plueo  flf!  Chatclet,  wliieh  was  also  fdled  w'ith  peoph-,  a  body 
of  soldiers  W(!rc  druwn  up  in  the  order  of  battle:  here  the  bar.' 
rassed  detiiehmeut  of  Lieut.  St.  tiermain,  found  a  rein((»reement 
ill  a  platoon  of  gn  nadiers,  a  few  shots  from  whom  drove  back  the 
assailants.  A  heavy  (ire  was  now  eommeneed  upon  tli<'  battu- 
Jion,  from  the  I'ont  au  Change,  from  the-  adjoining  (|uay,  und 
from  all  the  windows  near.  IVIany  of  tli(!  soldiers  were  wound, 
cd,  and  forecifl  to  retire  to  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  got 
to  the  Tuileries  at  three-quarters  past  10,  where  some  addi- 
tional troops  had  arrived  from  St.  Dennis,  Vincennes,  and  Ver- 
sallies. 

It  does  not  appear,  that  Marshal  Marmont  had  formed  any 
regular  or  elfeetive  plan  of  proeewling  :  the  troops  were  marrhed 
and  countermarelied,  about  the  streets  and  quays,  assailed  b'- 
every  kind  of  missile,  thrown  from  windows  and  tlu;  toj)s  of 
houses :  the  time  was  lost,  when  any  thing  effective  could  be 
accomplished.  The  warfare  hud  now  iKicarm;  general,  and 
the  events  are  so  confusedly  related,  that  it  is  difhcult  to  give 
to  them  a  systematic  arrangement.  We  shall  therefore  endea. 
vor  to  describe  the  most  prominent  facts,  as  related  by  the 
different  writers  at  this  memorable  ofKich.  Wherever  the  mil- 
itary  took  their  stand,  the  increasing  crowds  th.-it  surrounded 
them,  and  the  constant  accession  of  arms,  rendered  the  situation 
of  the  soldiers  extremely  galling;  barricades  were  also  thrown 
up  on  every  side,  which  rendered  their  situation  still  more  dis 
heartening. 

A  column  consisting  of  a  battalion  of  guards,  half  a  squadron 
of  lancers,  with  two  pieces  of  cannon,  was  sent  to  occupy  the 
Hotel  de  Ville.  Their  force  was  joined  by  one  of  the  battalions 
of  the  15th  regiment ;  this  column  then  crossed  tho  bridge,  Pont 
Neuf,  and  advanced  along  the  Quai  de  I'llorloge,  &c.,nnd  pre- 
pared  to  recross  tho  river  to  march  upon  the  Hotel  de  VHle,  by 
the  Pont  Notre  Dame,  a  few  hundred  paces  west  of  the  Greve. 
The  people  now  advanced  in  great  force,  and  tolerable  order, 
with  drums  beating,  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  bridge,  to  op|)OMe 
their  passage.  The  two  cannon  were  now  planted  on  the  centro 
of  the  bridge ;  a  field  officer  of  the  guards  here  advanced  and 


Ci'M 


CHAPTUR  XIII. 


1;^? 


warnoil  tlio  pf^oplo  of  thoir  diiiiKer,  by  pointing  lo  tlic  Kuna,  and 
aasurcil  tliuin  tliijy  wvrv,  iniircliiii;,'  to  certain  (icstnictioii.  Tlim 
hnd  tiio  cfll'ct  of  Ciiimiiig  tiu;  |icii|ii(!  to  witlidriiw;  liut  wiiilo  so 
doing,  sonM!  shots  wcr»-  lirtMl,  lunl  ini  luljiitaiit  kiiii'il.  Thi-  ciiii- 
non  firinl  oiio  sliot  ciicli,  and  tiiu  i  "luinii  passcMl  over  and  own- 
piwi  the  (inays  do  (jTovos  and  I'clli^ticr  on  tli<;  iiortli  side  of  tho 
river.  In  tix;  nuian  time,  u  sinallrr  lorco  attrmptcd  to  pass  the 
new  siispt'nsion  liridgc,  dimctly  opposite  tin-  tircvr,  \vli('r(!  tlioy 
woro  riM'oivcd  with  a  galling  lire,  from  tht3  li(insi;-ti>i)8,  windows, 
and  (|uays  along  tho  Scini,'.  Tiio  r(;st  of  the  eolinnn  coming  up 
to  their  assistance,  tho  place  was  taken.  The;  guards  had  no 
sooner  taken  their  position,  than  they  learniMJ  witii  deep  conster- 
I'Ution  that  a  battalion  of  tin;  IM\  light  infantry  station<;il  along 
tlio(piays  had  revolted.  The  general  in  couimand  of  the  guards 
was  soon  apprised  of  this,  hy  th(!  filling  of  his  men.  Tlu^tiuai 
do  Citi  was  lilled  with  sharpshooters  of  tin;  insurgents,  who  pro- 
tccted  by  the  presence  of  the  ITnli  regiment,  k(,'pt  up  a  continued 
fire  upon  the  guards  in  the  place. 

By  this  time  tin;  r»(Hh  regiment,  statiomsd  in  the  morning  at 
the  Boulevards,  and  afterwards  marched  to  tho  place  do  (Jnjve, 
determined  to  lay  down  thcur  arms :  they  wishinl  to  return  to 
their  barracks,  but  finding  these  wi;re  already  in  |)ossession  of 
the  people,  they  joiiM.'d  40  cuirassiers,  then  departing  from  tho 
Bastile,  for  tlv;  Hotel  do  Ville.  Tho  latter  had  many  dillicultics 
to  encounter,  marching  through  back  streets,  and  at  length 
reached  tho  Motel,  but  the  50th  regiment  took  no  part  in  the 
fighting,  by  which  the  cuiraasiers  made  their  way.  On  their 
arrival  nt  tho  Hotel  do  Ville,  the  ollicer  commanding  the  guards 
wasapprisetl  that  he  could  not  depend  on  receiving  the  reinlurco- 
ment  from  the  Bastile,  as  he  fully  expected ;  and  what  rendered 
hia  situation  more  trying,  his  cartridges  were  now  about  spent. 
Two  detachments  were  sent  in  (piost  of  ammunition,  but  did  not 
return.  A  message  succeeded  in  gaining  the  Tuileries ;  this 
was  by  a  party  of  cuirassiers ;  200  Swiss  were  sent  to  the  jilace 
de  Grove  ;  when  they  arrived  there,  the  guards  220  strong,  had 
been  engaged  five  hours,  and  hnd  forty  men  hors  de  combat, 
(about  5  o'clock,)  and  had  gained  an  entrance,  with  a  part  of 
their  forces,  into  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  The  populace  having  now 
returned,  the  cavalry  and  artillery  sheltered  themselves  in  the 
stable  yards  from  the  severe  fire,  directed  against  them,  from 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.  The  50th  regiment  was  also 
protected  in  the  inner  court  of  the  Hotel. 

The  hardest  fighting  yet,  had  been  at  the  entry  of  Rue  du 
Mouton,  a  street  that  opens  into  the  place  de  Grove,  from  th« 
north.    When  the  troops  had  established  themselves  in  the  place 


tiii^  to  tlic  guim,  and 
a  (If'stnictioii.  Tliib 
idriiw ;  liur  wliili!  so 
lit  killi'il.  Till'  ciiii. 
is8(h1  ()V(;r  and  occu. 
till!  iiortli  sido  of  tho 
ittt'in|iti'il  tu  |)as.i  the 
'  (ircvc,  wlicri!  tln;y 
li(ins(;-ti>i)8,  windows, 
ic  coliinm  coining  up 
TIk;  i^iiiirdii  had  no 
•d  with  d<'c|)  coiustf^r- 
iiitry  statii»n(;d  aloii^ 
iiiiiiand  (j|'tli(!i;iiards 
hit)  men.  Tlirtiuai 
insui'gciits,  will)  i)ro- 
,  kept  up  a  continued 

(!(l  in  tlie  morning  at 
tho  place  do  (Jnjvu, 
wished  to  n^turn  to 
ady  in  |)o39esMion  of 
1  departing  from  tlio 
had  many  dilliciiltica 
reels,  and  at  length 
took  no  part  in  tho 
lieir  way.  On  their 
ninanding  the  gniirds 
cc'iving  the  reinl'iM-cc. 
;  and  what  rendered 
;rc  now  about  spent, 
imunition,  but  did  not 
g  the  Tuileries ;  tiiis 
were  sent  to  the  place 
uards  220  strong,  had 
men  horn  de  combat, 
ance,  with  a  part  of 
populace  having  now 
wl  themselves  in  the 
d  against  them,  from 
h  regiment  was  also 

the  entry  of  Rue  du 
e  de  Greve,  from  the 
lemselvcs  in  the  place 


ii 


rRKMi-H    RKVOMJTUIN,  WEDNESDAV,  JULY  2fl,  1830.         697 

do  («reve,  a  aevert!  lire  wan  kept  up  against  them  fron".  both 
anglis  of  the  street,  iiinl  iVom  behind  a  liarricaile  there  thrown 
up,  hut  which  was  sokii  taken  an<l  n^taken,  on  the  arrival  of 
the  Swiss,  during  a  luoveiuiMit  ill  executed  ;  irs  loss  led  to  tho 
severest  eonflict  of  the  day,  fniui  tlu-  detenniriation  of  the  sol- 
diers to  regain  this  post,  in  whirli  they  finally  su('<;ceded,  and 
(Irnvc  till'  po|)iilar  lorees  away.  TIk;  truops  at  length  were 
withdrawn  uitu  the  lloti'l  de  V'ille,  except  a  detaeliuieut  of  light 
infantry,  that  hehl  the  barricade  in  tho  Hun  du  .Moutoii.  Tho 
8har|)-sliii(»tei's  of  the  guards,  kept  up  a  destructive  fire  from 
the  windows  of  the  Unfi'l,  hiiviug  now  received  a  supply  of 
cartridges  froiii  tin,'  regiments  of  the  lini;,  wliicdi  refuses!  to  fire 

upon  the  people, 

Alb'r  the  Hotel  was  taken  possession  of  by  tli(!  trtKips,*  they 
kept  it  during  the  day's  light. 

Wednesday  was  the  usual  day  on  which  the  King  held  a 
council  ;  but  tli"  stati;  of  ulUiirs  in  Paris,  prevented  the  routine 
of  business,  and  the  ministers  for  safety,  had  taken  up  their 
quarters  at  tlie  Tuileries. 

Th(!  eeli'brated  M.  Ara!.'o,  of  the  Acadi-my  of  Scieiici^s,  who 
was  on  terms  of  great  intimacy  with  Marmont,  sought  an  inter- 
view :  for  this  j)urpose,  he  exposed  himself,  in  eouipany  with 
his  son,  to  all  risks,  to  gain  the  palace  of  tin;  Tuileries.  It 
was  2  o'clock,  P.  M.  when  ho  arriveil,  where  ho  was  ushered 
into  the  presence  of  Marmont,  in  a  saloon  looking  towartis  the 
Carrousel.  He  foiinii  him  with  many  olfice-rs,  ant!  other  |)er. 
sons  not  in  uniform.  M.  Arago,  taking  the  Marshal  aside,  in 
a  conversation  insisted  on  the  rights  of  resistance  on  the  part 
of  the  peopii," — that  the  ordinances  should  be  immediately  with- 
drawn— and  the  dismissal  of  the  ministers,  A:c.  During  this 
discu.ssion,  an  aid-discamp  brought  intelligence  that  General 
Quinsenas  could  no  longer  maintain  his  position,  which  put  an 
end  to  this  interview.  Immediately  after,  the  arrival  of  several 
members  of  the  chamber  of  'epnties  was  announced  ;  and 
these  were  introduced  to  the  presence  of  the  Marshal.  These 
deputies  were  M.  M.  Lafitte,  Casimir  Perrier,  G«!neral  Gerard, 
Lobaii,  and  Maiiguin.  They  represcmted  the  dangers  which 
threatened  the  throne; ;  the  convulsed  and  frigbtfiil  state  of  the 
Capital ;  and  demanded  that  the  ministers  should  be  dismissed, 
and  the  ordinances  withdrawn,  as  tho  only  means  to  stop  the 
effusion  of  blood.     The   Marshal  communicated  the  substance 

•  There  iippenrs  to  he  some  disrrepnnoy  in  the  stiitemBnts  of  different 
writers  nhoiit  the  tnkini;  iind  holding  the  Hott'l ;  but  tlie  fact,  na  stated 
above,  is  eatablishod  by  the  narration  of  the  stair-officci  and  others,  givefi 
during  the  trial  of  the  ministers 


li>< 


T? 


4 


rm 


rllAHTKB  XIII 


of  thih  m(S!»(ij(('   to  tlir  ministers.     The  ri'|)lv  of  !VI.  Polijnino 
was,    It   WHS  iiscli'ss  for  liiiii  to  sim-  tlicin.     'rliuy  iiniiu'diutflv 

witlldnW.       Iillfltti',  the   ehiel"  Hpeuker,  Saill,  (he    (|liestioil    Could 

oalv  he  decided  liy  the  cliiiiiee  of  iiniis;  and  h('n(;eforward,  tlio 

deputies    deterinilied    to    e\irt    thi.'lliselves    ill    the   rev<illlti(Jllury 

cause — seeing  there  was  Jio  liojie  ol'  an  Mccniiiiiiodation. 

In  the  coiillict  inaiiitained  this  day,  in  tlie  phice  de  ( Ireve, 
the  |)o|itila('e  displayed  the  utmost  perseverance,  and  thit  iiiOHt 
uiishriiikiii;;  ••oiirai;e.  The  rapidity  and  exrelh'nt  jud;^iiient  of 
their  IllciVellielits,  tile  readiness  to  si'i/e  on  every  adviiiita^fe  to 
annoy  tiie  enemy,  shows,  they  must  have  had  leaders  jiossessed 
of  iiiueli  practical  military  kMowledi;e.  Nor  did  they  shrink 
from  the  sanj^iiinary  contest,  where  any  tiiinj,'  could  he  gained 
by  the  siK-rifice  (jf  lili'.  It  should  he  home  in  mind,  tiiat  this 
stni^'ljle  was  also  carried  on,  under  a  most  oppressive  heat, 
Fahri'iiheit's  thermometer  raiiKin;,'  at  ().')". 

The  iron  suspension-hridj;e  was  the  theatrn  of  many  dariiif; 
feats  of  valor  ;  and  has  since  been  calk^l,  in  cuinmomuratiun, 
the  hridf^e  of  Arcole,  (/c  I'ont  (C  Arco/r.) 

'V\\i'  wounded,  duriiitf  the  day,  were  carried  in  carts  and  lit- 
ters, to  the  hospitals  ;  and  the  diad  to  the  Morjiue,  amidst  thu 
most  respecirul  silence  of  the  crowd. 

The  royal  troops,  tlioii;,'li  they  wert^  in  possession  cd'  tiio 
Flotcil  do  Ville,  without  any  hopes  of  njceivinf^  further  reinforco- 
meiits,  were  now  cxci-edin'rly  anxious  to  ipiit  it.  They  accord, 
in^ly  ellected  a  retreat,  diirinj;  the  stillness  <if  the  iiif;ht,  to  thu 
Tuilories.  Of  wounded  men,  they  had  helweeu  T)!)  and  (>0 — 
tliouj^h  another  stati-inent  makes  tlu;  numher  much  lii;,'her, 
th(!8o  thuy  carried  with  them.  The  peojile  had  f;enerally  lell 
the  str(>(!t.s  and  windows,  durin<|  the  nijjht.  Tlu!  troojis  at 
length  reached  the  Tuileries,  without  any  obstruction  except 
a  barricade  they  had  to  take  down,  to  get  their  cannuii  along: 
this  made  aonm  noise,  and  occasioned  some  shots  to  be  fired 
about  them. 

In  the  Boulevard  St.  Denis,  a  great  crowd  had  assembh^d  at 
an  early  hour,  and  among  these  was  sc.cu  the  uniform  of  the 
national  guard.  This  crowd  was  not  generally  armed  with 
muskets.  About  S  o'clock,  n  detnchrnent  of  cuirassiers  made 
a  charge  ujioii  the  crowd,  ut  full  gallop.  They  were  then  en- 
gaged  in  tearing  up  the  pavement,  and  carrying  the  stones  to 
the  top  of  the  Port  St.  Denis.  TImy  stood  firm,  aixl  with  long 
poles  threw  the  ciiirassic^rs  from  th(ar  saddles  at  the  first  oncoun- 
ter,  and  simzihI  their  arms,  sufTering  none  to  esca|)e.  With  these 
new  equipments,  the  oirensive  was  now  assumed  by  them.  At 
9,  a  guard  of  20  soldiers  of  the  lino  surrendered  their  arms; 


ly  of  ^f.  P.)li;rnno 
Tlicy  iiniiicdiuti'ly 
ln'  (|iicstioii  r.imUl 
liiiicclorwiinl,  tliii 
till-  ri'voliitioimry 
iiiiiiid.'itioii. 
•  |p|!ic(:  i|i>  (ircvi', 

lli'l',  IiIkI    till)    IIIONt 

•  •lit  ju(lj,'m<'nt  iif 
■very  (ulvaiitii;;f  to 
•  I  li'iidcrx  iHiMSfSHcd 
or  did  they  shrink 
,'  <'ould  In-  <,'nini'd 
ill  mind,  that  this 
'St  o|>|)rcs.siv(;   hciit, 

trn  of  mnny  diiriiif^ 
in   coniincinoration, 

I'd  in  carts  and   lit- 
Morgue,  uinidst  tho 

n  |>(is.si'.vsion  of  tho 
i;,'  fiirthi'r  reinforce. 
it  it.  'I'hey  accord, 
of  the  nii,dit,  to  the 
ween  rd)  and  (JO — 
nher  much  lii;,'lier, 
!  liatl  };<'iicraily  loll 
lit.  'I'ho  troops  at 
obstruction  except 
heir  cannon  along: 
10  shots  to  bo  (ircd 

*'(!  had  assembled  at 
the  uniform  of  tho 
nerally  armed  with 
uf  cuirassiers  made 
'hey  were  then  en- 
rying  tho  stones  to 
firm,  and  with  long 
at  tlu!  first  )»ncoun. 
iscai)c.  With  those 
med  by  them.  At 
ndorod  their  arms; 


r  tf,  I  ^irrW' 


PRRNCII  RRVOLUTION,  WEDNKSPAV,  JULY  28,   1830.  r>09 

lliir  guard-house  was  ilemoliMhcil,  and  ul'the  materials,  a  bairi* 
cade  was  consti'ucted  across  the  liouleviird.  A  t'urious  t'licuun- 
tor  to(»k  place  with  tho  guards,  at  tho  gate,  wlioro  stuiioH  woro 
hurled,  anil  a  brisk  fire  kept  up. 

'I'lie  pi'ojile  now  coiiniK'iKU'd  encting  barricades  on  a  groat 
scale,  alon;;  tlic-  HouK-vard,  at  the  suggestion  of  Ambrose  Meno- 
rot,  a  carjienter :  lor  this  |»urpose,  tho  line  trees,  planted  by 
Louis  tho  Grand,  wore  levelled  by  tho  axo.  It  was  done  with 
expedition  /md  gnsat  science,  luidisr  the  direction  of  Menoret, 
who  su|ipli(!d  tlieui  with  tools  from  his  shop.  This  was  a  most 
fortunate  iili;a.  'i'liesi;  barriers  were  so  numerous,  as  to  bo 
insuimount'ible,  and  cut  olf  all  communication  with  the  troops, 
'i'his  line  of  barricades  extended  from  the  Hue  du  'I'emple,  in  iho 
east,  to  the  lliio  do  llicbelieu,  west.  An  eminent  architect,  Mr. 
Crecy,  had  a  large  cpiantity  of  timbi'r,  scallbld  poles,  pick-axes, 
crow. bars,  iVc.  carried  away  ;  all  thcso  woro  utlorwards  returned 
with  scrupulous  exactness. 

From  a  subsequent  report,  it  appears  that  during  tho  revo- 
lutiouary  struggle,  405.')  barricades  were  thrown  up,  consisting 
of  trees  IoUcmI,  carriages  of  every  description  overturned,  anil 
the  ])avi,'ments  tak(;ti  up.  The  number  of  paving  stoiiv's  torn 
up,  for  this  |nirpose',  were  :),r2>'3,OOU.  Tho  expense  of  paving 
tiic  streets  again,  was  '2.')0,0()0  francs.  Paris  is  i)av(!d  with 
large  squari!  stones.  Tho  gutters  are  in  the  middh;  of  the  streets, 
and  they  flowed  with  blood  during  these  sanguinary  conflicts. 

The  immeiisiv  importance  of  these  numerous  barricades, 
thrown  up  with  such  unparalleled  rapidity,  will  he  best  illus- 
trated  by  tho  following  details.  A  strong  column  arrived  at  the 
Bastile,  and  began  to  firo  upon  tho  piople ;  these  discharges 
were  kojjt  up  without  intermission,  and  returned  by  the  people, 
who  were  forced  to  retire;  and  were  pursui-d  by  the  troops,  as 
far  as  tho  Iluo  do  Reuilly,  which  meets  the  Rue  du  Faubourg, 
St.  Antoine.  Hero  the  troo|is  W(;ro  again  assailed  with  a  sharp 
firo,  and  had  several  barricades  to  overcome.  Tho  column 
remained  in  tho  Iluo  Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  till  half  |)ast  three, 
and  when  about  to  retire,  were  again  luaailod  with  firing,  and 
missiles  from  the  houses.  On  the  return  of  this  body  of  troops 
to  tho  Bastile,  tho  commander,  M.  St.  Chamans,  found  he  could 
not  return  by  tho  nortlujrn  Boulevards,*  from  tho  numerous  bar- 

•The  totiil  number  of  streets  in  Paris,  oxolusivo  of  Cu/»(/e  Sac,  are  1142, 
mostly  narrow.  The  18  Boulevards  are  broad  strei-ts,  planted  on  both 
sides  with  trees,  and  furmini;  bcautifid  promenades.  Those  outside  of  tho 
walls  are  called  the  exterior  Boulevards.  The  interior  Boulevards  are 
divided  into  tiie  old,  or  northern,  and  the  now,  or  southern,  and  are  of  great 
length,  with  ninny  streets  running  into  them.— fine.  Am.  Vol.  IX.  p  534, 
a  work  from  which  we  have  derived  ;nany  imjiortant  facts 


m 


600 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


ricadcs,  that  had  risen  as  if  by  magic.  The  attempt  to  force  a 
passage  to  the  Hotel  do  Ville,  by  the  Rue  St.  Antoine,  also 
failed,  from  tlie  same  cause  ;  while  the  troops  were  exposed  to 
a  heavy  fire  from  all  the  windows,  and  their  ammunition  was 
now  exhausted.  Under  all  tlicso  dangers,  M.  St.  Cliamans 
returned  as  well  as  he  could,  with  his  column,  over  the  bridge 
of  Austerlitz,  and  by  a  circuitous  way  to  the  Tuilories,  by  the 
soutiiern  Boulevards.  The  column  arrived  at  the  place  Louis 
XV.  between  10  and  11  at  night.  After  this,  no  more  troopt 
were  seen  in  the  place  de  la  Bastile  or  neigh  borhood. 

The  28th  closed  with  the  retirement  of  the  royal  forces  froir 
every  position  in  which  they  had  attempted  to  establish  them, 
selves  during  the  day.  During  the  niglit,  the  citizens  did  not 
cease  from  their  exertions,  but  availed  themselves  of  this  respite, 
to  complete  the  erection  of  barricades,  in  every  part  of  the 
city.  In  this  great  wot  a,  all  ranks  of  citizens,  tiie  aged  and 
the  young,  were  alike  ardently  employed.  These  barriers  were 
erected  at  about  forty  or  fifty  paces  asunder,  breast  high,  and 
four  or  five  feet  in  thickness,  the  work  was  carried  on  by  torch 
light,  the  lamps  having  been  broken.  The  dreadful  tocsin  con- 
tinued  ringing  during  the  night.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Louvre, 
and  the  Tuileries,  a  patrol  of  guards,  continued  to  walk  during 
the  night,  and  fired  upon  all  who  came  within  reach  of  their 
muskets. 

Thureday,  29th,  the  drums  beat  the  reveille,  and  the  hurrying 
crowds  as  they  assembled,  cried,  "  To  arms,  to  arms .'"  Several 
distinguished  military  characters,  were  this  day  to  act  as  lead- 
ers.  Among  them  were  Generals  Gerard  and  Dubourg.  The 
entire  failure  of  the  plans  of  Marmont  had  induced  him  to  adopt 
this  day  a  different  mode  of  warfare.  Instead  of  marching  his 
troops  through  the  streets  to  no  purpose,  he  had  sent  for  further 
reinforcements,  and  now  intended  to  concentrate  all  his  strength 
in  the  Tuileries,  and  keep  up  a  communication  with  St.  Cloud. 
The  following  places  were  in  possession  of  the  royal  troops,  this 
morning  :  the  Tuileries,  Carrousel  and  Garden,  the  Louvre,  the 
Bank,  and  Palais  Royal,  place  Vendome,  the  Champs  Elysees, 
Rue  St.  Honore,  and  several  streets. 

There  was  an  addition  to  the  royal  forces  of  6,700  men,  that 
had  arrived  since  yesterday,  so  that  the  total  number  of  the 
guards  amounted  to  11  battalions  of  infantry,  and  I'S  squadrons 
of  cavalry,  in  all  4,300  men.  The  eight  battalions  of  the  line, 
amounting  to  2,400,  were  of  no  service  to  the  royal  cause- 
one  battalion  of  guards  occupied  the  military  school.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  military  were  this  day  to  be  put  on  the  defen- 
sive :  It  remained  therefore  with  the  popular  forces,  to  make  the 


11 


«.*-•***..  ---,-..«-.  • 


Vmi 


e  attempt  to  force  a 
ie  St.  Antoine,  also 
ps  were  exposed  to 
cir  ammunition  was 
3,  M.  St.  Ciiamans 
iTin,  over  the  bridge 
he  Tuileries,  by  the 
1  at  the  place  Louis 
his,  no  more  troopi 
;h  boriiood, 
le  royal  forces  fron- 
I  to  establish  them, 
the  citizens  did  not 
jelves  of  this  respite, 
I  every  part  of  the 
zens,  the  aged  and 
These  barriers  were 
er,  breast  high,  and 
carried  on  by  torch 
dreadful  tocsin  con- 
inity  of  the  Louvre, 
iiued  to  walk  during 
ithin  reach  of  their 

lie,  and  the  hurrying 
,  to  arms .'"  Several 
day  to  act  as  lead- 
and  Dubourg.  The 
induced  him  to  adopt 
jad  of  marching  his 
had  sent  for  further 
trate  all  his  strength 
tion  with  St.  Cloud, 
he  royal  troops,  this 
den,  the  Louvre,  the 
lie  Champs  Elysees, 

I  of  6,700  men,  that 
total  number  of  the 
■y,  and  I'S  squadrons 
attalions  of  the  line, 
the  royal  cause— 
;ary  school.  It  will 
e  put  on  the  defen- 
r  forces,  to  make  the 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  THWRSDAV,  JULY  '29,  1830.     GDI 

attack,  who  were  this  day  strengthened  by  the  students  of  the 
cclebratfid  Polytechnic  school,  alKuit  fiO  of  wliom  scaled  ih« 
walls,  and  headed  the  civic  columns  by  whom  tlioy  were  hailed 
witli  the  greatest  entliusiasm. 

The  bands  from  the  Faubourgs  had  poured  into  the  Rue  St. 
Honore,  by  its  east(;rn  extremity,  and  a  fioce  and  niurdcrous 
warfare  was  carried  on,  and  here,  tiic  Poiyteciinic  scholars  led 
the  citizens  to  tlie  charge.  TIk;  battle  began  to  ragn  fiercely 
at  several  points  near  Rue  St.  Honore. 

But  before  any  important  engagement  had  occurred,  to 
decide  the  fate  of  the  day,  tiie  d<;rection  of  troops  occupying 
important  stations,  led  to  important  results.  About  half  past 
eleven,  the  troops  of  the  line,  at  the  ))Iace  Vendome,  and  the 
Palais  Bourbon,  negotiated  witli  the  leaders  of  the  populace, 
when  new  barriers  rose  in  all  directions  round  these  stations. 
The  5th  and  53d  regiments  of  tlie  line,  stationed  in  the  place 
Vendome,  fraternized  with  tiio  people  :  this  ceremony  was  per- 
formed by  taking  off  their  bayonets,  and  shouldering  their 
muskets,  with  the  butts  in  the  air.  Marslial  Marmont  was 
immediately  api)rized  of  the  defection  of  tlie  troO(m,  and  sent 
a  battalion  of  Swiss  guards  from  the  Louvre,  to  supply  their 
posts.  By  some  strange  oversight,  the  battalion  was  withdrawn, 
that  defended  the  whole  position,  the  Colonnade  and  gallery 
of  the  Louvre.  The  populace  soon  found  their  way  into  the 
garden,  called  L'Enfant,  in  front  of  the  Louvre,  and  there  meet- 
ing  with  no  obstacles,  entered  the  lower  windows,  and  glass 
doors,  and  took  immediate  possession  of  the  interior  of  this  noble 
pile. 

From  the  windows  of  the  inner  court  the  Parisians  fired  upon 
the  battalion  beneath,  and  soon  every  wi<idow  in  the  great  gv.\. 
lery  of  paintings  was  filled,  whence  they  fired  on  the  troops  in 
the  place  du  Carrousel,  and  soon  drove  the  Swiss  guards  away 
in  great  disorder.  There  were  also  two  squadrons  of  lancers  in 
the  inclosure  of  the  Tuileries,  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  popu- 
lace.  The  Swiss  rushed  to  the  Triumphal  Arch,  and  getting 
through  it  with  great  irregularity,  threw  themselves  among  the 
lancers.  The  egress  from  this  railed  space  was  blocked  up  by 
the  latter,  but  through  it  the  troops  escaped  as  soon  as  possible. 
It  is  said,  two  platoons  of  firm  soldiers  might  have  driven  the 
popular  forces  away,  who  were  not  numerous  at  this  time.  It 
was  at  this  spot  (the  Triumphal  Arch)  that  Marslial  Marmont 
had  established  his  head  quarters ;  and  so  unexpected  was  the 
attack  that  he  retreated  precipitately,  leaving  behind  him  120,000 
francs  (5,000Z.)  in  bags.  His  retreat  was  by  the  Rue  de  Revoli, 
and  thence  round  into  the  garden  of  the  Tuileries.     From  the 


002 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


trrrjicc,  t-.>o  cannon  shot  were  fired  on  the  Parisians.  The 
Swiss  iri-ni  (1  af,'nin,  but  only  to  retire  iuimetliately,  by  order  of 
Ihe  Murslia  ,  upon  St.  Cloud.  Thus  terminated  the  capture  ot 
Ihe  Louv.o  and  tin;  'J'uilories. 

In  tliia  attack  on  the  Louvre,  tlie  strongest  column  was  com- 
manded  i)y  Ceiieral  (Jcrard  ;  while  the  pupils  of  the  Polyteciimc 
school  served  under  him,  advancing  at  the  head  of  their  respec- 
live  f;onipani(;s.     !t  was  one  of  these  youths  tiuit  led  the  attack 
on  one  of  its  gates  and  drove  it  in,  when  the  forces  rushed  ini- 
petiiously  on  tiie  guards.     Many  interesting  facts  are  related, 
allowing  the  courage  and  noble  hearing  of  these  youths,  whose 
services  w(M-e  so  conspicuous  during  the   revolution.      It  was 
about  1   o'clock  when  the  Tuileries  were  captured.     In  the 
famous  gallery  of  the  Louvre,  the  splendid  coronation  picture 
of  Charles  X.  with  another  painting,  was  instantly  destroyed. 
The  rest  of  this  precious  collection  of  paintings  was  left  im- 
touched.     This  fact  reflects  the  highest  honor  on  the  Parisian 
multitude.     No  sooner  was  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries  in  pos- 
session of  the  populace,  than  every  thing  relating  to  the  Hour- 
bons  met  with  iiimKuliate  destruction.     A  splendid  painting  of 
the   Duke   of  Ilagusa,  (Marmout,)   was  torn   into   a   thousand 
pieces,  and  every  bust  and  painting  of  the  royal  family  destroyed 
with  the  e.\e(!i)tion  of  a  bust  of  Louis  XVIII.,  to  whom  France, 
was  indebted  for  the  charter.     Upon  the  whole,  the  populace, 
even  to  the  poorest  of  the  working  classes,  displayed  a  remark 
able  degree  of  forbearance  from  pillage  when  in  possession  of 
the  riches  of  the  royal  pahice. 

The  Swiss  barracks,  in  the  Rue  Babylone,  had  been  taken 
possession  of  hv<bro.  the  capture  of  the  Tuileries.  Finding  this 
place  defended  with  great  obstinacy,  it  was  set  on  fire  with 
straw  and  turpentine.  Major  Dufay,  the  commander  of  these 
quarters,  was  killed ;  when  the  flames  and  smoke  forced  the 
soldiers  to  make  a  desperate  sortie,  when  great  numbers  fell. 
Major  Dufay  was  an  officer  of  great  distinction,  and  had  served 
under  Napoleon  in  his  celebrated  campaigns. 

The  archbishop's  palace,  in  the  He  de  la  Cite,  was  assailed 
under  the  command  of  seveml  Polytechnic  scholars.  Finding 
there,  unexpectedly,  ammunition  and  newly  sharpened  poinards, 
the  multitude  were  so  exasperated  that  the  work  of  destruction 
immediately  commenced.  Costly  articles  of  furniture  and  Irooks 
in  gorgeous  bindings  were  torn  to  pieces,  scattered,  and  thrown 
from  tli(!  windows  into  the  river. 

A  sanguinary  combat  was  kept  up  in  Rue  St.  Honore  with 
the  Swiss,  after  the  Louvre  and  Tuileries  were  taken.  This 
incensed  the  pooplo  greatly— the  soldiers  almost  to  a  maa  pe- 


\ 


^i(4i,i; 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  THURSDAY,  JULY  29,  1830. 


603 


the  Parisians.  The 
icdiiiUily,  by  order  of 
mated  the  captun;  of 

:est  column  was  com- 
pils  of  the  rolytechnic 
)  liead  of  their  respcc 
hs  tiuit  led  the  attack 
the  forces  rushed  iiu- 
iiifr  facts  are  related, 
'  these  youths,  whose 
I   revolution.      It  was 
ire  captured.     In  the 
lid  coronation  picture 
3  instantly  destroyed, 
laintinps  was  left  un- 
lonor  on  the  Parisian 
'  the  Tuileries  in  pos- 
relatin^  to  the  Hour. 
L  splendid  painting  of 
torn  into  a  thousand 
royal  family  destroyed 
HI.,  to  whom  France. 
3  whole,  the  populace, 
3,  displayed  a  remark 
vhen  in  possession  of 

y^lone,  had  been  taken 
'uileries.  I'inding  this 
:  was  set  on  fire  with 
3  commander  of  these 
and  smoke  forced  the 
en  great  numbers  fell, 
inction,  and  had  served 
gns. 

Ic  la  Cite,  was  assailed 
nic  scholars.  Finding 
ifly  sharpened  poinards, 
le  work  of  destruction 
i  of  furniture  and  books 
,  scattered,  and  thrown 

1  Rue  St.  Honore  with 
ies  were  taken.  This 
rs  almost  to  a  man  pe- 


rwhed — the  carnage  there  was  horrible,  about  nine  hundred 
dead  bodits  being  ibund.  About  half  jjast  JJ,  P.  M.  the  last  of 
the  military  posts  in  the  city  of  Paris  surrendered. 

'i'hc  royal  troo|)s  retreated  towards  St.  Cloud,  not  without 
meeting  with  obstructions  on  the  way,  and  being  somewhat 
harassed.  The  brid/re  at  Neuilly  had  been  blocked  up  with 
heavy  carts  and  wagons  at  tiie  suggestion  of  1 -afayette ;  and 
the  people  still  continued  to  fire  upon  the  exhaustinl  and  dispirited 
soldiers.  Thus  ended  the  three  days'  hard  conflict,  in  which 
the  citizens  of  Paris  had  fought  and  bled,  and  at  last  achieved 
a  glorious  victory. 

The  number  of  citizens  killed  and  wounded  in  these  three 
days'  fight,  has  been  variously  stated.  From  the  report  of  the 
committee  of  national  rewards,  appointed  to  investigate  the 
claims  of  the  wounded  and  of  the  relatives  of  the  slain,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  number  of  killed  and  those  who  died  from  wounds, 
was  788  ;  and  of  wounded  about  4,500. 

On  tlio  31st  of  July,  the  deputies  published  a  proclamation, 
declaring  that  they  had  invited  the  Duke  of  Orleans  to  become 
Lieutenant-(Jeneral  of  the  kingdom.  At  noon  on  the  same  day, 
Louis  i'hillippe  d'Orleans  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that 
he  hastened  to  Paris,  wearing  the  "  glorious  colors"  of  France, 
to  accept  the  invitation  of  the  ass(;mbled  deputies — to  become 
Lieuteuant-Cencral  of  the  kingdom.  A  proclamation  of  the 
same  date  appointed  provisional  commissaries  for  the  difTercnt 
departments  of  government :  these  were,  M,  Dupont  de  I'Eure, 
for  the  department  of  justice ;  Baron  Louis,  of  finance  ;  General 
Gerard,  of  war ;  de  Rigny,  of  marine ;  M.  Bignon,  of  foreign 
affairs ;  M.  Guizot,  of  public  instruction ;  M.  Casiinir  Perrier, 
of  the  interior  and  public  works. 

The  same  day,  (31st,)  Chfirles  X.  and  his  household  fled  from 
St.  Cloud  to  Rambouillet.  Three  commissioners  were  sent  to 
treat  with  him:  these  were,  Messrs.  De  Schonen,  Marshal 
Maison,  and  O'Dillon  Barrett.  The  national  guard  advanced 
towards  Rambouillet,  which  brought  about  a  s[)eedy  delivery 
of  the  crown  jewels  from  Charles  X.  and  hastened  his  depar- 
ture.  August  2d,  the  abdication  of  Charles  X.  and  the  Dau- 
phin, Louis  Antoine,  was  put  into  the  hands  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans  ;  and  a  letter  from  Charles,  appointing  the  Duke  regent, 
and  ordering  him  to  proclaim  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux  King,  with 
the  title  of  Henry  V. 

The  chamber  of  deputies  met  on  the  3d  of  August.  On  the 
6th,  the  throne  of  France  was  declared  vacant  by  the  chamber 
of  deputies  (de  jure  ct  de  facto.)  On  the  7th,  some  changes 
in  the  charter  were  adopted,  when  by  vote,  the  Duke  of  Orleana 


**»•■ 


!Fi,5!' 


604 


CHAPTER  Xni. 


was  invited  to  become  King  of  the  French,  on  condition  of 
hifl  accepting  the  changes  made  in  the  constitution.  The  votei 
were  219  in  favor,  33  against :  the  whole  number  of  depntiej* 
18  430. 

On  the  8th,  the  chamber  in  a  body  wtnt  to  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans and  ofTorcd  him  the  crown,  which  lie  accepted  ;  and  on 
the  9th,  Louis  Phillippe  toolt  the  oath  to  support  the  new chartPT. 
In  these  measures,  a  majority  of  tlie  chamber  of  peers  present, 
concurred.  On  the  12th  of  August,  the  Mohifeur  announced 
the  names  of  tlie  new  ministry,  from  the  moderate  Hberal  party, 
as  follows:  Count  do  Mole,  foreign  affairs;  General  Gerard, 
war  ;  Baron  Louis,  finance  ;  Guizot,  interior ;  Gen.  Sebastian', 
marine ;  Dupont  de  I'Eure,  keeper  of  the  seals  and  minister  of 
justice  ;  Duke  de  Broglie,  president  of  the  ministry.  Lafitte 
and  Casimir  Pcrrier  were  also  appointed  ministers  of  state, 
without  any  special  departments. 

Charles  X.  was  permitted  to  retreat  unmolested  from  France. 
He,  with  his  household,  took  passage  in  two  American  ships  for 
England,  where  lie  was  received  merely  as  a  private  individual, 
and  took  up  his  residence  at  Ilolyrood-llouse,  Edinburgh,  where 
he  had  formerly  resided  during  the  sway  of  Napoleon. 

Many  changes  were  made  in  the  officers  of  the  French 
government,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  for 
the  better  establishment  of  harmony  in  the  government.  Out 
of  86  prefects,  76  were  removed  ;  and  of  sub-prefects,  196  out 
of  277.  In  the  army,  65  general  officers  out  of  75  were 
changed,  65  colonels  removed,  and  almost  all  the  governors  of 
fortresses.  74  procurcurers  were  dismissed.  Special  missions 
were  sent  to  the  different  courts  of  Europe,  which  were  well 
received  by  all  of  them  except  Russia.  1  he  greatest  activity 
was  exerted  in  the  army  to  put  it  on  a  footing  to  meet  any  inva- 
sion, and  the  organization  of  the  national  guard  was  provided 
for.  Of  the  late  ministry,  Polignac,  Chantelauze,  and  Guernon 
de  Ranville,  underwent  a  trial  and  were  declared  guilty  of  trea- 
son  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  with  the  penalty  of 
civil  death  to  Polignac.  He  and  his  colleagues  were  transferred 
to  the  prison  at  Ham. 

Nov.  3d,  the  ministry  was  changed,  and  Lafitte  advanced  to 
the  presidency  of  the  council  and  minister  of  finance.  March 
the  14th-  Casimir  Perricr  succeeded  him  in  office.  On  the  18th 
of  October,  1831,  a  bill  passed  the  chamber  of  deputies  for 
abolishing  the  hereditary  rights  of  the  French  peerage :  to 
ensure  its  passage  in  the  chamber  of  peers,  Louis  Phillippe 
created  thirty -six  new  peers. 


'Ntj^lil 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  THURSDAY,  JULY  29,  1830.    G05 


ch,  on  condition  of 

ititutioii.     Tlie  voUai 

number  of  deputiej* 

to  the  Duke  of  Or. 
le  accepted  ;  and  on 
jjort  tlie  new  clmrtPT. 
ber  of  peers  present, 
Mohifeur  announced 
(derate  liberal  i)arty, 
s ;  General  Gerard, 
or ;  Gen.  Sebastian*, 
leuls  and  minister  of 
le  ministry.  Lafitte 
ministers  of   state, 

olestcd  from  France. 

0  American  ships  for 
a  private  individual, 

se,  Edinburgh,  where 
f  Napoleon. 
3ers  of  the  French 
of  the  times  and  for 
e  government.  Out 
sub-prefects,  196  out 
ers  out  of  75  were 

all  the  governors  of 
id.  Special  missions 
ipe,  which  were  well 
the  greatest  activity 
ng  to  meet  any  inva. 

guard  was  provided 
telauze,  and  Guernon 
sclared  guilty  of  trea- 

with  the  penalty  of 
»ues  were  transferred 

1  Lafitte  advanced  to 
of  finance.  March 
office.  On  the  18th 
Tiber  of  deputies  for 
French  peerage :  to 
jers,  Louis  Phillippe 


The  most  prominent  events  which  marked  the  reign  of  Louis 
Phillippe,  during  the  yciir  1832,  wore  the  siege  of  iho  citadel  of 
Antwerp,  and  its  surrender  by  the  Dutili,  afler  a  long  and  vig- 
orous resistance — the  arrest  of  the  l)ui;li(;ss  of  Herri,  at  Nantes, 
and  an  attempt  to  assassinate  the  King.  During  the  succeeding 
twelve  months,  the  country  was  comparatively  quiel.  In  the 
year  1831,  a  treaty  formed  by  the  Duke  de  Uroglie,  and  General 
Scbastiani,  with  the  American  Minister,  wiis  annuUeil  by  the 
refusal  of  the  (Jhamber  of  Deputies  to  grant  'iJ.OOO.OOO  francs 
to  the  United  .Slates  as  an  indemnity  for  injuries  received  by 
American  ships  and  commerce  during  the  last  European  war. 
In  April,  of  this  year,  a  treaty,  termed  the  quadriijde  alliance, 
was  concluded  between  Great  Jiritain,  France,  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal, the  object  of  which  was  to  secure  the  peace  of  the  last 
two  countries,  under  their  existing  constitutiouiil  government. 

On  the  lOlh  of  April,  1835,  the  Chamber  acknowledged  the 
propriety  of  the  American  claims,  and  provided  for  the  payment 
of  the  indemnity  in  annual  installments.  On  the  28lh  of  July, 
of  the  same  year,  the  anniversary  of  the  revolution  of  1830,  as 
the  king  was  reviewing  the  troops,  an  infernal  machine  from  an 
adjoining  house  exploded.  Many  were  wounded,  aiid  some 
lives  lost,  but  Louis  Phillippe,  and  three  sons  then  with  him, 
escaped  unharmed.  Fieschi,  the  conspirator  against  the  King's 
life,  was  arrested  and  condenmed  to  death. 

On  the  25th  of  June,  1830,  a  third  attempt  was  made  to  take 
the  King's  life.  He  was  lired  at  while  taking  a  drive,  but  the 
ball  lodging  in  the  carriage,  no  injury  was  done.  The  guilty 
actor,  a  young  man,  named  Alibaud,  was  arrested  and  guil- 
lotined. On  the  King's  birthday,  Oct.  Glh,  the  ex-ministers  of 
Charles  X.,  imprisoned  in  the  Castle  of  Ham,  were  released 
from  confinement ;  indignation  towards  them  having  given  place 
to  pity.  In  October,  an  insurrection  was  attempted  by  L<mis 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  at  Slrasburg,  but  it  was  at  once  suppressed, 
and  he  was  exiled  to  America.  In  September  of  this  year,  as 
the  King  was  proceeding  to  open  the  session  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  with  his  three  sons,  he  was  again  shot  at— the  ball 
barely  missing  him,  passing  through  the  back  of  his  carriage. 
Meurice,  a  workman,  by  whom  the  pistol  was  fiied,  was  appre- 
hended and  condemned  to  death,  but  afterwards  banished  for  10 
years. 

In  the  spring  of  1838,  a  model  was  discovered  of  a  new  "  in- 
fernal machine,"  made  by  Huber,  a  pardoned  republican,  who 
designed  constructing  a  machine  for  the  destruction  of  the  royal 
family.     He  was  tried  and  banished. 

In  1840,  1,000,000  francs  was  appropriated  for  the  purpose  of 


^^     .:«& 


606 


CHAPTI.ll    XIII, 


brinijinf;  to  Frani-r.  ilio  ivMiiaiiis  of  Napoleon,  and  interring  them 
witli  pomp.  Louis  Napoleon  liavinif  retnrnod  from  America, 
and  iijrain  uttcmi)ttid  to  rally  a  party  in  his  favor,  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned  for  life  in  the  Castle  of  Ham.  In  October, 
while  reviewing  the  National  ( juards,  the  King  was  fired  at  with 
a  musket  with  six  balls,  but  escaped  for  the  fifth  time.  The  as- 
sassin, named  Darmcs,  was  afterwards  executed. 

In  iH-t-^,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  heir  apparent  of  the  King,  lost 
his  life  by  being  thrown  from  a  carriage.  In  consequence,  it 
was  decided  that  should  Louis  Phillippe  die  before  the  young 
Count  of  Paris,  son  of  the  Duko  of  Orleans,  came  of  age,  the 
regency  should  devolve  on  the  next  individual,  in  the  order  of 
succession  to  the  throne,  who  should  reach  tlie  age  of  21  years. 

During  the  last  few  years  of  this  period,  nothing  of  further 
moment  than  the  capture  of  the  Marquesas  and  Society  Islands, 
in  the  Pai'ific  Ocean,  and  the  interchange  of  friendly  visits  be- 
tween Queen  Victoria  and  Louis  Phillippe  occurred  in  the 
history  of  Prance,  until  the  eventful  dawning  of  1848. 


V'i 


REVOLUTION  IN  rELGlUM. 


607 


n,  and  interring  them 
irnod  from  America, 
s  I'avor,  was  arrested 

Ham.  In  ()elol)er, 
[in^  was  fired  at  with 
!  fifth  time.  The  as- 
Miuted. 

rent  of  the  King,  lost 
In  consequence,  it 
]ie  befori!  the  young 
ms,  canio  of  age,  the 
idual,  in  the  order  of 
1  the  age  of  21  years, 
id,  nothing  of  further 
!  and  Society  Islands, 

of  friendly  visits  bo- 
ppe  occurred  in  the 
ing  of  1848. 


Revolution  in  Ihlgium, 

TnB  Belgians  soon  followed  the  cxamplo  of  the  French,  in 
the  career  of  revolution,  by  rising  luul  expelling  a  king  that 
hud  been  forced  upon  tliem  against  their  wisht^s.  The  eongreas 
of  Vienna,  it  will  be  recollected,  in  1814  and  1815,  severed  the 
Netherlands  from  France,  with  wliicli  it  had  been  incorporated 
since  1795,  and  constituted  it  with  the  Uiu'tf;d  I'rovinci^s,  into 
one  political  body,  under  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  having  the 
title  of  King  of  the  Netherlands.  This  was  done  with  a  view 
of  giving  to  Germany  greater  security  against  the  jiower  of 
France.  The  consent  of  the  Southern  Netherlands  was  never 
asked  or  given  ;  it  was  disposed  of  by  the  grc;at  powers  as  a 
conquered  province  or  district.  William  attempted  to  unite  two 
million  of  Dutch  Galvinists,  engag(!(l  principally  in  commerce, 
with  four  millions  of  Belgian  Catholics,  employed  in  agriculture 
and  manufactur(>s — whose  interests,  language,  and  manners,  were 
widely  opposed  to  the  Dutch,  and  whoso  language  was  disagree, 
able  to  the  Belgians,  who  have  much  the  habits  an<l  feelings  of 
Frenchmen,  and  who  arc  also  greatly  influenced  by  a  priesthood 
decidedly  hostile  to  all  innovations,  more  especially  when  coming 
from  the  Dutch ;  so  that  the  attempt  to  blend  these  discordant 
feelings  and  conflicting  interests  entirely  failed.  And  the  policy 
of  William's  government  was  by  no  means  calculateu  to  con. 
ciliatc  the  proud  and  rich  Belgians,  whom  he  treated  more  as 
vassals  than  subjects.  The  Belgians  had  many  just  causes  of 
complaint  against  the  arbitrary  measures  of  William's  govern- 
ment ;  they  were  burdened  with  heavy  taxes,  and  the  education 
of  their  children  was  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  natives. 
This  state  of  dissatisfaction  led  to  several  demands  contained  in 
an  address  for  this  purpose  ;  the  grievances  ennumerated  were 
fifteen.  They  demanded  an  equitable  division  of  public  offices 
between  the  two  countries,  liberty  of  language,  instruction,  and 
the  press,  and  the  responsibility  of  ministers.  After  various 
struggles,  an  insurrection  at  Brussels  broke  out  in  August,  1830, 
and  the  Belgians  made  a  formal  declaration  of  their  indepen- 
dence on  the  4th  October,  1830. 

The  representatives  of  the  European  powers,  viz  :  Austria, 
France,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  assembled  at  Lon- 
don, and  there  agreed  to  a  protocol  in  favor  of  an  armistice, 
and  directed  that  hostilities  should  cease  between  the  Dutch  and 
Belgians.  The  acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of  Be*, 
gium  waa  announced  December  27th,  1830,  to  the  national  con 


lliilMii<iiUW!|!'J 


•1-( 


G08 


CHAPTER  XIM. 


gress  ttt  FlnisaclH,  tlic  Belf,nana  liaving  decided  upon  a  constiiu 
tioniil  inoiiiuoliy  Foliruury  3d,  1831 — tlus  Duku  of  Nemoure, 
the  accoiid  sou  of  Louis  rhiilipi)o,  kiiifi  of  Friince,  wus  elected 
to  fdi  the  throne.  On  tlio  17th,  the  King  of  Friuico  declined 
the  proirortd  throne  on  belmlf  of  liis  8on.  February  24th,  M 
Sul<!t  de  Cliokier  was  elected  n-ent  of  Belfiiuni.  January  4th, 
the  Belgium  congress-elected  Prince  Lf.'Ji)old  of  Saxe  Coburg 
for  their  king,  by  a  vote  of  15'i  to  34,  which  was  sanctioned  by 
the  five  great  |)o\vers.  The  new  king  iTiai;o  his  entrance  into 
Brussels  July  'J  1st,  and  took  tlie  oath  to  supjwrt  the  constitution. 
September  8th,  Leopold,  king  of  Belgium,  opened  his  first  par- 
liament.  November  Ist,  the  chamber  of  representatives  of 
Belgium  agreed  to  the  terms  of  settlement  between  Belgium 
and  Holland,  prescribed  by  the  London  conference,  and  on  the 
8d,  the  senate  agreed  to  the  same  by  a  vote  of  35  to  8. 


Revolution  in  Poland. 

The  spirit  of  Poland  has  never  been  crushed.     The  sword 
of  Suvaroff  and  tlic  snows  of  Siberia  had  diminished  the  num. 
ber  of  her  bravo  sons,  but  they  who  clung  to  the  soil  of  their 
country  and  they  who  devoted  tiieir  lives  to  the  service  of  for- 
signers  alike  breathed  vengeance  on  their  oppressors  and  ardent 
aspirations  for  the  restoration  of  Poland.     They  expected  much 
from  Napoleon — they  S|)ent  their  best  blood  in  his  service,  and 
spent  it  in  vain.     Napoleon  rejected  the  opportunity  of  creating 
a  barrier  nation,  a  camp  of  devoted  soldiers,  which  would  for. 
ever  have  secured  his  empire  on  its  weakest  side.     Still  the 
Poles  did  not  despair.     The  moderation  of  Alexander  made 
their  servitude  more  endurable ;  but  no  sooner  had  Nicholas 
ascended  the  throne  of  Russia,  and  sanctioned  the  barbarities 
of  his  brutal  brother,  Constantine,  than  the  old  spirit  revived, 
if  indeed  that  spirit  had  ever  slept.     The  successful  example 
of  France,  followed  by  Belgium  and  Brunswick,  roused  them  to 
action  and  ins|)ired  them  with  the  liveliest  hopes.     The  day  of 
vengeance  and  liberation  seemed  to  have  arrived.     France  well 
knew  that  Poland  alone  stood  between  her  and  the  already  ad. 
vancing'  legions  of  Russia,  and  her  emissaries  offered  every 
encouragement  to  the  patriot  Poles.     Lashed  to  fury  by  her  own 
wrongs,  listening  to  the  voice  of  hope,  and  encouraged  by  pro- 
mises of  support,  Poland  stood  in  the  gap,  encoimtered  the  first 
onset,  and  bore  up  against  it  manfully  and  well.     But  every 


•n 


11         iri 


nKVOLUTIUN  IN  FuLAND. 


609 


(led  upon  a  coiistitu 
Duko  of  Nemours, 
Friince,  wus  elected 
;  of  Franco  declined 
February  24th,  M 
;;iiini.  January  4th, 
)old  of  yaxo  Coburg 
r\\  was  sunctionod  by 
uio  his  cntruncc  into 
|)|)ort  the  constitution, 
opened  his  first  par- 
if  reprcsentutivca  of 
int  between  JJelgium 
nfcrence,  and  on  the 
to  of  35  to  8. 


irushcd.  The  sword 
diminished  tlie  num. 
ijl  to  the  soil  of  their 
to  the  service  of  for- 
oppressors  and  ardent 
Tlioy  expected  much 
)d  in  his  service,  and 
pportunity  of  creating 
jrs,  which  would  for- 
iukost  side.  Still  the 
I  of  Alexander  made 
sooner  had  Nicholas 
3tioned  the  barbarities 
the  old  spirit  revived, 
le  successful  example 
iswick,  roused  them  to 
t  hopes.  The  day  of 
arrived.  France  well 
r  and  the  already  ad- 
issaries  offered  every 
lied  to  fury  by  her  own 
d  encouraged  by  pro- 
,  encoimtered  the  first 
ind  well.     But  evory 


victory  weakened  her  strength — tiie  delusive  hope  of  assistanci 
vanished,  and  Poland  lias  sunk  in  iron-bound  despair.  How 
will  I'' ranee,  saved  jierliaps  by  the  siierifice  of  Poland,  answei 
to  man  and  to  (.Jo<l  for  her  ingratitude  and  perfidy  ! 

it  was  on  tli(!  2l)th  of  November,  18:tO,  that  the  insurrection 
ot  Warsaw  burst  (brth.  .Secret  societies  had  existed  in  that 
city  since  1818,  for  the  express  purpos(.'  of  s(!curing  tiie  liberty 
and  nationality  of  Poland.  It  was  a  noble  dcsif^n  of  her  patri- 
ots to  unite  again  under  one  government  thoscr  portions  of  their 
nnliMiipy  country  which  had  i)eeu  torn  ussunder  and  despoiled 
by  tlie  rapacity  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria. 

As  early  as  1821,  Russia  had  eomnienccd  a  system  of  pro- 
scrijition  against  tiii'se  secret  societies  ;  and  in  1825,  a  conspi- 
racy was  kindled  into  flame  at  Petersburg,  which  it  was  thought 
could  be  traced  to  Warsaw.  The  societies  had  members 
throughout  Poland  and  Lithuania,  Podolia  and  Volhynia,  and 
even  the  old  provinces  of  the  Ukraine,  which  it  might  be  sup 
posed  had  long  since  lost  all  recollections  of  Polish  glory, 
riiesc  associations  were  formed  during  the  reign  of  the  Empe- 
ror Alexander,  to  whom  sonu;  of  the  patriots  had  vainly  looked 
for  a  better  state  of  things.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  his 
successor,  Niciiolas,  was  crowned  King  of  Poland  at  Warsaw, 
May,  1829. 

The  diet  assembled  in  1830,  and  in  spite  of  all  the  endeavors 
of  the  Emperor,  many  patriots  were  elected.  Nicholas  opened 
tiiis  assembly  in  person,  but  failed  to  overawe  the  liberals  from 
impeaching  ministers  for  violating  the  charter.  This  liberal  diet 
was  closed  June  28th.*  Such  freedom  of  discussion  could  not 
be  endured  by  a  despotic  monarch,  whose  unvarying  aim  has 
been  to  tread  out  every  spark  of  liberty  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe.  The  Arch-Dukc  Constantino  was  made  viceroy 
of  Poland,  and  by  his  monstrous  atrocities  became  universally 
detested  by  the  brave  and  generous  Poles. 

The  ardent  hopes  and  wishes  of  the  Polish  patriots  at  length 
burst  forth  into  flame.  At  7  in  the  evening,  the  hour  agreed 
upon,  fifteen  intrepid  youths  sallied  forth  determined  to  seize 
on  Constantino,  whose  residence  was  about  two  miles  from 
Warsaw.  They  rushed  into  the  palace  of  the  Belvider,  where 
the  usual  guard  consists  of  sixty  men,  first  wounding  the  director 
of  police,  who  fled.     They  next  killed  General  Gendre,  a  Rus- 

•  The  constitution  of  Polar.  1,  issued  by  Alexander,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
m  1815,  contained  many  important  provisions.  The  diet,  composed  of  two 
houses,  was  to  be  assembled  once  every  two  years  ;  yet  in  violation  of  this 
provision,  none  was  convoked  from  1830  to  1835,  and  only  one  under  th« 
Emperor  Nicholas. 

39 


**<. 


m 


610 


CHAPTBB  Xnt. 


•lan  infamous  for  hit  crimes.  Ti...  struggle  .ilarmod  Cons  nn. 
uno.  who  iMHUnlly  roso  from  Lis  b.-.!  an.  .s-a|...l  mulr.ssed  l.y 
.  sJcrct  door,  lluit  wm.cio«.ul  alkr  linn  by  in«  valft  jimt  as  t  .«y 
wore  on  the  point  of  ruucinn-  Im.i.ana  had  8U|.j..«..d  thomsi.lvoH 
•ocuro  of  thoir  victim.  Constantino  instantly  (I.mI  to  Ins  guards. 
Thus  disappointed,  this  band  rotiro.l  to  Ihoir  companions  m 
arms,  who  uwaite.l,  ut  tho  br^'-c  of  Sob.e^k.,  the  n«uk  of  tins 
n,ovcnun.t.  In  returning  to  ihe  city  they  ha.l  to  pnas  the  ba  • 
rucks  where  the  gwurds,  though  air.;ady  mounted,  were  urml.le 
to  attack  th.un  on  ac.-ount  of  a  precautumary  measure  ol 
Constantin.-  in  Hurrounding  the  barracks  with  a  deep  and  wide 
ditch,  passed  only  by  narrow  bridges.  The  guards  l.r...d  upon 
the  nsurgcnts;  but  tl...  latter  were  so  advanlageouHly  situ 
ated,  and  r.-turned  the  fire  so  w.dl,  that  they  kilh.l  three  hua 
dred  of  the  guards,  und  retreated  with  tho  loss  of  only  one  o, 

^'liy"tSiine  the  streets  of  Warsaw  were  filled,  somf!  houses 
had  been  set  on  fire,  and  the  cry  resounded  "  I  o  arms,  to  arms 
Poland  is  up,  tiod  fi.r  our  country  !"      The  inliubitants  rushed 
to  arms.     The  state  prisoners  were  liberated  ;  the  students  oi 
the  university  and  th.;  school  of  enginecn-s  joined  the  msurrec- 
tion  ;  the  arsenal  was   forced,  and  in  an  hour  and  a  Imlf  from 
the  f.rst  crv  of  liberty,  40,000  men  w^m-c  m  arms.     Soon    he 
fourth  Polish  regiment  joined  the  populace,  and  presently  the 
rest  of  the  Polish  soldiers.     When  Constantino  heard  ot  tins, 
he  fi-'U  back  with  two  Polish  regiments  of  guards,  and  was  p.-r- 
mitted  to  retire  by  the  magnanimous  Poles  unmolested  to  the 
frontier.     Chlopicki  was  appoint<'<l  general  in  chief,  and  four 
days  afterwards  d.-dariKl  dictator  by  the  provisional  govern- 
ment.     Although  a  soldier  of  undisputed  bravery,  he  has  been 
blamed  for  suffering  the  grand  duke  to  escape  when  he  might 
have  captured  him,  and  for  losing  time  m  trying  to  negotiate 
with  tho  Emperor  Nicholas.  „      .,     ,       i  • 

The  diet  that  assembled  in  twenty  days  after  the  breaking 
out  of  the  revolt,  confirmed  Chlopicki  dictator;  but  on  Ins  r-'fus. 
incr  assent  to  the  manifesto  of  January  9th,  1831,  m  which  the 
wrongs  of  Poland  were  t.o  feelingly  portrayed,  he  was  deposed. 
Instantly  a  supreme  national  council  was  formed,  and  1  rince 
Adam  Czartorj'ski  appointed  president,  when  a  spirited  procia- 
maUon  was  i.ssned,  informing  tho  Polish  soldiers  that  Chlopicki 
had  resigned  the  glorious  task  of  conducting  them  to  combat. 

It  was  unfortunate  for  the  cause  of  Poland  that  Chlopicki  was 
made  dictator.  He  issued  an  order,  "  that  whoever  should  crosa 
the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom,  and  attempt  to  raise  the  old  pro- 
vinces,  should  be  punished  with  death."     Such   an  order  might 


'ii^uH'' 


i**- 


BKVOl.trriON   I.N   I'OL.iND. 


611 


0  nUinniHl  Constnn- 
i(:a|)i!i|  undressed  by 
l\iti  viili't  jimt  as  tlioy 
8ii|)iMwcd  tluimsolvos 
;ly  (Ifd  to  Ills  i^uiirds. 
their  curnpuiiioiis  in 
iki,  tlu!  nault  of  tiiis» 

Imd  to  pass  tlio  bur- 
lounted,  were  utuibie 
itioiuiry  nieasun!  of 
with  a  deep  and  wide 
le  guards  lired  upon 
advanlageously  situ 
ley  killed  tliree  luia 
3  loss  of  only  one  o! 

V  filled,  somfi  houses 

1  «'  To  arms,  to  anus, 
10  iiihiibitants  rusluil 
ited  ;  the  studtnts  ol 
i  joined  the  insurrec 

hour  and  u  half  from 
I  in  arms.  Soon  the 
ic(!,  and  presently  the 
tantine  heard  of  this, 
guards,  and  was  per. 
les  unmolested  to  the 
ml  in  chief,  and  four 
e  provisional  govern- 
bravery,  ho  has  been 
scape  when  he  might 
in  trying  to  negotiate 

ays  after  the  breaking 
ator ;  but  on  his  ri.'fus. 
h,  1831,  in  which  the 
■ayed,  he  was  deposed. 
[IS  formed,  and  Prince 
dien  a  spiriteil  procla- 
soldiers  that  Chloi>icki 
ting  them  to  combat, 
and  that  Chlopicki  was 
at  whoever  should  crosa 
pt  to  raise  the  old  pro. 
Such   an  order  might 


havn  bonn  issued  in  respect  to  Pruftsian  and  Austrian  Poland; 
lull  not  to  those  provinceH  that  had  risen  t<>  shake  olF  the  Rui- 
siiui  yoke,  and  Lithuania,  wiiere  the  revolt  had  iMigun,  and  whoro 
thousanils  impatiently  waitt-d  the  signal  from  old  Poland,  to  ri»< 
and  join  tlii!  struggle  for  liberty.  'Phis  order  of  Chlopicki  was 
i.gardrd  by  tin;  patriots,  not  only  as  a  scsvere  ch<Tk  to  the  enlhu- 
Riasiii  of  those  [irovinccs  waiting  to  rise  on  the  signal  Ijcing  gi\on. 
but  as  almost  traitorous  to  their  cause.  That  time  was  hi«t  in 
fruitless  negotiation  that  should  have  Iwu-n  devoted  to  kindling, 
liir  and  wide,  the  spirit  of  revolt ;  and  in  the  most  active  prepa. 
ration  to  meet  the  vast  resources  of  Russia,  which  had  refused 
all  terms  but  absolute  submission ;  and  the  proparotions  in  tho 
army  were  strangily  neglecte<l.  'I'lu'se  proceedings  at  length 
causi'd  so  much  dissatisfaction  against  Chlopicki,  as  to  lead  to 

his  dismission. 

A  Her  two  months  delay  the  inevitable  conflict  Iwgan ;  when 
the  Poles  marched  into  the  field,  "  with  half  the  force  which 
under  an  energetic  administration  it  would  have  wielded." 
They  ought  to  hav(!  been  ready  to  have  commenced  otFensive 
operations  with  tiieir  enemy  at  a  distance,  instead  of  waiting 
for  him  on  their  uun  soil,  exposed  to  his  iasults  and  outrages. 
Russia  had  now  brought  into  tins  field  against  Poland  200,000 
m(!n,  while  Polanil  had  out  about  50,000  equipped  for  the  fight 
—a  fearful  dis|)arity  in  numlwrs.  Through  the  inlluence  of 
the  aristocracy,  thc'command  of  the  army  woa  given  to  Prince 

Uadzvil.  i_      ^« .     r 

The  Russian  invading  army  rendezvoused,  on  the  20th  of 
.lanuary,  at  various  points  of  the  western  frontier  of  the  empire. 
It  was  composed,  according  to  the  report  of  Field  Marshal 
Diebitsch,  of  105  battalions  of  infantry,  135  squadrons  of  cav. 
ttlry,  with  396  pieces  of  artillery,  and  II  regiments  of  Cos. 
sacks.  The  army  crossed  the  Polish  frontiers  on  the  5th  of 
February.  The  advanc(>  of  the  Polish  army  woa  at  Biala,  the 
right  near  the  high  road  to  Warsaw,  the  left  at  Lomeza  on  the 
Narew.  On  the  advance  of  the  Russians,  the  Polish  corps 
fcll  back,  tho  right  on  Warsaw,  and  the  left  on  Modlin  and  Pul- 
tusk.  On  the  18th  of  February,  the  Russian  head.quarters  were 
csttiblishcd  at  Minsk,  ten  miles  from  Warsaw,  and  their  advance 
pushed  to  Melisna,  within  five  miles  of  that  city.  Tho  Russian 
left  rested  on  the  \'istula  al)Ove  Warsaw,  ami  the  right  on  the 
Bug  near  its  junction  with  the  Nurew,  its  centre  protected  with 
woods  and  artillery. 

On  the  18th,  the  Polish  army  of  50,000  men  had  its  right  on 
Grokow,  with  Praga  in  the  rear,  and  the  left  thrown  back  oppo- 
■he  the  right  wing  of  the  enemy. 


\f 


ID 


i" 


612 


ClIAPTKR  XIII. 


The  n!CoiiiiuiiMaiic('i«  uf  llir  IDtli  iiiul  'iOtli,  wero  nsisU.d  by 
the  ('oica  und  led  to  ii  suvi-rc  battle.  Accordin);  tit  tin;  lUiMiuc 
Ui't'ount,  tlio  Ileal  of  tliu  battle  wan  diiriii}{  the  early  part  uf  the 
duy  confined  to  the  lel\,  ('omit  I'ahleii'H  advanced  ^aiard,  whieh 
waa  attacked  oa  soon  ua  it  had  chared  the  defile  iieur  (irokow, 
und  compelled  to  retreat  two  iiiilea.  Tho  advanced  f{uai(l, 
(iiuiur  General  Uuaon,  waa  attacked  at  tin;  aaine  time,  advaiuiiig 
from  Okanief.  On  tin?  arrival  of  Diebilseh,  he  miit  a  reinforce, 
iiient  mider  (Jeneral  Toll,  with  aeveral  lialtalioiiM  and '-iOeaniion, 
to  tho  ridief  of  Count  Pahleii.  A  furious  eharj^i!  was  now  iiiado 
iiy  the  KuHHiaiiH,  with  Diebitsrh  in  perHoii,  which  ehan^'ed  the 
fortune  of  tho  day,  and  at  1  o'clock  thi;  Rutisiaii  v/\u\is  united, 
when  the  I'oica  were  driven  from  the  Held  of  iMittli!.  Korthn^o 
days  after  thia  action  the  lluiwiaiis  made  no  onward  iiioveiiient, 
but  naked  un  armistice  for  tin;  burial  of  the  dead,  which  wn* 
granted. 

Pearly  on  the  25th,  the  Ilussians  having  received  a  reiiifoirn- 
ment  of  25,000  men,  felt  i)rej)ared  for  action.  They  drew 
forth  their  whole  army  in  front  of  the  forest,  and  cominenced 
an  attack  on  tho  Polish  left  wing,  near  Jublonnn.  (JenernI 
Uminaki  received  thia  attack  with  great  bravery,  and  n  pulsed 
the  enemy,  taking  six  cannon,  which  he  spiked,  and  drove  tho 
Ruaaiana  to  tho  forest.  He  then  attacked  the  Russian  eeiitro 
with  dreaufu!  slaughter,  and  drove  them  from  their  position. 
Diebitach  had  calculated,  with  the  great  strength  of  his  N-ft 
wing,  to  crush  the  Polish  right,  situatid  near  tJrokow,  under 
the  command  of  Chlopicki  and  Skrzynecki.  The  Ilussians 
made  six  tremendous  charges,  and  were  as  often  repulsed  with 
great  loss ;  a  seventh  charg*;  made  against  a  new  regiment, 
put  it  in  disorder,  and  caused  it  partially  to  retreat.  Two 
regiments  of  cuirns8i(!re  were  then  sent  against  the  faltering 
regiments :  the  latter  l)eing  aided  witli  the  Polish  Inncers,  rallied, 
rushed  on  the  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  and  cut  them  to  pieces, 
of  which  only  forty  escnjKjd,  twenty  prisoners  only  being  taken, 
mostly  officers,  and  among  them  the  commander  of  one  of  these 
regiments.  Thia  aflair  decided  the  day,  when  the  Russians  wr-re 
obliged  to  withdraw  from  the  field  of  battle  into  their  strong 
holds  in  tho  foreat  of  Milosna.  This  battle  waa  fought  with 
great  fury.  General  Chlopicki,  who  was  in  the  centre,  had  two 
horses  killed  under  him,  and  was  wounded.  Forty  thounand 
Poles  here  withstood  the  shock  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand of  their  enemy  ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  battle,  nearly 
15,000  Russians  lay  weltering  on  the  plain,  and  several  thouaand 
prisoners  were  taken. 

After  the  battle.  Prince  Radzvil  gave  up  the  command  of  the 


Ill,  wi;ro  rcsiated  by 

idill^'  to  tin-   UU!«IUK 

le  curly  imil  of  tlie 
iincnl  j{uaril,  wliinh 
le(il<'  iK-'ir  (irukow, 
u  advanced  ){imi'<l, 
iinii;  tiino,  advancing 

ho  Hcnl  u  niiiiorco. 
lionH  and '20  cannon, 
uirgc  was  now  iniido 

wliicli  clmngcd  the 
iiHsian  wiiifis  united, 
if  ^M»ttl(^  Fortiirco 
J  onwanl  niovcnicnt, 
lio  dead,  wliicli  v/ob 

received  a  rcinfoion. 
action.  Tiiey  drew 
rest,  and  connnenced 

Jublonnn.  (Jcncrul 
•ravcry,  and  rcpnlseii 
jiiiied,  and  drove  tiio 
[  the  Russian  ivntio 
from  tlieir  position. 
;  8trenj?tli   of  lii«  ''''^ 

near  (irokow,  under 
jcki.  The  RuHsians 
H  often  repulsed  witii 
inst  a  new  regiment, 
lly  to  retreat.  Two 
against  the  faltering 
Polish  lancers,  rallied, 
d  cut  them  to  pieces, 
icrs  only  being  taken, 
nander  of  one  of  these 
hen  the  Russians  w(«ro 
ittttlo  into  their  strong 
ittle  was  fought  with 
in  the  centre,  had  two 
led.  Forty  thousand 
undrod  and  fifty  thou- 

of  the  battle,  nearly 
1,  and  several  thousand 

ip  the  command  of  the 


KKV0I.UTI0N  IN  POLAND. 


013 


amiy ;  when  Rkr/ynecki,  who  had  displayed  fixtraordinary 
bravery  luid  skill,  was  chosen  commander  in  chief.  Mut  this 
sli'p  led  to  till'  rankling  enmity  of  Krukowiecki,  the  second  in 
command  to  ('lilo|)icki,  who  thenceforward  meilitatod  revenge, 
ploltiil,  and  atlcTWiirds  |iroved  a  traitor  to  his  country. 

'I'lie  first  step  of  Skrzynecki  was  to  attempt  to  negotiate  with 
OicliiiMch.  When  lie  found  his  advances  repelled,  he  prepared 
for  the  unequal  struggle. 

The  ice  in  tlirs  ''istnla  hail  now  broken  up,  and  the  swamjis 
were  filled  from  the  melting  of  the  snow,  and  the  roads  were 
almost  impassable  for  artillery  and  cavalry.  Skrzynecki  now 
ilctermined  to  net  on  the  oH'cnsive.  On  learning  that  Diehitsch 
had  ilivided  his  forces,  he  led  the  Polish  army  of  25,0()()  men 
to  Piaga,  and  on  the  .'Mst,  favored  by  the  darkness  of  the  night, 
approached  the  Russian  camji,  and  fell  upon  the  advanc(!d 
guard  of  (ieneral  (ieismiir,  at  VVawar,  consisting  of  8,000  men, 
intrenched  in  n  very  strong  position,  which  force  he  nearly 
destroyed,  capturing  4,000  prisoners,  nnd  taking  a  number  of 
cannon.  (Jerieral  llminski  had  previously  been  despatched 
towards  Ostrolenka,  to  kfiep  in  check  the  corps  of  General 
Sacken  and  the  gu  j  !  j  ho  W(!re  advancing  there.  ^  While  the 
Polish  advance'  ;^\uird  was  engaged  in  combat  at  Wawar, 
(ii'ueral  HybinsKi,  with  his  division,  attacked  the  enemy's  right, 
and  carried  it  by  the  point  of  tin  •  yonet;  destroyed  one  entire 
regiment,  and  f  -  .ed  another  t,  loy  down  their  arms.  The 
combat  lasted  tv.  o  hours.  Colonel  Romarino's  brigade  here  also 
distinguished  itself.  Skrzynecki  next  fell  upon  the  corps  of 
(ionera!  Rosen,  posted  ot  Dembe  Wielski  with  20,000  men,  who 
were  unable  to  withstand  the  imptuous  attack  of  the  Poles. 
The  Russians  fled  by  way  of  Minsk,  and  made  several  efforts 
to  sustain  their  poaitions  as  they  received  reinforcements,  but 
were  unable  to  sustain  them.  It  was  at  5  o'clock,  P.  M.  when 
they  arrived  at  Dembo  Wielski,  a  position  strongly  fortified,  nnd 
the  resistance  was  olwtinate.  But  the  force  of  the  artillery  from 
the  centre,  and  the  vigor  of  the  assault,  completely  routed  the 
Russians,  who  fled  with  precipitation. 

By  this  masterly  movement  of  the  Polish  commander  in  chief, 
20,000  Russions  were  thrown  hors-de-combat,  and  many  superior 
officers  were  captu^-ed  during  this  day,  so  glorious  to  the  Polish 
arms,  besides  taking  two  standards,  fifteen  wagons  filled  with 
ammunition,  some  thousand  muskets,  and  fifteen  pieces  of  can- 
non  This  victory  occasioned  but  small  loss  to  the  Poles,  owing 
to  the  rapidity  and  surprise  with  which  their  movements  were 
executed.  The  regiment  of  scythemen  (leucheurs)  having 
lemanded  arms,  the  muskets  left  on  the  field  of  battle  were 


k.l 


614 


CHAPTER  Xin 


aaaigned  them.  The  combat  lasted  till  10  at  night.  The  army 
had  then  been  actively  engaged,  fighting  and  marching,  twenty 
hours. 

On  the  9th,  the  Polish  army  gained  a  considerable  victory, 
taking  several  cannon,  and  from  .3,000  to  4,000  prisoners ; 
among  them  were  300  oflicers  of  different  ranks.  The  head- 
quarters  on  the  10th  wore  at  Seidlec ;  and  on  the  same  day, 
at  that  place.  Marshal  Diobitach  succeeded  in  uniting  all  his 
forces.  From  this  time  the  Polish  cause  appears  to  have  de- 
clined. 

General  Dwernecki  with  a  valiant  corpa  entered  Volhynia, 
surrounded  by  Russian  corps  under  Generals  De  Witt,  Keuts, 
and  Rudiger.  Dwernecki  passed  the  Bug  on  the  10th,  and  on 
the  11th  routed  some  Russian  forces,  took  a  number  of  prison- 
ers,  some  transports,  and  baggage.  The  left  wing  of  the  Rus- 
sian  army,  stationed  at  Kock,  upon  Veprez  and  Rudjew,  fell 
back,  and  Marshal  Diebitsch,  baflled  in  his  attempts,  retired 
with  the  army  across  tlie  river  Bug,  alarmed  for  his  safety. 
Insurrections  spread  in  his  rear,  in  the  provinces  of  Lithuania 
and  Volhynia.  A  violent  insurrection  broke  out  at  Wilna  on 
the  28th  of  March. 

General  Chrzanowski,  with  8,000  men,  ci.i  his  way  through 
the  Russians,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  fortress  of  Zamosc. 
The  greatest  enthusiasm  now  spread  through  the  Polish  province 
of  Samogitia.  This  expedition  of  Chrzanou-ski,  by  forcing  his 
way  through  the  enemy's  detachments,  was  one  of  great  daring. 
In  three  days  he  defeated  tlie  Russitais  three  times,  and  took 
800  prisoners.  These  movements  in  Volhynia  occasioned 
great  uneasiness  to  the  Russians,  and  obliged  them  to  change 
their  plan — that  of  attempting  Warsaw  in  front  by  Praga.  On 
the  last  days  of  April,  Diebitsch  retired  with  the  Russian  army 
beyond  the  river  Bug.  The  barbaritieji  of  the  Russians  during 
this  warfare  against  the  patriots  in  Lithuania,  were  of  the  most 
revolting  kind. 

April  26th,  General  Dwernecki  surrendered  his  force,  con- 
sisting of  4,000  men  and  17  pieces  of  cannon,  to  the  Austrians. 
He  had  been  pursued  by  a  superior  force,  and  was  under  the 
necessity  of  passing  into  the  Austrian  dominions.  Diebitsch, 
with  the  principal  Russian  army,  retreated  in  the  direction  of  the 
Bug  and  Narew,  to  gain  the  Prussian  frontier,  to  relieve  the  suf- 
fering state  of  the  army.  At  Thorn  there  was  a  great  supply  ot 
provisions,  ammunition,  &c.,  waiting  his  approach. 

The  Polish  government  issued  a  manifesto  against  Prussia 
for  her  shameful  violation  of  the  principle  of  non-interference. 
This  conduct  of  Prussia  destroyed  all  the  advantages  gained  by 


in^fl 


mv 


it  night.  The  army 
id  marching,  twenty 

onsiderabie  victory, 
to  4,000  prisoners ; 

ranks,  'fhe  head- 
nd  on  the  same  day, 
!d  in  uniting  all  his 

appears  to  have  de- 

la  entered  VoUiynia, 
•als  De  Witt,  Keuts, 
;  on  the  10th,  and  on 
a  number  of  prison- 
left  wing  of  the  Rus- 
■ez  and  Rudjew,  fell 
his  attempts,  retired 
•med  for  his  safety, 
ovinces  of  Lithuania 
•oke  out  at  Wilna  on 

cui  his  way  through 
B  fortress  of  Zamosc. 
^li  the  Polish  province 
owski,  by  forcing  his 
J  one  of  great  daring, 
hree  times,  and  took 
V^olhynia  occasioned 
Jiged  them  to  change 
front  by  Praga.  On 
ith  the  Russian  army 
f  the  Russians  during 
nia,  were  of  the  most 

idered  his  force,  con- 
non,  to  the  Austrians. 
!e,  and  was  under  the 
lominions.  Diebitsch, 
in  the  direction  of  the 
itier,  to  relieve  the  suf- 
was  a  great  supply  ot 
ipproach. 

lifesto  against  Prussia 
e  of  non-interference, 
advantages  gained  by 


REVOLUTION  IN  POLAND. 


615 


Polish  valor.  The  Prussians  furnished  supplies  of  every  kind, 
and  constructed  bridges  over  the  Vistula  for  the  passage  of  the 
Russian  army.  In  many  instances  when  tiie  Russian  trnopa 
Were  forced  by  the  Polish  sohliers  into  the  Prussian  dominions, 
they  were  suflered  to  return  with  their  arms,  while  the  Poles  in 
ail  similar  cases  were  retained  prisoners. 

The  conduct  too  of  Austria  was  most  outrageous.  While  the 
brave  Dwernecki,  the  "  camion  provider,"  was  withstanding  a 
greatly  superior  force  on  the  Austrian  frontier,  the  Russians 
p.iascd  over  neutral  ground  to  outflank  him.  He  was  followed  in 
his  retreat  by  the  Russians  who  were  allowed  to  retire,  while 
tl.e  brave,  patriotic,  and  devoted  champions  of  Pohmd  were 
obliged  to  surrender  themselves  prisoners  of  war  to  the  Austrian 
forces  stationed  on  the  frontier. 

While  a  Polish  corps  was  at  Minsk,  Skryznecki  united  all  his 
corjis  on  the  left,  crossed  the  Bug,  and  forced  his  way  to  Ostro. 
lenka,  a  flank  movement  of  80  miles,  and  defeated  the  Russian 
guards  at  Tycliosin.  He  then  sent  forward  300  Polish  officers 
lo  Lithuania,  there  to  organize  the  patriot  forces. 

The  sanguinary  battle  of  Ostrolenka  was  fought  on  the  26th 
May,  in  which  20,000  Poles  were  opposed  to  60,000  Russians. 
This  battle  was  fought  with  an  inveteracy  unexampled — quarter 
was  out  of  the  question.  The  Poles  having  succeeded  in  pass- 
ing to  the  right  bank  of  the  Narew,  they  attempted  to  destroy 
tlie  bridge.  This  they  were  unable  to  effect,  as  the  Russians 
were  protected  by  a  numerous  artillery  placed  on  the  opposite 
iank.  Several  regiments  of  Poles,  under  a  most  galling  fire, 
attempted  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  Russians.  The  combat 
was  for  a  long  time  one  of  slaughter  ;  they  fought  man  to  man, 
and  thousands  were  killed  by  being  thrown  into  the  dyke  which 
passes  along  the  marshy  shore  of  the  Narew.  The  battle  did 
not  end  till  12  o'clock  at  night,  when  the  exhausted  Rursians 
retrograded  as  far  as  the  bridge,  and  the  Polish  army  commenced 
a  retrograde  movement  unmolested,  and  fell  back  on  Fi'agsi. 
Tiie  loss  of  the  Poles  in  this  battle  has  been  stated  at  4,000  men. 
The  Russians  snllbred  very  severely  and  had  three  generals 
killed.  The  Russian  guards  are  said  to  have  displayed  great 
bravery  in  the  action.  It  was  the  object  of  Diebitsch  to  cut  off 
the  retreat  of  the  Poles.  The  second  Polish  corps  under  General 
Lubienski  displayed  great  gallantry  on  the  25th  :  it  forced  its 
way,  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  in  a  retreat  from  Chirchnowiec, 
through  40,000  Russians. 

It  was  subsequently  ascertained  that  a  correspondence  had 
been  kept  up  by  traitors  and  Russian  agents  in  Warsaw,  through 
whose  mians  Diebitsch  was  informed  of  the  plans  of  the  Polish 


616 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


commander  in  chief,  and  led  to  the  disastrous  battle  of  Oatro. 
lenka.  On  the  same  day  that  tiie  battle  of  Ostrolenka  waa 
fouglit,  General  Chiupowski  gained  a  victory  over  the  Ruasiamt 
at  Mariampil,  commanded  by  General  Sacken. 

The  Russian  commander  in  cliief,  Diebitscli,  died  suddenly  ai 
Klechewo,  June  19th,  at  that  time  the  head-quarters  of  the  Rus- 
sian army.  He  had  been  superseded  a  short  time  previous  to 
his  death  by  Paskewitch,  who  had  greatly  distinguished  himself 
in  the  war  against  the  Persians.  Shortly  afterwards,  the  Arch 
Duke  Constantino  died  very  suddenly. 

The  Russian  arms  under  Diebitsch  in  the  campaign  against 
enfeebled  and  distracted  Turkey,  acquired  a  fictitious  celebrity ; 
but  Russia  has  been  entirely  shorn  of  this  fame  by  a  handful  of 
Polish  patriots.  Had  it  not  been  for  this  untoward  war  against 
Poland,  Diebitsch's  name  might  have  descended  to  posterity  as  a 
renowned  warrior.  Poor  Diebitsch  became  the  laughing  stock 
of  all  Europe ;  and  the  boasted  prowess  of  Russia  has  since  been 
viewed  in  a  very  ditferent  aspect.  Russia,  in  the  height  of  her 
pride  and  in  the  full  confidence  of  her  strength,  was  about  to 
march  her  legions  upon  France ;  when  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Polish  revolution  afforded  her  sufficient  employment  nearer 
home.  If  Poland,  at  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  had 
succeeded  in  establishing  an  energetic  government,  and  possessed 
a  leader  fully  competent  to  direct  her  valiant  soldiers,  the  over- 
Dearing  power  and  haughty  pride  of  Russia  might  have  been 
humbled  to  the  dust. 

General  Gielgud  was  sent  with  a  force  of  8,000  men  into 
Samogitia,  a  district  of  Lithuania,  and  was  for  a  time  success- 
ful ;  but  was  defeated  in  an  attack  on  Wilna,  and  forced  to 
retreat.  On  the  13th  of  July,  the  remains  of  the  corps  of  Giel- 
gud  and  Chlapowski,  reduced  to  2,500  men,  passed  over  into  the 
Prussian  territory,  when  General  Gielgud  was  shot  by  a  Polish 
officer. 

General  Dembinski  had  entered  Lithuania  at  Olitta,  about 
55  miles  west  of  Wilna,  with  corps  to  aid  the  insurgents.  The 
failure  of  Gielgud  before  Wilna  obliged  him  to  retreat — he  forced 
his  way  through  the  Russians,  and  arrived  safely  in  \Varsaw. 
This  retreat  was  a  masterly  display  of  generalship. 

June  29th,  a  conspiracy  was  this  day  timely  discovered  in 
Warsaw,  which  was  to  set  the  Russian  prisoners,  thirteen  thou- 
sand  in  number,  at  liberty.  Several  disaffected  officers  attempted 
to  bring  about  a  counter-revolutioa  to  favor  the  Russians.  It 
was  to  be  accomplished  as  follows :  the  prisoners  having  been 
allowed  to  go  at  large,  they  were  to  be  supplied  with  arms ;  and 
on  a  signal  being  given  the  powder  mill  was  to  be  blown  up, 


■•  ','■  I  >(■ 


-vt-i^ii  if- 


m- 


REVOLUTION  IN  POLAND. 


617 


ous  battle  of  Ostro- 
of  Ostrolenka  waa 
y  over  the  Ruasmns 
en. 

ill,  died  suddenly  a>. 
quarters  of  the  Run- 
)rt  time  previous  to 
listinguishcd  himself 
lerwards,  the  Arch 

e  campaign  against 
fictitious  celebrity ; 
ime  by  a  handful  of 
itoward  war  against 
ided  to  posterity  as  a 
the  laughing  stock 
lussia  has  since  been 
in  the  height  of  her 
;ngth,  was  about  to 
breaking  out  of  the 
employment  nearer 
'  the  revolution,  had 
iment,  and  possessed 
it  soldiers,  the  over- 
lia  might  have  been 

!  of  8,000  men  into 
i  for  a  time  success- 
iina,  and  forced  to 
of  the  corps  of  Giel- 
,  passed  over  into  the 
vas  shot  by  a  Polish 

mia  at  Olitta,  about 
he  insurgents.  The 
to  retreat — he  forced 
i  safely  in  Warsaw, 
eralship. 

dmely  discovered  in 
loners,  thirteen  thou- 
ted  officers  attempted 
or  the  Russians.  It 
isoners  having  been 
jlied  with  arms ;  and 
vas  to  be  blown  up, 


when  a  general  attack  was  to  be  made  on  the  citizens  and 
national  guard.  General  Janowski,  one  of  tlie  traitors,  to  save 
himself,  made  the  discovery  of  this  horrid  conspiracy  just  in 
time  to  save  Warsaw.  • 

On  the  14th  July,  General  Ghrzanski  was  attacked  by  Gene- 
ral  Rudigor's  coii)s.  on  this  side  of  Minsk,  live  miles  from  War- 
saw ;  when  the  Russians  were  defeated  and  forced  to  retreat, 
iiaving  3,000  men  killed,  900  prisoners  taken,  and  1000  muskets. 
On  tiic  12th,  tlic  main  army  of  Puskcwitcli  was  encamped  be- 
tween  Sisno  and  Kikal,  and  on  the  same  day  a  great  part  of  it 
passed  the  Vistula  between  Warsaw  and  tiie  Prussian  frontier, 
having  received  from  Thorn  a  great  number  of  barges  and 
materials  for  bridges.  The  Prussians,  to  facilitate  the  passing 
of  th^  Russians,  had  constructed  a  bridge  over  the  Vistula  at 
Drewenca. 

On  the  13th  of  August,  General  Skryznecki  resigned  the 
command  of  the  army  to  General  Dembinski,  compelled,  by  the 
force  of  circumstances,  to  do  so,  in  order  that  faction  might 
have  no  further  pretext  to  injure  his  country.  His  letter  of 
resignation  on  this  occasion,  is  full  of  generous  devotion  to  the 
cause  of  his  country.  The  patriotic  club,  irritated  with  the 
measures  of  government  and  dissatisfied  at  not  seeing  General 
Janowski  condemned,  determined  to  take  violent  measures.  To 
these  acts  they  were  instigated  by  the  base  Krukowiecki  On 
the  15th  August,  at  8  A.  M.  the  club  foimally  demanded  that 
Skryznecki  should  be  ordered  to  Warsaw.  They  then  pro- 
ceeded to  the  castle,  that  was  protected  by  200  of  the  national 
guard,  who  made  scarcely  any  resistance.  On  the  same  day, 
the  patriotic  club  demanded  the  death  of  Janowski ;  and  on 
the  16th,  the  state  prisoners  concerned  in  the  conspiracy  for 
a  counter-revolution,  were  murdered  in  their  rooms  by  the 
clubists.  Thirty-five  persoas  were  thus  put  to  death  without 
ceremony ;  among  them  were  Generals  Janowski,  Bulkowski, 
Hurtig,  Salacki,  and  Benthouski,  the  Russian  chamberlain,  Fus- 
liane,  &c. 

During  the  night.  General  Krukowiecki  was  appomted 
governor  of  the  city.  He  sent  for  a  reinforcement,  and  his 
first  measures  were  to  put  a  stop  to  these  horrors.  August 
17th,  the  government  was  dissolved,  and  Krukowiecki  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  new  government,  with  very  extended 
powers.  He  caused  the  arrest  of  the  president  and  ten  of  the 
club,  and  appointed  General  Prondzynski  to  the  chief  command 
m  the  army. 

From  the  time  that  Krukowiecki  came  into  power,  he  took 
measures  to  deliver  Warsaw  to  the  Russians,  and  made  every 


618 


■'I.^Th 


CHAPTEK  Xtll. 


attempt  to  induce  the  diet  to  demand  an  amnesty,  and  sent  the 
main  part  of  the  Polish  urmy  to  the  ri^ht  side  of  tiie  Vistula, 
when  the  tiiunder  of  the  Russian  artillery  was  breaking  over  the 
devoted  cil^.  The  proposals  of  Krukowiecki  were  repelled  by 
the  diet  with  indignation,  who  declared  to  the  suspicious  deputies, 
"  rather  will  we  die  here  in  our  places  than  stain  the  honor  ot 
our  country."  The  traitor  was  deposed  at  midnight  d  a  new 
governor  of  the  city  named,  which  gave  new  vigor  ir  the  famt- 
in?  defenders  of  Warsaw. 

On  the  6th  of  S(3ptemher,  at  daybreak,  the  Russian  army  of 
100,000  men  and  300  pieces  of  cannon,  advanced  to  storm  War- 
saw,  which  was  defended  with  great  heroism.  On  the  8tli,  aftei 
two  days  hard  fighting,  it  surrendered  to  Field  Marshal  Paske- 
witch.  The  Russians  had  20,000  slain  in  storming  Waraaw. 
The  Poles  lost  about  half  that  number  in  its  defence. 

The  government  and  the  most  distinguished  citizens  retired 
with  the  main  body  of  the  army,  under  the  new  commander  in 
chief,  Rybinski,  upon  Modlin  and  Plozk.  The  army,  however, 
kept  in  three  divisions  instead  of  uniting,  which  could  thus  offer 
but  a  feeble  resistance  to  the  Russian  forces.  As  a  last  resource, 
the  Poles  crossed  the  frontiers  into  the  Austrian  and  Prussian 
dominions.  Up«  ards  of  1500  of  the  most  distinguished  leaders 
of  the  Polish  revolution  were  arrested  and  imprisoned  at  War- 
saw  ;  and  to  c.  .nplcte  the  measures  of  oppression  and  vengeance, 
the  Russian  troops  fired  upon  the  prisoners  confined  in  one  of 
the  wings  of  the  prison,  under  the  pretence  of  a  revolt  among 
the  prisoners,  though  it  was  knowi.  that  three-fourths  of  these 
were  imprisoned  for  political  offences. 

Of  twenty-two  Polish  generals  that  became,  in  a  manner,  pn 
aoners  under  the  amnesty,  the  greater  part  were  sent  to  distant 
n-  ts  of  the  Russian  empire,  and  but  four  returned  to  Poland. 
T ne  soldiers  were  marched  by  thousands  to  Siberian  exile,  linked 
together  by  the  wrists  to  bars  of  iron.  The  nobles  were  treated 
in  the  same  ignominious  manner,  with  their  h<ads  shaved,  and 
consigned  to  the  dungeons  and  mines  of  Siberia ;  and  the  chil- 
dren  were  tjrn  from  their  mothers,  and  carried  off  to  glut  the 
vengeance  of  the  Autocrat  of  all  the  Riissias. 

Numbers  of  the  patriots  that  escaped  after  the  fall  of  Warsaw, 
when  the  army  passed  the  frontiers,  have  gone  into  voluntary 
exile,  and  are  now  mourning  over  the  calamities  of  their  country, 
the  loss  of  their  homes,  their  wives,  and  th.eir  children. 

The  Prussian  government  treated  the  Polish  refugees  that  fled 
into  her  territory  with  horrible  brutality,  in  order  to  force  these 
now  miserable  and  heart-broken  outcasts  into  the  iron  fanga  of 
Russian  despotism.  » 


m' 


»*4^!SSS»*ii«=3a%v^y-r  ^h-'-i-M^y:'"' ■ 


QBEEK  BEVOLUTION. 


619 


imnesty,  and  sent  the 
It  side  of  tlie  Vistula, 
was  breaking  over  tlie 
2cki  were  repelled  by 
he  suspicious  deputies, 
an  stain  the  honor  of 
it  midnight  d  a  new 
lew  vigor  ir  the  faint- 

the  Russian  army  of 
Ivanced  to  storm  War- 
sm.  On  the  8tli,  aftei 
Field  Marshal  Paske- 
in  storming  Wai-saw. 
its  deft'nce. 
;uished  citizens  retired 
je  new  commander  in 

The  army,  however, 
which  could  thus  offer 
es.  As  a  last  resource, 
Austrian  and  Prussian 
it  distinguished  leaders 
d  imprisoned  at  War- 
ression  and  vengeance, 
iiers  confined  in  one  of 
nee  of  a  revolt  among 

three-fourths  of  these 

same,  in  a  manner,  pri 
rt  were  sent  to  distant 
ir  returned  to  Poland, 
to  Siberian  exile,  linked 
7he  nobles  were  treated 
leir  hiuds  shaved,  and 
Siberia;  and  the  chil- 
;arried  off  to  glut  the 
ssius. 

ler  the  fall  of  Warsaw, 
w  gone  into  voluntary 
imities  of  their  country, 
their  children. 
Polish  refugees  that  fled 
,  in  order  to  force  these 
i  into  the  iron  fanga  of 


The  recital  of  the  barbarous  deeds  perpetrated  by  insatiate 
and  faithless  Russia  on  completing  the  subjuguuon  of  Poland, 
cannot  fail  to  fill  witli  sorrow  the  breast  of  every  friend  to  hu- 
manity  :  and  it  sickens  the  heart  to  think,  that  these  wretched 
and  troddcn-down  Polos  are  now  [terhaps  for  ever  beyond  the 
reach  of  all  human  aid.  The  French  government,  during  the 
Polish  struggle,  a  period  of  intense  interest  to  the  fervent  and 
sympathizing  Frenchnir-n,  showed  the  blackest  ingratitude  and 
perfidy  towards  the  cliivalrous  Poles.  It  was  in  vain  that  the 
good  Lafayette  filled  up  his  imploring  voice  in  their  behalf  to 
the  citizen  King.  It  would  seem,  indeed,  as  if  the  nationality 
of  Poland  was  now  for  ever  blasted  ;  and  the  survivors  of  this 
once  noble  race  of  warriors  and  patriots  were  destined,  by  seve- 
ral  of  the  arbitrary  governments  of  Europe,  to  be  hunted  down 
like  beasts  of  prey. 

Russia  is  at  present  erecting  a  citadel  at  Warsaw,  intended 
to  overawe  the  Poles  for  the  future.  The  cost  of  the  building, 
20,000,000  florins,  is  to  be  extorted  from  the  oppressed  citizens 
of  Warsaw. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


Greek  Revolution.    War  between  Russia  and  Turkey.    England, 
from  A.  D.  1816,  to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  A.  D.  1832. 

Among  the  extraordinary  events  of  the  19th  century,  there  is 
none  that  occasioned  more  thrilling  interest  at  the  time,  than  the 
protracted  and  fearful  struggle  made  by  the  modem  Greeks  to 
gain  their  independence. 

The  classic  soil  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  Thebes  and  Corinth, 
for  the  last  four  centuries  had  been  profaned  by  Turkish  despot- 
ism. It  was  the  same  soil  that,  2500  years  ago,  was  the  seat 
of  learning  and  the  abode  of  free  institutions.  It  was  the  land 
of  Homer  and  Demosthenes,  Solon  and  Pericles,  that,  after  the 
slumber  of  ages,  was  awakened  to  new  life. 

The  struggle,  of  which  we  are  about  to  give  a  faint  and  rapid 
sketch,  is  the  one  made  by  the  modern  Greeks  to  achieve  their 
country's  independence,  and  elevate  Greece  to  an  equal  rank 
with  civilized  nations.  And  though  this  people  had  been  so  long 
under  the  most  debasing  slavery,  they  nevertheless  displayed, 
during  this  momentous  struggle,  numerous  deeds  of  valor  worthy 
their  renowned  ancestors. 

Before  entering  on  this  eventful  revolution,  which  began  id 
the  Morea,  March  23,  1821,  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  fully 
to  understand  its  origin,  to  state,  that  some  years  before  the 


■  I;' 


I 


Ik 


3>llfl 


620 


I 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


commencement  of  hostilities  the  patriots  of  Greece  founded  in 
1814,  an  association  called  the  Fletaria.  There  was  u  society 
established  at  Vienna  the  same  year,  of  which  Count  Capo 
d'Istrias  was  one  of  the  first  members ;  but  it  did  not  publicly 
avow  any  political  desifins.  The  head-quarters  of  this  society 
were  at  St.  Petcrsburif,  whither  many  of  the  most  distinfjuished 
(Jrecks  repaired  under  the  pretext  of  having  commercial  busi- 
ness  to  transact. 

Tiie  Gre(!ks  it  appears  had,  at  different  times,  been  called 
upon  by  Russia  to  shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  namely,  in  the 
years  1769,  1786,  and  1800 ;  and  a  society,  avowedly  for  the 
lilxiration  of  Greece,  was  formed  in  Paris  in  1809.  It  was  found 
that  the  beginning  mo'lT  in  1814,  was  too  early  to  insure  suc- 
cess. A  people  who  iiad  long  been  kept  in  an  abject  state  of 
slavery,  needed  first  a  due  preparation  and  a  general  diffusion 
of  knowledge ;  and  the  plans  for  such  a  weighty  undertaking 
required  to  be  well  matured. 

The  intercourse  kept  up  with  France,  was  of  great  conse- 
quence  in  forwarding  the  cause  of  liberty  in  Greece  ;  and  the 
revival  of  literature  and  the  spread  of  science,  brought  with  it 
an  ardent  desire  for  their  country's  freedom.  This  was  further 
promoted  by  giving  them  the  works  of  Goldsmith,  Franklin's 
Poor  Richard,  Fenelon,  and  Montesquieu,  which  were  translated 
into  modern  (Jreek  at  Athens,  Saloniki,  Smyrna,  &c.  ;  and 
schools  were  established,  that  were  subsequently  swept  away 
by  the  war. 

The  Hetaria,  or  society  of  friends,  kept  up  an  active  corres- 
pondence  with  the  Greeks  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  who 
hastened  to  join  it ;  while  some  men  of  the  highest  standing 
visited  St.  Petersburg  to  further  their  designs,  and  even  looked 
to  Russia  for  aid.  When  this  hope  was  found  to  be  fallacious, 
the  Greeks  resolved  to  begin  themselves.  The  first  movement 
was  made  by  Czemi  George,  in  1817,  an  exiled  chief  of  Servia, 
who  was  suddenly  to  appear  in  Servia,  his  native  province, 
while  Galati,  and  other  Grecian  chiefs,  were  to  raise  the  stan 
dard  in  the  south  of  Greece,  and  the  Morea.  Czemi  George, 
the  Servian,  was  treacherously  betrayed  and  murdered  on  his 
way  by  Milosh,  a  relative  and  former  friend,  and  his  head 
sent  to  Constantinople.  Count  Galati  retired  to  Bucharest,  and 
there  shortly  afterwards  died.  The  next  attempt  was  arranged 
for  1826. 

In  the  mean  time  some  chiefs,  burning  with  desire  for  the 
glorious  cause  of  freedom,  began  the  revolution.  These  were 
M.  Suzzo,  hospodar  of  Moldavia,  one  of  the  Hetarists  ;  Alexan- 
der Ypsilanti,  a  major  general  in  the  {lussian  army,  and  Pnnce 


if  Greece  foundpi!,  in 
'J'here  was  u  society 
f  which  Count  Cupo 
»ut  it  (lid  not  publicly 
larters  of  tiiis  society 
the  most  distinfiuisiied 
ing  commcrciul  busi- 

nt  times,  been  called 
yoke,  namely,  in  the 
ety,  avowedly  for  the 
n  1809.     It  was  found 

0  early  to  insure  sue- 
in  an  abject  state  of 
id  a  general  diffusion 

weighty  undertaking 

was  of  great  conse- 
in  Greece  ;  and  the 
;ience,  brought  with  it 
)m.  This  was  further 
Goldsmith,  Franklin's 
,  which  were  translated 
i,  Smyrna,  &c. ;  and 
sequently  swept  away 

it  up  an  active  corres- 
parts  of  Europe,  who 
if  the  highest  standing 
iigns,  and  even  looked 
found  to  be  fallacious. 
The  first  movement 

1  exiled  chief  of  Servia, 
a,  his  native  province, 
were  to  raise  the  stan 
orea.  Czemi  George, 
1  and  murdered  on  liia 

friend,  and  his  head 
stired  to  Bucharest,  and 
t  attempt  was  arranged 

ig  with  desire  for  the 
evolution.  These  were 
the  Hetarists ;  Alcxan- 
issian  army,  and  Pnnce 


GREEK  REVOLUTION. 


621 


Catacuzene.  Ypsiianti  was  to  begin  hostilities  beyond  the 
Danube,  while  nil  (Jrceco  was  to  be  summoned  with  a  procla- 
mation  ;  and  to  rondor  their  measures  more  certain,  im  explosion 
was  to  take  place  at  Constantinople. 

Ypsiianti  begun  before  Moldavia  wrut  prepared  to  co-operate. 
His  proclamation  wuh  energetic,  and  called  on  all  Greece  to 
shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke.  It  roused  the  Moldavians,  and 
Y[isilnnti  took  possession  of  Hucliarest,  the  cnjiital  of  Wulucliin. 
containing  80,000  inhabitants.  But  Russia  diacliiimcd  all  parti- 
cipation  in  a  manifesto  which  she  publislu  d.  Suz/.o  gave  up 
the  command  in  Moldavia,  and  the  plot  at  Constantinople  was 
frustrated.  A  chieftain  who  joined  Ypsiianti,  wiis  suspicted  of 
treachery.  He  was  arrestc'd  and  beheaded.  This  was  Vladi- 
miresco ;  and  the  price  of  his  correspondence  with  the  Porte 
was,  that  he  was  to  be  made  hospodar. 

Ypsiianti  was  now  forced  to  retire  from  Bucharest  before 
10,000  men,  who  entered  the  city  without  firing  a  shot.  The 
Hetarists  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  were  impaled 
alive,  and  numbers  of  children  hung  up  by  their  feet  along  the 
roads.  The  monasteries  were  entered,  and  the  inmates  butch- 
ered.  Prince  Ypsiianti  retreated  to  Tergovist,  followed  by  the 
Turks.  A  battle  was  fought  at  the  monastery  of  Dragachan, 
on  the  morning  of  June  17th.  The  Turkish  infantry  charged 
with  loud  shouts,  but  were  repulsed  with  the  bayonet.  A  second 
charge  was  repelled  with  equal  firmness.  At  this  juncture,  the 
cowardice  and  treason  of  Caravia,  an  ollicer  of  cavalry, 
changed  the  fate  of  the  patriot  army.  He  turned  round  and 
fled,  and  immediately  the  whole  army  was  in  confusion.  Gior- 
gaki,  with  his  corps,  displayed  great  firmness  during  the  route. 
The  sacred  band  of  about  400  or  500  young  Greeks  stood  firm, 
while  the  rest  fled  and  crossed  the  Oltau ;  these  sustained  the 
shock  of  1500  Turkish  cavalry.  They  sold  their  lives  nobly, 
determined  to  fall  rather  than  yield.  The  disparity  in  numbers 
was  too  great  for  success,  when  about  400  fell.  Such  an  exam- 
pie  of  patriotism  had  a  most  salutary  ufft-ct  on  the  Greeks.  The 
arn;y  of  Prince  Ypsiianti  being  annihilated,  he  repaired  to 
T'  ipste,  intending  to  rejoin  his  countrymen  in  the  Morea.  The 
Austrian  government  seized  him,  and  imprisoned  him  at  the 
castle  of  Montgatz,  in  Hungary. 

When  the  intelligence  of  the  insurrection  in  Moldavia  reached 
Constantinople,  the  Sultan  issued  immediate  orders  to  disarm  all 
the  Greeks  in  the  empire,  and  a  war  of  extermination  at  the 
capital  commenced.  The  Greek  patriarch,  Gregorius,  was  mur- 
dered  on  the  22d  April,  the  day  of  the  greatest  festival  of  the 
Greek  church,  and  his  body  dragged  by  Jews  through  the  streeta 


•«-l«., 


1t|,T 


hK 


A 


iM.ti 


■»'  'I 


622 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


of  Constantinople.  Scvornl  other  occlesiustics  slmrcd  the  aatne 
fatn,  anil  a  nuiiibor  of  Greek  chnrclies  were  destroyed,  whicli 
exusperatinl  tlie  Lireeks  to  a  degree  of  desperation,  who  saw 
that  notliinj;;  short  of  externiimition  awaited  them.  The  priests 
in  the  islands  of  tlx;  Morea,  from  the  atrocious  acts  nt  Constan- 
tinople, saw  tliemselv(,'s  (hnimed  to  certain  destruction.  They 
therefore  exerted  themselves  strenuously,  to  inspire  the  people 
to  resistance  and  venfjeance. 

Hy  the  1st  of  April,  the  excitement  became  general.  The 
inhabitants  of  Patras  wore  disaffected  by  the  exorbitant  levies 
of  the  Turks.  Mutual  distrust  began  between  Greeks  and 
Turks— each  prepared  for  the  worst.  Hostilities  were  first 
o|)ened  by  the  inhabitants  of  Suda,  a  large  village  near  Gala- 
vrita,  in  the  northern  part  of  Arcadia.  At  I'litras,  the  Greeks 
refused  to  give  up  tlujir  arms,  when  the  Turks  fired  with  cannon 
U|)on  the  place  from  the  fortress,  and  soon  took  possession  of  it. 
Germanos,  archbishop  of  Patras,  assembled  an  army  of  4,000 
peasants,  and  took  the  city  from  the  Turks.  Tiie  scene  that 
followed  ended  in  the  destruction  of  three  hundred  houses  and 
pillage. 

In  the  islands  of  Hydra,  Spczzia,  and  Ipsara,  the  greatest 
activity  was  displayed  in  fitting  out  ships  of  war,  the  united  force 
of  which  was  eighty  or  ninety  vessels  of  10  or  12  guns  each; 
and  fifty  or  sixty  smaller  vessels  were  supplied  by  other  islands. 
The  flag  hoisted  liy  the  Greeks,  consisted  of  eight  blue  and 
white  horizontal  stripes.  The  superior  activity  of  the  Greek 
navy  was  soon  shown. 

The  first  Turkish  fleet  left  the  Dardanelles  on  the  19th  of 
-May,  and  was  followed  by  the  Greek  fire-ships.  On  the  8th  of 
June,  they  burned  a  ship  of  the  line,  ashore  near  Tenedos — 
compelling  the  Turkish  fleet  to  put  back  to  the  Dardanelles. 

The  Ipsariots  landed  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  took 
possession  of  Cydinia,  which  was  soon  after  retaken  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  inhabitants  murdered  and  driven  away  to  the 
number  of  35,000.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  during  this  strug- 
gle, that  the  islanders  displayed  higher  traits  of  patriotism  and 
valor  than  the  Moreots ;  m  which  the  women  took  part  in  this 
struggle  for  liberty.  The  Turks  next  disarmed  Candia,  and 
executed  the  archbishop  and  several  clergymen.  The  peo/iants 
in  the  mountains  and  suburbs  of  Candia  would  not  give  up  their 
arms  :  they  united  and  succeeded  in  driving  the  Turks  back  into 
the  towns,  though  they  were  thousands  strong. 

In  the  month  of  November,  the  island  of  Cyprus  was  disarmed, 
and  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  Lamica  murdered.  The  pea- 
santry for  uniting  in  their  defence,  had,  in  the  month  of  Auguat, 


iistics  simrcd  the  same 
vore  ilt'stroyod,  which 
(ksperution,  who  saw 
(I  tlioiii.  Tlic  prioats 
)cioua  nets  at  Conatan- 
II  dostruction.  Tliey 
,  to  inspire  the  people 

became  general.  The 
r  the  exorbitant  levies 
between  Greeks  and 
Hostilities  were  first 
rgc  village  near  Gala- 
At  Putras,  the  Greeks 
'urka  fired  with  cannon 
n  took  possession  of  it. 
led  an  army  of  4,000 
urks.  The  scene  that 
e  hundred   liouses  and 

d  Ipsara,  the  greatest 
of  war,  the  united  force 

f  10  or  12  guns  each ; 

ijiplied  by  other  islands. 

istcd  of  eight  blue  and 

r  activity  of  the  Greek 

inellcs  on  the  10th  of 
e-sliips.  On  the  8th  of 
ashore  near  Tenedos — 

to  the  Dardanelles. 
'  Asia  Minor,  and  took 
1  afler  retaken  by  the 
nd  driven  away  to  the 

mind  during  this  strug- 
traits  of  pacriotism  and 
^omen  took  part  in  this 

disarmed  Candia,  and 
rgymen.     The  peiutants 

would  not  give  up  their 
\ring  the  Turks  back  into 
strong. 

)f  Cyprus  was  disarmed, 
a  murdered.  The  pea- 
in  the  month  of  Augiut, 


OKKEK  REVOLUTIOit. 


623 


1922,  their  villages,  sixty-two  in  number,  bunied.  In  the  mean 
time  the  great  Turkish  fleet  supplied  tlieir  garrisons  iu  the  Mo- 
rea  with  arms,  ammunition,  &c. 

The  cause  of  Greece  received  a  new  impulse  by  the  arrival 
of  Deni(>trius  Ypsilaiiti.  and  Prince  Alexander  Cantanizenp. 
After  some  diliiculty,  Ypsilanli  was  appointeil  communder  in 
chief,  July  24,  1821,  of  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Archipdiigo,  and 
all  the  liberated  provinces.  There  was  at  this  tinu;  dissensions 
amongst  the  Greek  leaders.  Tripolizza,  the  chief  fortress  of  the 
Turks,  was  besieged  by  Demetrius  Ypsilanti,  and  8,()()()  'I'urks 
perished.  It  was  in  this  fortress  the  Greeks  obtained  tiieir  first 
hefivy  cannon  ;  and  it  became  the  seat  of  govciniiient  till  it  was> 
transferr'id  to  Argos.  In  Thessaly,  Ulysses  with  several  other 
leaders  orcapitani,  defeated  near  Tliermopyhi',  a  Turkish  army 
which  had  advanced  from  Macedonia.  Prince  Mavroeordato 
received  the  chief  command  of  the  Albanian  forces  ;  when  the 
government  began  to  acquire  some  form,  after  much  difiiculty 
and  dissention.  Prince  Mavroeordato  succeeded,  Jan.  13,  (Jan. 
1,)  1822,  in  establishing  an  approximation  to  a  federative  con- 
stitution at  Epidaurus,  until  the  second  national  assijmbly  in 
Astro,  March  14,  1823.  At  this  convention  more  tiian  (JO  depu- 
tics  attended. 

The  western  part  of  Greece,  Arcania,  jEtolia,  and  Epirus, 
sent  30  deputies  to  Missilonghi,  who,  under  the  presidency  of 
Alexander  Mavroeordato,  formed  a  govenmiert  consisting  of  ten 
members. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  main  land  sent  33  deputies  to  Salona, 
under  the  presidency  of  Theodore  Negris,  forming  the  Areopa- 
gus  of  14  members,  November  16  ;  and  the  Morca,  or  Pelopon- 
nesus,  with  the  islands  of  Hydra,  Ipsara,  Spezzia,  &c.  sent  to 
Argos  60  deputies,  who  assembled,  December  1st,  under  the 
presidency  of  Prince  Demetrius,  and  established  the  Peloponne- 
sian  Gerousia  of  20  members. 

These  three  governments,  Missilonghi,  Salona,  and  Argos, 
were  to  prepare  a  permanent  constitution.  With  this  view,  67 
deputies  from  all  the  (ireek  provinces,  formed  the  first  national 
assembly  in  Epidaurus,  Jan.  10,  1822,  under  the  presidency  of 
Mavroeordato;  and  on  the  13th,  proclaimed  the  constitution, 
(which  was  provisionary)  and  on  the  27th,  the  congress  of  Epi- 
daurus  issued  a  maniSato,  in  which  they  pronounced  the  union 
of  the  Greeks,  under  an  indejjcndent  federative  government 
The  central  government  was  fixed  at  Corinth,  and  some  time 
after  at  Argos. 

We  are  obliged  to  pass  over  many  of  the  movements,  till 
the  arrival  of  the  great  Turkish  fleet,  April  11,  when  15,000 


m 


m: 


024 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


barbnriiin  A.siiitic  troops  wore  Innditd  nt  Scio :  nnd  soon  thin 
(ioli;^'litrii'.  Mtid  flourishing  iHlaiul  was  chan^rcd  into  ii  ncciio  of 
liio  (iiid  blood.  Down  to  Miiy  y.^tli,  tlio 'I'lukrt,  lu'cording  to 
I  heir  own  lists,  sold  into  sluvry,  41,000  Hciots,  mostly  women 
and  r^jiildrcn. 

'i'lio  (^a|iudan  I'ucha  wns  next  prcparid  to  desolate  I|)Hnrn. 
Tine;,  iiiid  Smnos  ;  but  flic  Ipsariots,  with  70  small  vcH.sels  anil 
fini-HliipH,  bovert'd  round  the  Turkish  fleet,  and  in  tli<!  iii;,'ht. 
liMie,  rowed  anioni,'  their  shipH,  while  ytil  tliey  lay  in  llie  rood 
of  Scio,  and  attached  fire-ships  to  the  (.'ajHidan  Pariia's  vissel, 
whieh  blew  up  with  2,280  men  ;  and  tlio  I'ueba  himself,  nior. 
tally  wounded,  was  carried  ashore,  where  ho  died.  Another 
ship  of  the  lino  narrowly  escaped.  These  dnrinfj  acts  of  the 
Ipsariots  stupified  the  Turks;  from  which,  when  they  hud  reco- 
verc^d,  tlay  destroyed  the  lust  traces  of  cultivation. 

The  savage  fury  of  the  Turks  about  tliis  time  moy  be  judged 
by  the  fact,  that  they  bought  the  wretched  Sciots  at  Constanti. 
nople,  merely  for  the  pl(;asure  of  putting  them  to  death.  The 
Pacha  of  Sidoniki,  (Ablwhibut,)  boasted  that  he  bad  destroytici 
1500  women  and  chihlren  in  one  day.  ITjO  villages  and  ."1,000 
Christians  experienced  the  fate  of  Scio.  While  all  these  horror* 
were  taking  |dace,  Mavroeonhito,  president  of  the  executive 
council,  was  organizing  the  government,  which  met  with  resist- 
ance from  the  avariciousncfw  of  Coloctroni  and  others. 

It  had  now  become  important  to  cover  Missilonghi,  tiie  strong 
hold  of  western  llelias,  iVfun  the  weakened  state  of  the  army. 
Mavrocordato,  with  300  men,  and  Marco  Botzaria,  with  22  Suli- 
ots,  on  the  ."ith  of  Novembtsr,  threw  themselves  into  Missilonghi ; 
while  11,000  Turks  advanccul  against  it.  Another  force  of 
25,000  under  Khursbid,  principally  cavalry,  passed  Thermopyla;, 
and  as  they  advanced  through  Livadia,  laid  every  thing  waste, 
and  occupied  Corinth.  In  attempting  the  passes  of  Larissa, 
Khurshid  was  repelled  three  times  by  Ulysses.  Khursbid  died 
Nov.  26.  Most  of  this  cavalry  perished  for  its  rashness  in  the 
defiles  of  the  Morca  ;  and  the  remainder  formed  a  junction  with 
5000  men,  of  Jussaf  Pacha's  army,  and  sent  reinforcements  to 
Napoli  di  Romania.  The  Greek  fleet  kept  tbe  great  Turkish 
fleet  from  afTording  relief  to  this  place.  Ulysses,  Coloctroni, 
and  Ypsilanti,  now  prosecuted  their  operations  with  great  zeal, 
and  drove  the  Turkish  forces  out  of  the  Morea.  Niketas  fell 
upon  them  in  the  defiles  of  Tretea,  and  only  2,000  escaped  to 
ihe  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  Ypsilanti  fell  upon  and  destroyed 
them.  More  than  20,000  Turkish  soldiers  perished  in  less  than 
four  weeks.     In  Greece,  there  were  yet  some  thouaand  Turks, 


Scio :  m\(\  soon  thin 
np'tl  into  a  scciib  of 

Tiiikrt,  acconling  to 
Wciots,  iiioMtly  womoD 

I  to  desolate  Ipsnro. 

70  small  vcssulii  ami 

ct,  and   in  tho  nlf{lif. 

tlicy  lay  in  tlio  road 

iiulaii  I'aflia's  vr.ssisl, 

■  Paolia  hiiiiscir,  iiior. 

I)  ho  died.     Anothor 

o  dnrin;;  acts  of  the 

\vli(!n  they  hud  rcco- 

ultivation. 

is  timo  mny  bo  jndgndj 
li  Sciots  at  Constanli- 
thciTi  to  death.     The 
ti)at  ho  Imd  destroycid 
r)0  villages  and  5,000 
While  all  tliesc  horror* 
idcnt  of  the  executive 
wliicii  met  with  resist- 
ni  and  others. 
Mi8silon<,dii,  tiie  strong 
led  state  of  the  army, 
i  Botzaria,  with  22  ISuli- 
selves  into  Missiionghi ; 
it.     Another  force  of 
ry,  passed  Thermopylm, 
laid  every  thinp  waste, 
the  passes  of  Larissu, 
lysscs.     Kliurshid  died 
1  for  its  rashness  in  tho 
r  formed  a  junction  with 
sent  reinforcements  to 
kept  tho  great  Turkish 
).     Ulysses,  Coloctroni, 
•ations  with  great  zeal, 
e  Morea.     Niketns  fell 
1  only  2,000  escaped  to 
fell  upon  and  destroyed 
jrs  perished  in  less  than 
t  some  thousand  Turks, 


Stori^ing  of  Warsaw.    P.  020. 


Fall  of  Missolonghi.    P.  634. 


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OBEEK  REVOLUTION. 


629 


that  held  the  Isthmus  and  the  Acrocorintlius,  that  were  SOOQ 
after  di«)er8ed  and  destroyed. 

The  Turkish  fleet  left  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  where  it  had  failed 
against  Missiionghi.  It  was  unable  to  break  the  line  of  57  Greek 
ships  blockading  Romania,  and  at  last  came  to  anchor  off  Tene. 
dos.  Nov.  10,  a  small  number  of  Ipsariots  carried  fire-shipa 
among  the  fleet,  and  fired  the  ships  of  the  admiral  and  the  capi. 
tan  Bey.  The  latter  was  blown  up  witli  1800  men.  Three 
frigates  were  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Asia,  and  a  vessel  of  36 
guns  captured.  Of  35  vessels,  18  only  returned  much  injured 
to  the  Dardanelles.  The  17  Ipsariots  who  had  done  these 
exploits,  arrived  in  safety  at  Ipsara,  and  Kanaris  and  Mniauly 
were  rewarded,  by  the  Euphori,  with  naval  crowns.  Again  the 
Greeks  were  masters  of  the  sea  :  it  enabled  them  to  blockade 
the  Turkish  forts,  which  was  acknowledged  by  Great  Britain. 
The  change  of  ministry  in  England  was  most  fortunate  for 
Greece.  With  Canning  as  premier,  and  Maitland  lord  commis. 
sioner  of  the  Ionian  Isles,  they  had  less  hostility  directed  against 
them.  Omar  Vrione  was  repulsed  by  Mavrocordato  and  Bot- 
zaris,  before  Missiionghi,  where  he  lost  his  cannon.  Napoli  di 
Romania  was  taken  from  the  Turks  Dec.  12,  (new  style.) 

A  proclamation  to  the  European  powers  was  issued  April  15, 
1822,  wliich  the  Holy  Alliance  considered  incompatible  with 
their  views  on  legitimacy,  though  disposed  to  be  lenient  towards 
the  suflering  state  of  Greece.  The  dissensions  among  the  Greek 
leaders,  had  an  unfavorable  influence  on  their  cause  with  the 
European  cabinets.  Coloctroni  meditated  a  division  of  the  Morea 
into  hereditary  principalities. 

The  central  government  called  a  second  national  assembly  at 
Astro,  Jan.  1823,  which  averted  a  civil  war ;  while  the  judicious 
measures  of  Mavrocordato  tended  to  bring  about  concord.  When 
the  national  assembly  opened,  March  14,  at  Astro,  it  consisted 
of  100  members.  Mavromichalis  was  elected  president ;  Theo. 
dore  Negris,  secretary ;  and  the  perfidious  and  avaricious  Coloc- 
troni submitted  to  the  assembly. 

Condurioti  was  chosen  president  of  the  legislative,  and  Petro 
Mavromichalis,  Bey  of  Maina,  of  the  executive  council.  Both 
legislative  bodies  resolved  to  raise  about  50,000,000  piasters,  to 
levy  and  equip  50,000  men,  and  100  large  men  of  war.  The 
French  military  code  was  adopted.  This  assembly  proclaimed 
the  new  constitution  of  Astro,  April  23d,  1823.  Several  changra 
took  place  in  the  ministry.  Mavrocordato  was  made  president, 
and  Coloctroni,  vice  president. 

This  year  the  Sultan  had  determined  upon  exterminating  the 
Buffering  Greeks.     Mavrocordato  was  placed  at  the  heiui  ct 

40 


ill 


rf^j'i 


■f  ^ 


626 


CHAPTER  XrV. 


the  army,  and  Orlandi,  a  Hydriot,  organized  the  navy,  now 
consS  of  403  sail,  with  cannon.  The  largest  su,,  earned  2b 
guns^and  Miaulis  wa^  admiral ;  M.  Tumbasis  of  Hydra  beorge 
Etracci,  of  Spezzia,  and  Nicholas  Apostoles  of  Ipsa  a, 
v^^radmirals.  The  financial  department  met  with  much  d.f- 
ficulty  In  March,  the  f.cet  had  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Egypdan  flotilla,  des'tined  for  the  invasion  of  Cand.a,  though  it 
waJ unsuccessful  in  its  attempt  to  prevent  the  landing  of  lurk- 

'"''m  Bot;aris,the  Suliot,  now  commanded  the  forces  in  western, 
and  Uhios  in  eastern  Greece.  The  battles  ^^ft  during  Uus 
year  were  not  less  fierce  and  sanguinary  than  those  m  1822. 
SlloTzaris  surprised  the  Turkish  camp  at  ^  arpmiss.  u  -^ 
night,  with  500  Suliots,  and  penetrated  to  the  tent  ot  the  lacia 
Kelvino;  but  in  the  moment  of  victory  received  a  -^^^^^ 
wound.     The  victory,  however,  was,  completed  by  his  biotlier 

Constttine.  The  noble  Botzaris  -  '- ,f  l^?;^  S;;^"  oH^ 
"  How  sweet  it  is  to  die  for  one's  country."  1  he  detuat  ol  tne 
Turks  wl  comjlte,  all  their  baggage  and  artillery  being  taken. 

and  the  Pacha  made  prisoner.  .  , 

T  le  members  of  government  wer.  at  Argos,  in  November 
1823.     About  this  time  the  campaign  was  fin.slied,  though  a 
partizan  warfare  continued  in  Thessaly  and  Ep.rus      SocietK« 
in  England  aided  the  Greek  cause  by  means  of  loans,  and  by 

"tits  poet,  Lord  Byron,  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
struggle  made  by  the  Greeks  to  throw  off  the  Mohammedan 
v^kf    fiis  zeal  led  him  to  offer  his  personal  and  pecuniary  aid 
L  their  cause.     He  embarked  August,  1823,  with  five  or  six 
Fnlhsh  iViends  in  an  English  vessel  he  had  purposely  hired. 
Sii  ed  h  Gree^  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  campaign 
where  he  was  received  with  marked  distinction.     On  his  arrival 
rCcphalonia,  where  he  first  established  himself,  he  addressed 
a  letter  toThe  Greek  government,  and  was  induced  by  the  mfor- 
mat  on  he  received,  to^advance  12,000Z.  for  the  relief  of  Missi- 
r^,  where  he  afterw^ds >Ui  C^J^^^H^-k  an^^d 
^-^"STZtl^^^s^:^-     He  alsotookaOO 

an  emnized  bv  a  general  mourning  of  twenty-one  days. 

"  TrTurks'b^gL  the  campaign  of  1824  with  ^-h  more  vigor 

than  it  had  previously  been  carried  on.     Peace  being  concluded 


%mattmm 


GREEK  RBVOLVTiON. 


627 


the  navy,  now 
ship  carried  26 
lydra,  George 
C3,  of  Ipsara, 
witli  much  dif> 
ictory  over  the 
mdia,  though  it 
uding  of  Turk- 

rces  in  western, 
jglit  during  tliis 
those  in  1822. 
rpinissi,  ut  mid. 
nt  of  the  Pacha 
ceived  a  mortal 
by  liis  brother 
•cd,  exclaimed — 
'ho  defeat  of  the 
iery  being  taken, 

s,  in  November, 
nishcd,  though  a 
pirus.  Societies 
of  loans,  and  by 

;p  interest  in  the 
lie  Mohammedan 
ind  pecuniary  aid 
with  five  or  six 
purposely  hired, 
i  tl)ird  campaign, 
•  On  his  arrival 
self,  he  addressed 
uced  by  the  infer- 
le  relief  of  Missi- 
po,  took  an  active 
mself  established 
lie  also  took  500 
actory  and  unwil- 
unto.  This  preyed 
amo  dang(!rously 
His  death  was 
one  days. 
1  much  more  vigor 
c  being  concluded 


with  Persia,  July  28th,  1823,  ond  a  rebellious  Pacha  of  St.  Jean 
d'Acre,  having  yielded  voluntary  submission  to  the  Porte,  it  wa» 
enabled  to  send  forces  from  Asia,  and  those  that  had  been  8ta> 
tioned  in  Moldavia  and  Walachia  now  evacuated. 

The  preceding  carni)aign  nad  taught  the  Turks,  that  the  de. 
struction  of  the  Greek  navy  was  their  only  means  of  succeeding 
in  subduing  Greece.  The  Capudan  Pacha,  Khosru,  sailed  from 
Mitylenc,  July  3d,  with  two  ships  of  the  line,  eight  frigates,  four 
corvettes,  forty  brigs,  and  smaller  vessels  to  the  amount  of  200. 
Among  the  latter  were  a  number  of  neutral  transport  ships, 
belonging  to  the  Russians,  Austrians,  and  others,  hired  by  the 
Capudan  Pucha,  that  sailed  from  the  Dardanelles,  April  28th. 
Thf!  Russians  were  now  on  the  most  friendly  terms  with  the 
Grand  Seignior,  and  aided  the  Turks  with  transport  ships. 
There  weie  besides,  Austrian,  Italian,  and  Spanish  vessels,  en- 
gaged against  tlie  liberties  of  Greece. 

To  oppose  the  armament  of  the  Capudan  Pacha,  the  Ipsa- 
riots  had  2,r)()()  men,  the  entire  male  population,  and  a  corps  of 
Albanians  and  fugitive  Sciots,  about  1,500  in  number,  divided 
into  four  companicjs.  Their  forces  were  provided  with  batte- 
ries, ammunition,  &c.  The  Turks  landed  silently  in  the  night, 
in  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the  islanders,  and  advanced  in  three 
columns.  One  advanced  upon  the  town,  and  two  proceeded  to 
the  batteries,  taking  them  in  the  rear,  when  the  most  horrible 
butchery  was  perjietrated.  Five  hundred  Albanians  shut 
themselves  up  in  fort  St.  Nicholas,  which  defended  the  town. 
Wretched  and  afflicted  mothers  first  flung  their  children  from 
high  precipices,  and  then  cast  themselves  into  the  sea.  The 
Albanians  in  the  fort  barricaded  the  gates,  and  killed  half  of  the 
first  assailants. 

The  Turks  concentrated  their  forces  to  reduce  the  fort,  and 
during  the  night  made  a  dreadful  assault  upon  the  Christians, 
who  in  defence  performed  prodigies  of  valor  ;  but  unable  longer 
to  withstand  the  overwhelming  force  of  the  barbarians,  they 
threw  open  the  gates,  suffered  2,000  men  to  rush  into  the  fort, 
till  it  was  entirely  filled,  and  on  a  concerted  signal,  in  an 
instant  all  were  blown  up,  and  buried  amidst  its  ruins.  This 
took  place  on  the  fourth  of  July.  By  the  disasters  of  Ipsara, 
4,000  Christians  perished,  besides  the  total  destruction  of  all 
property  ;  with  100  vessels  of  different  sizes,  belonging  to  the 
islanders. 

Admiral  Miaulis,  with  the  Greek  fleet,  arrived  before  Ipsara, 
on  the  8th  of  July,  when  the  Turks  immediately  put  to  sea,  and 
numbers  were  captured.  The  Greeks,  on  landing  at  Ipsara, 
found  nothing  but  ruins  and  heaps  of  putrid  corpses ;  but  the 


i^ii 


#-;'!'^ 


ti 


m 


f**^ 


^ 


628 


CHAPTER  XtV. 


dreadful  stench  obliged  them  to  retire  from  this  scene  of  horror 
SatroiiesV  '^^  ^P"*^"^  by  the  barbar.ans.  at  onoe 

roused  UP  all  the  energies  of  Greece  with  dire  revenge. 

The  next  attempt  of  the  Capudun  Pacha,  was  upon  Samoa. 
Kemaris  tlie  brave^Ipsariot.  with  a  Hre-slup  destroyed  a  40  gun 
frSc  under  s'ui  •  and  several  transports  shared  a  similar  fate. 
SeVi  TunSan  brig  of  war,  and  I  large  Tripolitan  curvet^. 
fLthoVlst  another  fleet  of  transports  destined  for  bamos, 
S^redspersrand^^^^^  The  fo"owi"g  Jay^the 

Turkish  fleet  attempted  to  make  the  passage  from  Cape  Tro- 
Suuri  to  the  oppoJte  shore;  but  f^c  appearance  of  two  or 
Sree  fire-ships  caused  such  terror  m  the  Ottoman  fleet,  as  to  . 
dr^e  itin  d^grace  on  the  Asiatic  coast.  Some  time  after, 
a  bnction  took  place  between  the  Egyptian  vessels  and 
Aoie  of  L  Capudan  Pacha,  intending  to  return  to  Samos 
tS  skill  and  boldness  of  the  Greeks  destroyed  a  number  of 
theL  wi  h  their  fire-ships,  and  thus  astounded  the  Turks  with 
S  deeds  of  valor,  who  were  glad  to  effect  a  retreat  to  the 

^Yn  November,  the  Egyptians  sustained  ^^-^^-age  ^rom 
their  enemy  on  the  northern  coast  of  Candia.      Ihe  to  ces  ol 

he  G?eeks  successfully  repelled  their  barbarian  invaders  by 
iand  i  that  the  campaign  of  1824  was  glorious  for  Greece,  and 

SpXc^  more  chLring  than  had  appeared  at  anj  time  pn. 
vio^.     This  gladdening  prospect  continued  up  to  the  beginnmg 

°^S  government  of  Greece  now  began  to  assume  harmony  and 
rtrenih,  and  commerce  revived.  Their  army  was  attempted  o 
be  oreanized  after  the  European  tactics  ;  justice  was  regularly 
adSeret  and  freedom  fthe  press  a"owec^^  In  J^-  ong^^^ 
four  newspapers  were  issued  twice  a  week.  In  ^^e  midst  ot  these 
cheering  irospects  for  Greece,  an  Egyptian  fleet  which  had  been 
delayXme  months,  sailed  on  the  19th  July,  from  Alexandra, 
conistinnf  nine  fr  gates,  four  corvettes,  forty  brigs  and  ga  - 
UrS   18,000  troops  in  240  transports.     This  armament 

nder  Ibrahim  Pacha,  was  designed  to  subdue  and  desolate  the 
ZreaT™  Egyptian  and  Turkish  fleets  united  in  the  gulf 
of  B^roun  Sept^'lth,  where  a  naval  action  ensued  Kanans 
Wpw  iiD  a  44  Bun  Egypt  an  frigate  and  a  brig.  J  he  fleets  tnen 
i^^Ir^d-th^e  Turkish  fleet  returned  to  Constantinople,  and 
Zwmt'fllet  to  the  gulf  of  Bodroun  Soon  f  er  f  mus 
attacked  it  off  Candia,  and  destroyed  a  ^"^^'^^"^  r^l^^^'. 

.nH  T4  transDorts:  when  he  retired  to  Rhodes,  lurtnerweaK 

::VbyrTfa%e  on  board  hU  ships,  and  frustrated  m  h» 

plain  of  conquering  the  Morea. 


^■MiiiiiMM 


'  y^'jjly,, 


GREEK  REVOLUTION. 


629 


one  of  liorrof 

ians,  at  onoe 

onge. 

upon  Samoa. 

fed  a  40  gun 
similar  fute. 

itan  corvette. 
5d  for  Sunios, 
wing  day,  the 
im  Cape  Tro- 
ICC  of  two  or 
(111  fleet,  as  to 
ne  time  after, 
1  vessels  and 
irn  to  Samoa. 

a  number  of 

he  Turks  with 

retreat  to  the 

damage  front 
The  forces  of 
in  invaders  by 
for  Greece,  and 
t  any  time  pre- 
a  the  beginning 

le  harmony  and 
'as  attempted  to 
!  was  regularly 

In  Missilonghi 
le  midst  of  these 
which  had  been 
•om  Alexandria, 

brigs  and  gnl- 
This  armament, 
nd  desolate  the 
ited  in  the  gulf 
isucd.     Kanaris 

The  fleets  then 
stantinople,  and 
II  after,  Miaulis 
10  small  vessels. 
9,  further  weak- 
frustrated  in  hu 


Notwithstanding  the  critical  situation  in  which  Greece  wan 
now  placed  by  tiie  power  of  Kgypt  being  exerted  against  her, 
we  find  the  peninsula  in  the  most  distracted  state  by  the  diasen> 
sioiis  and  broils  of  tiio  capatani.  In  October,  the  election  for  the 
third  term  commenced.  The  executive  council  at  Napoli  di 
Romania,  consisted  of  03  members.  The  president,  Mavrocor- 
dato,  resigne<l,  and  Panuzzo  Notaras  was  chosen  his  successor. 
Coloctroni  was  disa[)pointed  in  his  ambitious  views.  Some  other 
disuflectod  chiefs  raised  the  standard  at  Tripolizza,  under  the 
command  of  Panoa  Coloctroni.  Troops  were  sent  thither,  by 
the  command  of  Condurioti,  and  after  several  battles,  the  rebels 
were  defeated  and  dispersed,  and  Panos  Coloctroni  killed.  About 
this  time  tlie  famous  Amazon  Bobolina,  a  follower  of  Coloctroni, 
was  assassinated.  Ulysses  entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with  the 
Turks,  but  was  defeated  and  captured.  In  attempting  to  escape 
from  a  tower  lie  received  a  fall,  and  died  in  consequence  thereof. 
Coloctroni,  the  father,  finding  himself  deserted,  surrendered  him- 
self up  in  December,  1824.  Several  other  leaders  of  this  rebel- 
lion fled,  and  the  rest  were  seized. 

The  government  now  exerted  itself  to  carry  into  effect  the 
provisions  of  the  law,  and  keep  up  discipline  in  the  army.  The 
annual  revenue  the  Porte  received,  from  tlie  Peloponnesus  alone, 
amounted  to  35,000,000  Turkish  piastres. 

In  the  campaign  of  1825,  Ibrahim  Pacha  landed  his  troops  in 
the  Morea ;  and  Missilonghi  was  bnsieged  by  Redschid  Pacha, 
aided  by  the  fleet  of  the  Capudan  Pacha.  This  calamitous  event 
was  owing  to  the  treachery  and  dissensions  of  the  Greek  chiefs, 
which  permitted  Ibrahim  to  land  between  Coron  and  Mordon, 
February  22,  1825,  an  army  of  4,600  men  ;  and  the  next 
month  his  force  was  augmented  to  12,000,  drilled  with  French 
officers,  after  the  European  tactics.  He  had  besides,  an  excel- 
lent body  of  cavalry.  Ibrahim  besieged  Navarino,  which  soon 
fell  into  his  power.  He  next  pressed  on  to  Tripolizza.  Old 
Coloctroni  was  pardoned  by  the  government,  which  received 
his  iissurances  of  fidelity ;  and  in  May,  1825,  the  command  of 
the  Peloponnesus  was  entrusted  to  him.  A  third  siege  of  Mis- 
silonghi was  commenced  April  22d.  The  Pacha's  fleet  lost 
several  ships  in  an  engagement  with  the  Greek  admiral,  Sac- 
touri,  near  Cape  d'Oro.  Calamata  and  Tripolizza  were  taken 
by  Ibrahim,  who  went  on  destroying  every  thing  till  he  reached 
\rgos.  He  then  received  a  severe  check  from  Coloctroni'a 
army,  which  caused  him  to  fall  back  to  Tripolizza.  When 
Ibrahim  found  that  the  Greeks  would  not  obey  him  or  submit 
tu  his  authority,  he  put  the  men  to  death,  carried  the  women 


m 


m^- 


^  ,i'^ 


m 


i  i 


mttf  m>  i' 


* 


G30 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


and  children  slaves  to  Egypt,  und  desolated  every  place  within 

his  reach.  .      ,      n  .1 

Missilonghi,  defended  by  Nolo  Botzans,  the  first  among  the 
bruve,  was  now  closely  besieged  by  the  Turks,  having  before 
it  35,000  land  forces,  and  4,000  by  sea.  After  a  severe  contest 
of  several  days  they  were  totally  defeated,  August  2d,  1825. 
The  Turks  lost  9,000  men.  During  this  siege  the  brave  and 
active  Miaulis  arrived  with  his  fleet,  and  burned  several  of  the 
enemy's  ships,  and  forced  tlie  rest  to  retire.  The  siege  of  Mw- 
silonghi  was  raised  October  2d,  1825,  four  months  and  a  half 
from  its  commencement. 

In  the  mean  time,  Ibrahim  was  carrying  terror  with  his  arms, 
and  desolating  the  Morea  more  widely ;  and  the  government 
was  in  great  danger,  having  entirely  lost  the  confidence  of  the 
auxiliary  societies  in  England,  whose  loans  had  been  improperly 
laid  out.  At  last  the  Greeks  sent  deputies  to  England,  resolved 
to  throw  themselves  on  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.  Before 
the  arrival  of  their  deputies,  the  English  government  had  issued 
(Sept.  30,)  a  declaration  of  neutrality.  But  the  alliance  of  the 
powers  of  Europe  prevented  the  interference  of  any  single  power 
in  behalf  of  Greece. 

Sir  Stratford  Canning,  the  English  ambassador  to  Constanti. 
nople,  set  out  in  January,  1826,  and  on  his  way  had  a  long  inter- 
view  at  Hydra  with  Muvrocordato,  and  other  Greek  statesmen, 
with  a  view  to  inform  iiimself  respecting  the  state  of  Greece. 
He  then  proceeded  to  Constantinople,  where  he  arrived  the  last 
of  February.  About  the  same  time,  (March,)  the  affairs  of 
Greece  were  discussed  at  St.  Petersburg,  by  Lord  Strangford, 
the  British  resident  minister  there,  und  who  had  formerly  been 
minister  to  Constantinople,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  envoy 
extraordinary,  who  had  been  sent  thither  by  Canning.  A  hope 
now  began  to  be  cherished,  that  the  independence  of  Greece 
would  be  acknowledged  by  the  Christian  powers  of  Europe. 

The  Pacha  fully  bent  on  reducing  Missilonghi,  had  landed 
more  troops  in  the  Morea,  in  order  to  carry  on  a  winter  cam- 
paign.  The  affairs  of  Greece  were,  at  this  time,  in  the  most 
gloomy  state,  having  scarcely  6,000  men  under  arms  to  with- 
stand  this  rapacious  foe ;  while  the  money  furnished  by  the 
friends  of  Greece  for  the  equipment  of  the  army,  was  squandered 
by  the  capitani.  The  French,  at  this  time,  were  busy  intriguing 
against  the  English  agents,  to  the  great  injury  of  ^reoxe.  In 
the  midst  of  all  these  disasters,  the  Greeks  succeeded,  Novem- 
ber  24th,  in  throwing  into  Missilonghi,  besieged  for  the  fourth 
time,  a  supply  of  ammunition  and  provisions  for  this  garrison, 
which  had  so  gallantly  repulsed  an  attack,  both  by  sea  and  land 


liitl 


■MMiMMM 


-HIM 


place  within 

It  among  the 
|having  btifore 
severe  contest 
ust  2d,  1825. 
_the  brave  and 
leveral  of  the 
siege  of  Mis* 
lis  and  a  half 

with  his  arms, 
le  government 
ifidence  of  the 
3en  improperly 
gland,  resolved 

ritain.  Before 
nent  had  issued 

alliance  of  the 
ny  single  power 

>r  to  Constanti. 
lad  a  long  inter- 
reek  statesmen, 
tate  of  Greece, 
irrivcd  the  last 
the  affairs  of 
3rd  Strangford, 
1  formerly  been 
llington,  envoy 
ming.  A  hope 
,'nce  of  Greece 
of  Europe, 
jhi,  had  landed 
1  a  winter  cam- 
ne,  in  the  most 
r  arms  to  with« 
rnished  by  the 
was  squandered 
busy  intriguing 
of  Greece.  In 
eeded,  Novem. 
1  for  the  fourth 
r  this  garrison, 
)y  sea  and  land 


OREEK  BSVOLUTION. 


631 


A  body  of  troops  sent  by  Ibrahim  against  Corinth,  was  destroyed 
by  Niketas. 

In  December,  the  Greeks  fitted  out  another  naval  equipment 
At  Hydra,  for  tlie  safety  of  Missilonghi ;  where  Miaulis,  January 
6th,  put  to  flight  the  Capudan  Paclia'a  fleet ;  wiiich  some  timo 
af\er  returned,  when  anotlier  attomnt  made  to  throw  supplies  into 
the  place,  tailed.  On  the  28th,  Missilonghi  was  <tuminoned  to 
surrender,  which  was  bravely  set  at  defiance.  The  fleets  had 
an  engagement  in  the  gulf  of  Patras,  when  Canaris  destroyed 
with  his  fire-ships,  a  frigate  and  several  smaller  vessels.  Ibra- 
him,  dissatisfied  with  the  Capudan  Pacha,  caused  his  dismission. 
The  success  of  the  battle  enabled  the  Greeks  to  furnish  Mis. 
ailonghi  with  some  farther  supplies  ;  but  they  failed  in  attempt- 
ing it  again,  Feb.  12th,  then  blockaded  by  the  Turco.  Egyptian 
fleet. 

The  siege  of  Missilonghi  was  carried  on  with  vigor  by  Ibra- 
him  Pacha  alone,  who  had  before  it  25,000  men,  and  of  these, 
9,000  were  regular  troops.  He  had  before  it  Ibily-eight  cannon, 
that  had  been  sold  him  by  the  French ;  and  he  was  aided  by 
Pierre  Beyer,  a  general,  (a  Bonapartist,)  notorious  for  his  cru- 
elties  in  Egypt,  Spain,  and  St.  Domingo.  The  frequent  over- 
tures  made  by  Ibrahim  to  the  garrison  to  surrender,  during  its 
bombardment,  were  rejected.  The  assault  continued  from  Feb. 
28,  till  March  2d,  when  it  was  attacked  by  sea  and  land,  with 
a  loss  to  the  besiegers  of  1,000  men.  The  valor  of  tl»e  garri- 
son had  sustained  it  for  a  fifth  time,  though  it  was  nearly  desti- 
tute of  provisions.  In  a  short  time,  the  sufTerings  of  the  garrison 
became  extreme,  and  the  surrounding  country  was  devastated 
by  the  barbarian  forces.  Their  sufferings  and  heroic  defence 
gained  for  Greece,  many  ardent  and  active  friends  in  Europe  ; 
and  funds  were  immediately  raised  for  the  heroic  sufferers.  Mr. 
Eynard,  of  Geneva,  made  them  a  liberal  donation,  in  addition 
to  50,000  francs  he  had  before  given  ;  and  it  was  on  his  repre- 
sentation  respecting  the  Greeks,  that  the  committee  of  Paris 
voted  60,000,  and  that  of  Amsterdam  30,000.  With  these 
means  supplies  were  sent,  and  the  Greeks  were  successful  in 
throwing  some  of  them  into  the  place,  in  the  face  of  great  dif- 
ficulties. From  April  15th,  Ibrahim  directed  all  his  attention 
to  prevent  supplies  being  sent  from  Zante  in  small  boats.  The 
situation  of  the  besieged  had  now  become  truly  deplorable.  On 
the  17th  and  18tii  they  began  to  die  of  hunger ;  the  four  follow, 
ing  days,  their  horrors  hourly  increased.  Mines  were  now  pre- 
pared in  various  parts  of  the  city  to  blow  it  up,  as  they  were 
determined  not  to  surrender. 

On  the  21st  and  22d,  the  Greek  fleet  under  Miaulis,  made  an 


hM 


ii^ 


■»-4 


^■fff" 


« -) 


632 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


attempt  to  relieve  the  sufferers  that  proved  unavailing.  Hii 
■hips  were  t(x)  small  to  contend  with  the  overwhelming  fleet  of 
Ibrahim,  consisting  of  6  ships  of  the  line,  8  or  10  frigates,  and 
90  vessels  of  different  sizes.  Missiiongiii,  at  length  reduced  to  a 
heap  of  ruins,  fell  April  22d,  1826.  At  midniglil,  about  2,000 
men,  accompanied  by  women  and  children,  rushed  out  on  the 
batteries  of  the  enemy  ;  ."jOO  Greeks  foil  on  the  spt,  while  the 
rest,  amounting  to  1,800,  under  Noto  Botzuris  and  Kitzos  Isa- 
vellas,  reached  Sulona,  and  afterwards  fought  at  Atiiens.  Those 
that  remained  in  tiie  city,  about  1,000  in  number,  mostly  women 
and  children,  with  old  men,  blew  the/ntKslves  up  by  the  mines 
that  had  been  purposely  prepared.  At  daybreak,  the  barbari- 
ans  entered  the  city.  Thus  fell  Missilonghi,  which  had  so  long 
boen  the  strong  hold  of  western  Greece.  T'  o  plain  between 
Missilonghi  and  the  mountains  was  covered  wu.i  the  dead  bodies 
of  the  Suliots,  who  had  been  its  most  valiant  defenders.  Many 
escaped  to  the  mountains.  More  than  3,000  pair  of  ears  were 
cut  off  the  dead,  and  sent  as  a  precious  trophy  to  Constantinople ; 
dnd  above  5,000  women  and  children  were  made  slaves. 

The  onnals  of  history  can  furnish  but  f«w  instances  of  such 
ardor,  firmness,  and  perseverance,  as  was  exhibited  by  the 
Greeks,  during  this  memorable  siege.  Mr.  Meyer,  a  Swiss 
editor,  in  a  letter  he  wrote  a  short  time  before  the  fall  of  this 
place,  says — "  A  few  days  more,  and  these  brave  men  will  be 
angelic  spirits,  who  will  accuse  before  God,  the  indifference  of 
Christendom  for  a  cause  which  is  that  of  religion.  We  are 
drawing  near  our  final  hour ;  history  will  render  us  justice ; 
posterity  will  weep  over  our  misfortunes.  May  the  relation 
of  the  siege  of  Missilonghi,  which  I  have  written,  survive  me. 
I  have  made  several  copies  of  it."  Lord  Byron,  who  died  at 
Missilonghi  in  April,  hnd  resided  in  that  place  since  the  begin- 
ning of  January,  of  the  same  year. 

Missilonghi  was  fortified  in  1823,  under  the  superintendance 
of  English  officers ;  and  partly  at  the  expense  of  a  patriotic  Eng- 
lishman,  whose  name,  (Murry,)  deserves  to  be  handed  down  to 
posterity.     It  had  been  made  the  strongest  hold  in  Greece. 

Ibrahim  was  now  in  possession  of  Modon,  Coron,  Navarino, 
and  Patras;  and  had  already  removed  three  pachas.  It  only 
remained  for  him  to  gain  postiession  of  Napoli  di  Romania,  to 
be  master  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  This  fact  at  orice 
opened  the  eyes  of  the  European  powers,  who  now  looked  with 
distrust  on  Ibrahim. 

Great  exertions  by  societies  in  France,  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, and  England,  were  made  in  behalf  of  the  suffering  Greeks, 
and  numy  new  societies  were  formed,  when  a  change  of  men* 


aaJitm 


.lifrr.MM 


:,  «►- 


ORRRX  RIVOLVTIOIf. 


633 


navailinff.     Hii 

lelming  fleet  ut 

10  frigntcs,  and 

gtli  reduced  to  a 

(lit,  about  2,000 

led  out  on  the 

spot,  while  the 

und  Kitzos  Isa* 

Athena.  Those 

r,  mostly  women 

p  by  the  mines 

tk,  the  barbari' 

lich  had  so  long 

I  plain  between 

1  the  dead  bodies 

feiiderii.     Many 

ir  of  ears  were 

Constantinople ; 

e  slaves. 

istances  of  such 

xhibited   by  the 

Mever,  a  Swiss 

the  fall  of  this 

ive  men  will  be 

i  indiflercnce  of 

ligion.     We  are 

nder  us  justice ; 

luy  the  relation 

ten,  survive  me. 

ron,  who  died  at 

since  the  begin* 

superintendance 
r  a  patriotic  Eng- 
handed  down  to 
I  in  Greece. 
!oron,  Navarino, 
lachas.     It  only 

di  Romania,  to 
This  fact  at  once 
now  looked  with 

rmany,  Switzer- 
lufiering  Greeks, 
change  of  men< 


il 


•tires  in  the  English  ministry  had  a  most  decided  influence  on 
their  destiny,  lly  order  of  Cnnniiif,',  tho  Duke  of  Wellington, 
at  St.  Petersburg,  had  sigtierl  tlio  protocol  for  the  interference  of 
the  throe  great  powers  in  holiiilf  ol"  (Jrtecc!.  It  was  the  wish 
of  Canning  to  adjiist  the  (litHciiilies  between  (Jreeceand  Turkey, 
without  any  reference  to  llus.sia  ;  but  death,  at  l\nn  period,  sealed 
his  noble  d(!sigim. 

While  tlie8(!  measures  were  slowly  advancing  among  tho 
diplomatic  corps,  I hrahiui  was  d^^so^ating  the  Morea ;  and  the 
•truggliiig  (irueks,  a  prey  to  every  kind  of  horror,  were  dying 
of  hunger. 

June  17th,  1827,  Athens  capitulated  to  llodschid  ra<;ha.  Lord 
Cochrane  now  arrived  with  steam  vessels  from  I'Jigland,  to  aid 
the  Greeks  ;  and  General  Church  had  the  command  of  the  land 
forces.  New  dissensions  arose  at  Napoli  di  Romania,  and  I'al- 
mades  began  to  cannonade  the  city  to  force  the  payment  of 
arrears.  The  executive  fled  to  ^Egina  In  this  state  of  des. 
peration,  the  (ireeks  looked  to  Russia,  and  chose  Count  Capo 
d'Istria  as  their  president,  who  entered  on  his  oi'lice  January 
22(1,  1828. 

In  the  mean  time,  a  treaty  for  the  settlement  of  Greece  was 
signed  July  6tli,  1827,  at  London,  by  the  jilenipotentiaries  of 
England,  France,  and  Russia.  This  treaty  was  communicated 
to  the  ambassadors  of  the  three  powers  residing  at  Constantino. 

Ele ;  and  on  the  10th  August,  their  joint  note  was  sent  to  the 
leis  Eflendi.  The  Porte  refused  to  admit  the  interference  of 
the  three  powers,  and  further  attempts  to  induce  the  Porte  to 
listen  to  tho  mediation  of  the  allied  powers,  proved  unavailing. 
The  Greek  government  proclaimed  an  armistice  on  the  25th,  in 
conformity  with  the  treaty  of  London. 

September  9th,  the  Turco-Egyptian  fleet  arrived  at  Navarino ; 
and  on  the  13th,  a  British  squadron  under  Admiral  Codrington, 
reached  this  bay.  By  the  22d,  tho  French  squadron,  commanded 
by  Admiral  Rigny,  and  that  of  Russia,  under  Count  Heyden, 
united.  The  admirals  had  an  interview  with  Ibrahim  Pacha  on 
the  25th,  and  informed  him  of  their  determination  to  establish 
an  armistice  de  facto,  between  Greece  and  Turkey.  On  the 
following  day,  Ibrahim  attempted  to  sail  from  Navarino,  but  was 
prevented.  When  he  found  he  would  not  be  suffered  to  remove 
his  fleet,  he  commenced  the  work  of  destruction  by  burning 
houses,  destroying  vineyards,  and  the  most  wanton  massacre  of 
women  and  children.  In  consequence  of  those  atrocious  deeds 
the  combined  fleet  entered  the  port  of  Navarino,  to  compel  Ibra« 
him  to  desist  from  these  brutal  outrages. 

October  20th,  the  combined  fleet  passed  the  batteries,  and  bj 


I  / 


\M 


634 


<;1IAPTBH  XIV. 


a  P  M  wen>  rondy  for  action.  Tl.o  Turco-EKyntian  fleet  WM 
3ra;ru,riu  ho  form  of  a  croscmt ,  their  h.rg.  n^s  pru«>nted 
a  CmSde.  aud  h.tw...»  tlus,,  sn.all  v-hsoIs  uUervm-d.  I  he 
AlliT  ulron  was  lod  by  the  Asia,  tho  »lu,.  o  A.hn.ral  Cod. 
Ainu  8.1  >  1  ,.,,„^j,,    i.ytl.e   Grnoa  and  Albion,  and  an- 

dS^  ;.btS  ^^i  tb^  lin.,  i>.ana«  ti.  «««  ofCapitana 
I  V  a.  h  largo  doul,l...banl<.d  IVi^at., ;  wluio  Moharem  hoy, 
K.     laudor'of  tl,o  l-'.^yi'ti'-  <l-t,  wa«  on  tbo  ot^ujr  sulo  ..f     | 

,.  Asia  Tbo  'I'urlts  brougiit  on  tlio  action,  by  ki  bn«  two 
F  .it  non  nd  it  soon  b.  ca.no  gonoral,  raging  furiously  ior 
four  rI-.  It  cndod  in  tbo  dostructiun  of  tbo  Moorish  foot, 
htt  a  Xrt  timo  boforo.  bad  consisted  of  3  ships  of  the  lino, 
siiunsS.  urazoo,  10  frigates;  27  largo  eorvettes,  from 
18  fo  24  gii  and  tho  'same  number  of  brigs,  with  0  tire  ships. 
Of  this  armarncnt  there  remained  afloat,  al  or  the  action,  but  20 
corvettes  and  brigs  ;  and  these  were  abandoned. 

S  inte  Igenco  of  tbo  destruction  of  tho  Moorish  fleet  at 
Navarino,  was  received  with  tho  liveliest  joy  by  all  the  fnends 
of  Greece*,  both  in  Europe  and  America.  This  arose  from  the 
:  n^ict^on'trattbis  blow'had  decided  the  ''-edom  oHhe  Greeks 
who,  during  six  years  of  extreme  sufforing,  had  boon  a  prey  to 

the  most  dreadful  horrors.  .  i,™,,iiitips 

There  was  now  an  involuntary  suspension  of  hostilities. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  Greek  pirates  began  to  infest  tho  seas, 
wlS.  caued  the  admirals  of  the  united  squadron  to  send  a 
V  rm  remonstrance  to  the  legislative^  council  of  the  Greoks 
After  some  punishments  had  been  inflicted  upon  the  offondes, 
safety  was  rLtored  in  those  seas;  but  not  unt,  the  British  had 
destroyed  the  head-quartors  of  tho  pirates  in  Candm,  tobruary 

^®The  Porte  was  exasperated,  in  the  highest  degree,  *ith  the 

annihilation  of  its  fleet  at  Navarino;  and  forthwith  seized  and 

detained  all  the  vessels  of  the  Franks  at  Constantinople  where 

th?y  were  kept  from  November  2d,  till  November  19 ;  and 

even  stopped  a\\  communication  with  the  mm.sters  of  the  Allied 

powo^Sl  indemnification  should  bo  made  for  the  destruction 

Khe  fleet.     The  Sultan,  in  tho  height  of  his  rage,  prepared 

for  war,  and  used  all  the  means  in  his  power  to  >nflame  the  pas. 

Inrof  the  Moslems.     In  December,  the  ministers  of  the  three 

Zers  left  Constantinople,  when  the  Porte  adopted  conc.hatory 

me3e8      In  tho  mean  time,  all  the  Moslems  from  the  age  of 

wT  50  had  been  called  to  arms.     On  the  30th,  the  Sultan 

Mai  lud  ioard  that  Persian  Armenia  had  fallen  into  the  iK.wer 

of  Russia,  where  Puskewitch  had  achieved  a  senes  of  splendid 

victories. 


'^ii"rtriMnfttfiff'iii>tf''v'^'"'''^^' 


[t!  fiUlmi'^' - 


,|{yptinn  fleet  waa 
ships  prc'sontttd 
iittTvonod.  The 
if  Adiniriil  Cod« 
Albion,  itml  an. 
flii^  uf  Capituna 
Muliuruin  Hey, 
tlio  otiier  siilo  of 
11,  by  killing  two 
ning  furiously  fur 
till!  Moorish  <l<!et, 
ships  of  thu  lino, 
50  corvettes,  from 
,  with  (i  lire-ships, 
the  action,  but  30 

0(1. 

)  Moorish  fleet  at 
by  all  the  friends 
his  arose  from  the 
don>  of  the  Greeks, 
lud  been  a  prey  to 

ision  of  hostilities, 
to  infest  the  seas, 
(puidroii,  to  send  a 
icil  of  the  Greeks, 
upon  the  oflenders, 
itil  the  British  had 
1  Candia,  February 

St  degree,  with  the 
rthwith  seized  lUid 
nstantinople,  where 
Jovember  19 ;  and 
listers  of  the  Allied 

for  the  destruction 
'  his  rage,  prepared 

to  inflame  the  pas- 
inisters  of  the  three 
idopted  conciliatory 
us  from  the  age  of 
he  30th,  the  Sultan 
iillen  into  the  power 
a  series  of  splendid 


ORBKK  RBVOU'TION. 


635 


By  this  time,  Capo  d'Istria,  thu  president  of  rirccce,  had 
appointed  the  able  Tricoupi  his  wcretury  ot'  statu  ;  and  hud 
uHlublished  u  high  national  council,  calli'd  I'anhellenion.  Feb. 
4tli,  ut  Napoli  (li  lloniunia,  he  also  established  a  bank,  and  re.or* 
gaiiized  the  military.  I"' ranee  and  Russia  each  lent  (1,000,000 
francs  to  aid  the  new  state. 

In  consequence  cl"  the  death  of  Canning  and  a  changt;  of  the 
Mnglish  ministry,  the  battle  of  Navarino  was  ealled  an  untoward 
(;vont.  The  I'orte  continued  to  reject  eve-ry  proposal  for  settle. 
niont  with  Greece,  and  during  this  time,  Ibrahim  was  carrying 
away  the  Greeks  into  slavery.  A  war  broke  out,  March,  1828, 
between  Uussia  and  Turk(;y,  so  that  thu  I'ortu  hud,  with  this 
power  alone,  (|uite  business  enough  to  attend  to. 

The  French  cabinet,  in  concert  with  England,  now  sent  an 
army  to  thu  Morea,  under  the  command  of  General  Maison, 
which  arrived  August  20th,  in  the  bay  of  Coron,  near  Petalidi ; 
and  Admiral  Codrington  coucludtid  a  treaty  with  the  viceroy  of 
Egypt,  Aug.  Otii,  for  thu  evacuation  of  the  Monu  by  Ibrahim 
Pacha,  ami  for  the  liberation  of  the  Greek  prisoners,  while  those 
who  had  boon  carried  away,  wore  to  bo  freed  or  ransomed. 

Gctober  4th,  Ibrahim  sailed  from  Navarino  with  21,000  men, 
for  Alexandria,  with  tho  wreck  of  his  fleet,  leaving  2,.'j00  in  the 
Messinian  fortn-sses. 

The  French  took  undisputed  possession  of  Navarino,  and 
attacked  and  took  tlie  fortresses  in  Messina,  so  that  Navarino, 
Modon,  and  Coron,  were  soon  in  tlieir  possession.  I'atras,  with 
3,000  men,  capitulated  October  5th,  and  the  flags  of  the  throe 
Allied  powers,  with  the  national  flag  of  Greece,  waved  undis. 
puted  over  these  cities.  Admiral  Rigny  convoyed  the  Turks  to 
Smyrna. 

To  defend  the  Morea  from  any  new  attacks  of  tho  Turks, 
a  manifesto  was  issued  by  tho  ministers  of  tho  throe  powers, 
Nov.  16,  1828,  declaring — "  That  they  should  place  the  Morea 
and  the  Cycladea  under  their  protection,  till  the  time  when  a 
definitive  arrangement  should  decide  tho  fate  of  the  provinces, 
which  the  Allies  had  taken  possession  of;  and  that  they  should 
consider  the  entrance  of  any  military  force  into  this  country,  as 
an  attack  upon  themselves."  A  French  agent  carried  this  note 
to  Constantinople,  to  which  an  immediate  answer  from  the  Porte 
was  required.  But  during  this  time,  the  Greeks  continued  active 
hostilities.  Demetrius  Ypsilanti,  having  under  him  Coloctroni 
and  several  leaders,  and  5,000  men,  marched  into  Livadia,  and 
defeated  the  Turks,  Nov.  2d,  at  Lomotico,  and  Dec.  3d,  took 
Salona ;  then  in  succession,  Lepanto,  Livadia,  and  Vonizza. 
The  Greeks  commenced  fitting  out  a  great  number  of  privateers 


■I," 


JUi. 


~,1 


636 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


In  consequence  of  these  measures,  tl.e  Sultan  banished  25,000     ^ 
persons,  Cireeks  and  Armenians,  not  born  there,  from  the  city 
of  Constantinople  ;  and  the  Sultan  still  dechned  to  recall  his     , 
barbarous  edict  of  extermination.      ^        „,     .     ^  ,    „„„     i 

Throucrh  the  energetic  measures  of  Capo  d'Istr.a,  Greece  began 
to  recover  hersei  f  ailer  a  long  period  of  distraction.     He  divided 
the  states  of  Greece  into  13  d.-partments,  seven  of  these  formed 
the  Peloponnesus,  with  280,000  inhabitants,  and  8,543  square 
miles;  the  eighth,  the  Northern   Sporades,  6^00  mhabitan ts 
106  square  miks ;    the  ninth,  the   Eastern  Sporades,  58,800 
inhabitants,  318  square  miles ;  the  tenth,  the  Western  bporadcs, 
with  40,000  inhabitants,  169  square  miles ;  the  elf  vcnth,  twemh, 
and  thirteenth,  the  Cyclades,  (north,  central,  and  south  )  91, .500 
inhabitants,  1176  square  miles.      Total  inhabitants,  476,500, 

square  miles,  10,312.  j    *•  i     ,„  ,u„ 

The  Brititsh  plenipotentiary  presented  his  credentials  to  the 
president  of  Greece,  Nov.  19,  1828;  and  Colonel  t  abler,  after 
his  return  from  France,  took  upon  him  the  organization  of  the 
Greek  armv.    On  the  delivery,  at  Constantinople,  of  the  protocol 
of  the  three  powers,  in  January,  1829,  a  verbal  answer  was 
given  by  the  Reis  EfTendi,  that  the  Porte  wished  for  peace.^    In 
July,  Sir  Robert  Gordon,  the  British  ambassador,  and  Count 
GuiUimont,  from  France,  arrived  at  Constantinople.      Ihe  sue- 
cesses  of  Diebitsch,  who  had  crossed  the  Balkan  mountains,  and 
was  on  his  way  towards  Constantinople,  compelled  the  lurkisti 
plenipotentiaries  to  sign  a  treaty,  which  recognized  fornially,  in 
the  sixth  article,  the  treaty  of  July  6,  1827.     Peace  between 
Russia  and  the  Porte  was  signed  at  Adrianople,  Sept.  14,  l»x!», 
and  was  ratified  by  the  latter,  six  days  afterwards. 

Havin<T  brought  down  the  affaira  of  (ireece  to  the  cessation 

of  hostilities,  it  only  remains  to  add  a  few  particulars  respecting 

the  death  of  Capo  d'Istria.     This  individual  became  exceedingly 

unpopular  with  the  Greeks,  from  his  supposed  attachment  to 

Russian  interests,  and  the  jealousy  and  impatience  of  restraint 

of  the  Greek  chiefs.     In  the  spring  of  1831,  the  islands  and 

province  of  Maina  were  in  open  resistance  to  the  government. 

Miaulis,  Mavrocordato,  and  Condurioti,  demanded  a  convoca- 

tion  of  the  national  assembly,  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  that 

certain  state  prisonera  should  be  liberated.     The  insurgents  took 

possession  of  Poros,  and  the  Greek  fleet  lying  in  the  harbor.    In 

August,  the  troops  of  the  president  attacked  the  town,  while  the 

Russian  fleet  was  standing  in  to  attack  the  Greek  fleet  m  the 

harbor.     Admiral  Miaulis  then  blew  up  his  ships,  rather  than 

suffer  them  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.     The  city  of 

Poros,  deserted  by  its  inhabitants,  was  reduced  to  ashes.     In  ttio 


'vnnrtdiiMiilinimTiiiMAmii 


bnnished  25,000 
ere,  from  the  city 
ned  to  recall  his 

stria,  Greece  began 

ction.     He  divided 

'en  of  these  formed 

,  and  8,543  square 

0,200  inhabitants, 

Sporudes,  58,800 

Western  Sporadcs, 

le  eleventh,  twelllh, 

,and  south,)  01,500 

labitanta,   476,500; 

credentials  to  the 
olonel  Fabier,  after 

orji;anization  of  the 
lopie,  of  the  protocol 

verbal  answer  was 
ished  for  peace.  In 
(rissador,  and  Count 
intinople.  The  sue 
Alkan  mountains,  and 
npelled  the  Turkish 
;ognized  formally,  in 
27.  Peace  between 
3ple,  Sept.  14,  1829, 
r  wards. 

'ce  to  the  cessation 
tarticulars  respecting 

became  exceedingly 
posed  attachment  to 
ipntience  of  restraint 
131,  the  islands  and 

to  the  govemrr.ent. 
;manded  a  convoca- 
f  the  press,  and  that 

The  insurgents  took 
ig  in  the  harbor.  Id 
i  the  town,  while  the 
e  Greek  fleet  in  the 
is  ships,  rather  than 
ssians.  The  city  of 
:ed  to  ashes.     In  the 


ilMtTfi  '  n ■*■•••'-'■' 


OHEEK  REVOLITTION. 


637 


niean  time,  the  Mainotit  «v<ro  actively  engaged  by  land  against 
the  government. 

The  Russian  fleet  now  appeared  in  the  gulf  of  Coron ;  when 
Miauiis,  wlio  had  been  co-opernting  with  tiie  Muinots  with  a 
small  squadron,  destroyed  it  for  the  same  reasons  he  had  done 
witii  the  ships  at  Poros. 

Octol>er  9th,  1831,  as  the  president  was  going  to  attend  ser- 
vice at  the  church,  he  was  assassinated  by  two  men,  who  had 
repaired  purposely  to  Napoii  di  Romania.  Uiic  lired  a  pistol  at 
the  head  of  Capo  d'latria,  and  the  other  stabbed  him  with  a 
Turkish  dagger,  when  he  fell  dead  on  the  spot.  Tiiose  persona 
were  George  the  son,  and  Constantine  the  brother  of  Mavromi- 
chnlia,  who  had  been  imprisoned  since  January.  Constantine 
was  immediately  killed  by  the  guards  of  the  president,  and 
George  was  detained  in  custody. 

In  1832,  the  three  powers  obtained  from  the  Grand  Seignior 
a  much  more  advantageous  northern  boundary  line  for  Greece, 
than  had  been  granted  in  1830.  The  line  is  to  run  from  the 
gulf  of  Volo,  in  the  iEgian  Sea,  along  a  range  of  mountains, 
to  the  gulf  of  Arta,  in  the  Adriatic.  By  this  arrangement, 
Acarnania  and  iGtolia,  chiefly  inhabited  by  Greeks,  are  included 
in  the  kingdom  of  Greece — an  acquisition  of  great  importance, 
as  it  adds  nearly  100,000,  inhabitants,  and  almost  3,000  square 
miles  to  the  new  state.  Besides  the  frontier  line  is  more  strongly 
marked,  and  will  be  easier  of  defence. 

This  accession  to  Greece  was  obtained  from  the  Grand 
Seignior  for  50,000,000  of  Turkish  piasters ;  which  are  to  be 
deducted  from  the  sum  he  had  undertaken  to  pay  to  Russia. 

The  present  population  of  Greece  is  estimated  at  from  635,000 
to  900,000  souls.  Its  territory,  including  Acarnania,  jEtolia, 
and  the  islands,  is  about  18,000  square  miles,  equal  to  about  two* 
fifths  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  about  equal  to  it  in  popula* 
tiou.  The  Morea,  or  Peloponnesus,  comprises  7,227  square 
miles,  and  nearly  equivalent  in  extent  to  the  state  of  Massachu- 
setts. The  same  treaty  which  fixed  the  boundary  line,  raised 
Otho,  a  Bavarian  youth  of  seventeen  years  of  age,  to  tiie  throne 
of  Greece ;  who  carried  with  him  3,500  Bavarian  soldiers,  when, 
as  stipulated,  the  French  troops  were  to  be  witlidrawn. 

In  the  maintenance  and  aid  of  the  new  government,  England, 
France,  and  Russia,  have  provided,  and  become  responsible  for, 
a  loan  of  $3,750,000 ;  and  have  further  agreed  to  furnish,  at 
two  instalments,  an  equal  amount,  should  it  be  required  for  the 
good  of  the  country.  This  loan  is  to  be  refunded  in  due  time, 
and  the  payment  of  the  interest  is  provided  for. 

King  Otho,  the  new  monarch  of  Greece,  arrived  at  Napoii 


*]tl:i 


H.,- 


t-J. 


■•hi 


.5*..., 


III 


f'-i" 


di  Romania,  Fob.  6,  1B33.  There  were,  at  this  t™e.  !"  ^I^^ 
,>ort  of  Na,.oli  di  Ron.unin,  several  sh.ps  of  war  belonging  lo 
Kneland,  France,  and  Russia.  On  the  following  da>,  King 
OthoTssued  a  proclamation,  declaring  his  good  mtenfons  and 
well  wishes  for  his  adopted  country,  and  engaging  to  protect  the 
religion  of  the  Greeks. 


War  between  Russia  and  Turkey. 

HnsTiUTiEs  between  Russia  and  Turkey  commenced  at  a  most 
ror"uir;SJt  the  safety  of  Greece  The  Port,  breathing 
vengeance,  and  intent  on  exterminating  ^^e  entire  Greek  popu- 
hitioii,  would  listen  to  no  terms  of  accommodation  offered  by  the 

"^''flt'^rttle'of  Navarino  had,  for  the  present,  paralyzed  the 
operations  of  Ibral.im  Pacha;  and  after  such  a  s'gn^l jhw  jse- 
n  ent  of  the  infidels  by  the  Allied  powers,  they  could  not  honor- 
ably  withdraw  their  ft.ture  protection  to  the  Greeks,  who  had  so 
long  been  left  to  contend  alone  against  their  cruel  oppressors 

"t'i"  PorTwas  led  to  consider  that  Russia  secretly  favored 
the  Greek  cause,  and  therefore  took  possession  of  Moldavia  and 
Walachia,  and  put  restrictions   u,)on  its  mar'timc  commerce. 
Thi   wTan  open  violation  of  the  peaceof  Bucharest  on  which, 
after  an  excha'nge  of  notes,  the  Russian  "^'"-ter  M  ^oi^mn. 
tinople;  but  through  the  exertions  of  the  ministers  of  Austria 
and^England,  and  the  desire  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  to  p  e- 
serve  peace,  the  commencement  of  hostiities  was  avoided.    St  n 
Uie  Porte  refused  to  give  any  satisfaction  to  the  Russian  court 
ThinpUaLd  in  this  state  lill  the  Emperor  Nicholas  issued 
hi,  ulUmatum,  May  14,  1926,  when  the  P"':^^ /™"f^^  °," J,'^^ 
demands  of  the  court  of  Russia  and  promised    Jat  Moldavia 
and  Walachia  (where  the  Porte  had  derived,  m  three  years,  a 
revenue  of  37,000,000  of  piasters,  to  aid  the  pn«ecut,on  of  the 
war  against  Greece,)  should  be  restored.     October  6j,  1826    «t 
Ackerman,the  Russian  ultimatum  was  «c.<=«Pt«d.     The  Porte 
also  surrendered  all  the  fortresses  in  Asia  to  Russia.     lh« 

n^eStaTMahmoud'h^'U  nis  hands  full  of  other  business 
'     Having  detelined  to  reform  his  army,  he  began  by  extermmat. 
ms  the  corps  of  Janisaries,  which  he  effected  after  a   oU^y 
battle  in  JuTe,  1826  ;  when  he  formed  his  army  on  the  Euro- 


nAtJWif*'*'"  ' 


.^MM^MiiHMMHl^'^  ' 


this  time,  in  the 

war  belonging  to 

lowing  (lay,  King 

;ood  intentions  and 

aging  to  protect  tlie 


rkey. 

jommenced  at  a  most 

riie  Porte  breathing 

entire  Greek  jiopu- 

Jation  offered  by  the 

aent,  paralyzed  the 
;h  a  signal  chastise- 
liey  could  not  honor- 
!  Greeks,  who  had  so 
leir  cruel  oppressors 

»ia  secretly  favored 
sion  of  Moldavia  and 
maptimc  commerce. 
Bucharest,  on  which, 
[ninister  left  Constan- 
ministers  of  Austria 
or  Alexander  to  pre- 
3S  was  avoided.    Still 

to  the  Russian  court 
leror  Nicholas  issued 
orte  granted  all  the 
mised  that  Moldavia 
'cd,  in  three  years,  a 
he  prosecution  of  the 

October  6,  1826,  at 
cceptcd.  The  Porte 
sia  to  Russia.     This 

full  of  other  business, 
began  by  exterminat- 
fected  after  a  bloody 
is  army  on  the  Euro- 


WAR  BETWEEN  RUSSIA  AND  TUHKEY. 


639 


,wan  system.  The  Sultan  himself  wore  the  European  dress,  and 
prohibited,  throughout  his  cnipiro,  tlio  cnliing  of  Christians, 
•'  dogs."  Tliis  new  system  of  reform  led  to  a  violen/  insurrec- 
tion,  and  the  loss  of  6,000  houses  in  Constantinople. 

In  June,  1827,  the  Porte  refused  the  intervention  of  Hussia, 
France,  and  Eupland,  for  the  settlement  of  Greece  ;  and  seemed 
to  bid  defiance  to  the  jiowers  of  Europe,  by  attempting  to  rally 
together  all  his  subjects  for  war. 

Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey,  April  26, 1828.  In  that 
document  the  emperor  declared,  that  he  would  not  Iny  down  his 
arms  till  he  had  obtained  the  following  results,  namely  :  the 
paym«mt  of  all  the  expenses  of  the  war  ;  the  acknowledgment 
of  past  treaties ;  inviolable  liberty  of  the  commerce  of  th<!  Black 
Sea ;  the  free  navigation  of  the  Bosphorus  ;  and  lastly,  the 
fulfilment  of  the  convention  of  July  6th,  for  the  pacification  of 
Greece. 

The  campaign  opened  May  7th,  1828,  by  the  Russian  army 
of  115,000  men  passing  the  Pruth,  under  Count  Wittgenstein, 
commander  in  chief.  Un  the  19th,  the  Emperor's  staff  arrived 
before  Brailow,  of  which  Diebitsch  was  chief.  June  l.'itli.  in 
attempting  to  carry  this  place  by  storm,  the  Russians  lost  640 
men  killed,  two  major  generals,  and  1340  men  wounded.  June 
20,  Brailow  surrendered  to  the  Russians,  on  condition  of  the 
garrison  being  permitted  to  retii-e  to  Silistria.  Two  hundred 
and  seventy-three  cannon,  besides  a  great  quantity  of  halls  and 
ammunition,  were  taken.  Up  to  July  2d,  the  Russians  had  taken 
seven  fortresses — Brailow,  Matschin,  Toultscha,  Hirsova,  Kus- 
tendji,  Keuzgon,  and  Managalia.  Toultscha  was  defended  by 
91  cannon,  and  2,000  men. 

August  7th,  the  Russian  flotilla  before  Varna,  attacked  that 
of  the  Turks,  and  captured  14  vessels.  On  the  20th  August, 
the  Grand  Vizier  left  Constantinople  for  the  army.  September 
20th,  the  Seraakier  of  Widdin  was  defeated  by  General  Geismar, 
with  great  loss,  and  compelled  to  retreat.  Aliout  the  same  time, 
a  Russian  manifesto  issued  at  St.  Petersburg,  ordered  a  new  levy 
of  four  men  out  of  every  .500  of  the  population.  Varna  was 
carried  by  assault  after  a  siege  of  two  months,  October  11th. 
Its  garrison  originally  amounting  to  22,000  men,  was  reduced 
to  6,000.  This  was  the  most  important  fortress  of  the  Turks ; 
and  gave  the  Russians  the  command  of  the  western  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea.  On  the  15th  October,  the  blockade  of  the  Darda- 
nelles was  announced  officially  by  Admiral  Heydcn.  In  July, 
the  Turks  retired  into  the  strongly  fortified  mountain  position  of 
Shumla,  where  they  had  more  than  40,000  men,  under  the  com- 
mand  of  Hussein  Pacha. 


.''..(' 


-:'  I*  : 


j 


=t1 


640 


CHAPTEK  XK. 


The  principal  Russian  force,  45,000  men,  ^^^er  Field  Man.hoJ 
W.„go,;stoin,'with  the  Emperor  approached  f!'""^-^.  ^^^^^^^^^^ 
onvrutioim  were  coiuR  on  Inifore  Varna.    1  lie  Grand  V  izier  cau- 
SSv     vo  doa  giving  battle  to  the  Russians  before  Shuni la. 

S  'th^  adl  of  Varna',  the  Russian  --y^^''>  ^'^  Tnd  "S 
October  15.  Silistria  was  besieged  m  Scptembe  and  ra,^^^^^ 
November   10th.     The  heavy  artillery  ot    the   Russians  was 

whole  pachalic  of  Ikjasid,  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Luphra  es. 
was  conquered.     The  approach  of  wmter  put  an  end  to  ^is 
campaign,  in  winch  the  Russians  lost  "'^"^y^^"  ^y  ^^^^'l^ 
wanl  of  supplies.     The  loss  of  horses  was  great.     Th«  'csuha 
of  the  camuairrns  in  Kurope  and  Asia,  were,  two  lurkish  prin- 
dpahti^rS,  three  pac'halics,  fourteen    ortre^c.  a^  thre 
castles.     Notwithstanding  these    ««««%°*^  f'^  ^/j^^'J^^^^^ 
refused  the  terms  of  accommodation  offfr^^;.  b«fo'«  ^™  J^^.'J^^g 
this  campaign,  by  the   Emperor  Nicholas,  throg  fhe  B"tmh 
1    ambas»ador,\ord  Heytesbury,  viz.  '"'^^^'^'^^  "^^^^^^^^ 
1    p,,.nse  of  the  war,  and  security  against  future  injuries  and  viola- 

I    tions  of  treaties.  .  r'„„r,r(.l  n^phitsrh 

The  Sultan  prepared  for  a  new  campaign.     General  U.ebUscn 

'    was  anSttd  coLiander  in  chief  of  the  Russian  forces,  Feb. 
211829      The  siege  of  Silistria  was  renewed  on  the  opening 
of  tin  campa^^,  under  the  direction  of  Diebitsch,  May  17th. 
The  TuSi  army,  commanded  by  the  Grand  \  izier,  a  acked 
S  Ru^h^ns  posted  near  the  village  of  Eski  An.aoutlar,  at 
t..TZ  Lrning.^    The  battle  l-te^  till  8  in  tlie  evening 
when  the  Turks  retired  with  the  loss  of  2,000  killed,     un  ine 
mo    June,  a  great  battle  was  fought  at  Koulevtcha.  near 
Shumla-the  TuVks   commanded   by   the   Grand  V.zier,  and 
fheTlLians  by  Diebitsch.     The  battle  -a»  f-ght Jith  gre^t 
obstinacy;    when   European   tactics   prevailed  over    lurkisU 
em.    S      The  Turks  loLt  5,900  killed,  a  great  number  of  pn- 
s^S.  43  pieces  of  cannon,  6  standards,  all  their  ammunition 

"CSfStS^urrendered  to  the  R"~nt?5:S 
son  consisted  of  8,000  men,  and  the  armed  '"'^^J'^^^J  Jf-^JX^^ 
made  prisoners  of  war ;  220  pieces  of  cannon,  80  stand  of  colora, 
and  2  three-tailed  pachas,  were  also  taken,  besides  the  whole  ot 

^'llSel^ithe  surrender  of  the  J^ress  of ^ij; 
IHebitsch  commenced  preparations  to  paas  the  river  KamtclucK 


r 


.^nnj    ... 


laV«;iiS*#'-''t.  "^  '  " 


er  Field  Marsha) 
iiumla,  while  llie 
irand  Vizier  cau- 
before  Shunila. 
ick  from  Shumla, 
nbcr,  and  raiaed 
le  Russians  was 
(f  forward,  Gene- 
I,  was  advancing 
y,  and  liad  gained 
if  September,  the 
of  tlie  Euphrates, 
It  an  end  to  ilus 
m  by  disease  and 
iat.     The  results 
iwo  Turkish  prin- 
tresses,  and  three 
!  Turks,  the  Porte 
)efore  and  during 
rough  the  British 
cation  for  the  ex- 
injuries  and  viola- 
General  Diebitsch 
issian  forces,  Feb. 
■ed  on  the  opening 
bitsch,  May  17th. 
id  Vizier,  attacked 
ski  Aniaoutlar,  at 
1  8  in  tlie  evening, 
)0  killed.     On  the 
;  Koulevtcha,  near 
Grand  Vizier,  and 
I  fought  with  great 
iled  over   Turkish 
■eat  number  of  pri- 
ll their  ammunition 

ssians.  The  garri- 
ihabitants  that  wece 
1,80  stand  of  colors, 
jesides  the  whole  of 

fortress  of  Silistria, 
he  river  Kamtcluck 


\\ 


>■«.<■,!   i| 


''•ill 

m 


M's 


Mawacre  of  the  Greeks.    P.  636. 


^-  -  .. 


BatUe  of  Navarino.    P.  036. 


''■A 


836. 


G36. 


WAR  BETWEEN  RUSSIA  AND  TURKEY. 


641 


•nd  tho  Balkan  mountains.  On  the  17th  of  July,  tho  camp 
before  Shumla  was  Icil,  and  by  the  22d,  Diebitsch  had  attained 
the  summit  of  the  Balkan.  In  descending  these  mountains, 
the  Russians  encountered  n  Turkish  force  of  about  7,000  men, 
under  the  Semskier  Abduhl  Rahman,  and  defeated  him,  takmg 
4U0  prisoners,  12  cannon,  and  7  standards.  On  the  28d,  Mesom- 
bria  was  captured,  with  20  standards,  15  cannon,  and  2,000  pri- 
soners ;  and  on  the  same  day  Achioli  was  captured,  containing 
14  piuces  of  cannon,  ammunition,  &c. 

when  tho  Russian  army  readied  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea, 
it  was  able  to  co-operate  with  the  fleet  under  Admiral  Greig. 
Ou  the  24th  of  June,  Bourgas  was  taken,  with  ten  pieces  of 
cannon,  and  abundance  of  military  stores.  On  the  25th,  Aidos 
was  captured,  with  the  whole  Turkish  camp,  600  tents,  500 
barrels  of  gunpowder,  4  standards,  &c. 

August  19th,  the  Russians  approached  Adrianople,  and  the 
next  day  took  unresisted  possession  of  the  place,  where  nego- 
ciations  commenced.  Sept.  14,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed. 
Russia  agreed  to  the  restoration  of  Moldavia  and  Walachia,  and 
all  the  towns  occupied  by  them  in  Bulgaria  and  Rumclia.  Mol- 
davia was  to  have  an  independent  administration  and  free  trade ; 
and  the  Russians  freedom  of  commerce  throughout  the  Ottoman 
empire,  agreeably  to  former  treaties ;  and  free  commerce  and 
navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  to  all  nations  at  peace  with  Tur- 
key.  The  Porte  stipulated  to  pay  as  an  indemnification  to 
Russia,  1,500,000  ducats  of  Holland,  for  the  losses  of  Russian 
subjects :  and  a  further  sum,  as  should  be  agreed  upon,  as  an 
indemnity  for  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  war.  And  tho  Porte 
acceded  to  the  terms  of  Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  France,  for 
the  settlement  of  the  afioirs  in  Greece. 

The  indemnity  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  was  arranged  in 
a  subsequent  act,  to  be  paid  in  instalments.  On  the  fiist  pay- 
ment, the  Russian  troops  were  to  retire  from  Adrianople  ;  on  the 
second,  to  repass  the  Balkan  ;  and  on  the  third,  to  repass  the 
Danube ;  and  on  the  fourth  payment  to  evacuate  the  Turkish 
territory.  So  far,  the  Emperor  Nicholas  fulfilled  his  declara- 
tion and  pledges  to  the  Allies,  on  the  commencement  of  the  war 
— after  having  gained  the  objects  for  which  it  was  undertaken. 
In  this  campaign,  it  has  been  stated,  that  the  Russians  lost 
200,000  men  and  20,000  horses. 

It  was  stated  in  the  papers  at  the  time,  that  the  Russian  forces, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  present  campaign,  amounted  to 
541,731  regular  troops,  and  146,601  irregulars,  making  a  total 
of  688,833. 

41 


ii 


-..-'■v, 


''i ' 


642 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


England,  from  A.  D.  1816.  to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  P^' 

A'  "•  1""*- 

The  courae  of  policy  pursued  bv  the  British  caWnet^;;jj;'Ij 
broucht  about  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  to  the  tfro"^  " 
Fr3e       Its   accomplishment   loaded  England  wi  h  an  cnor. 
^n^:ZcKas  mueiri^  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  -jn^^^^ 
of  Englishmen,  as  the  restoration  of  he  B«Y„t    Jt  ^^^^^^^      , 
trarv  to  the  desire  of  the  French  nation.     Smce  that  evem, 
the  Fench  have  expelled  the  Bourbons;   and  the  people  of     j 
kXland   have   succeed,  after  an    «f--   «|-/Sjf '^S,  J^     | 
overthrow  of  toryism,  or  more  properly  speaking,  of  military 

''Te'lring  corruptions  in  the  representation  and  the  abuses  j 
which  existed  in  the  »  rotten-borough  system,"  had  long  ago  , 
TeefcSrW  shown,  by  writer  of  great  political  knowledge  ; 
and  many  of  England's  best  and  purest  patriots  had  labored  to 
eorrect  the  abuses  which  existed  i^n  their  representation  The 
liberal  ioumnlists  exerted  themselves  incessantly  to  cflect  this 
obP,  auH  was  repeatedly  urged  in  pariiament  with  great  force 

"^TheTcce'ssion  of  William  IV.  who  soon  became  the  most 
populL  monrrch  that  had  reigned  in  Eng'""^' P-^^  D^^f 
Ltho  cause  of  liberty.  After  the  overthrow  ot  the  Uuke  oi 
WdlinX  and  his  cabinet,  William  called  a  whig  n>'n>stry,  wi^ 
Earl  Grey  at  its  head;  and  this  eminent  statesman,  with  his 
coHeagTe!  Brougham,  carried  through  the  long  and  ardenly 
SeS  reform,  thich,  eradicating  the  "  rotten  boroughs  pro- 
vXd  for  the  free  and  equal  representation  of  the  people  of  Eng 

^-^.;:'mtrrrof  the  English  ^governm-t  ha^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

i^qSV^ttluTatLHi^^^^^^ 
British  statesmen,  more  especially  of  those  who  have  so  essen- 
Sy  a£  tTe  n^w  and  more  enlarged  line  of  policy,  m  accord^ 
inee  with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  opposed  to  the  "  slavish  and 
despotic  monarchies  of  Europe.  , 

In  the  1820,  George  III.  died,  January  29th,  at  the  age  ot 
82   after  a  reign  of  threescore  years,  the  longest  m  the  Bt.tish 
Snr;^hen'(^,eorge  IV.  who  had  been  regent  si nce^tcbn 
8,  1811,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  GreajBrita.^    wd  of   the 
p^l  ^U  nominated  by  the  P™^^ /egent    fiij  loni  ol   U^e 
treasury,  Jan.  9,  1812.  and  continued  in  office  till  1837.     His 


ENOLAND. 


643 


the  Reform  BiU, 


cabinet,  mainly 

to  the  throne  of 
d  with  an  enor- 

of  the  majority 
urbons  was  con- 
Since  that  event, 
ul  the  people  of 

struggle,  in  the 
iking,  of  military 

n,  and  the  abuses 
n,"  had  long  ago 
itical  knowledge  ; 
3t8  had  labored  to 
resentation.  The 
ntly  to  effect  this 
int  with  great  force 

became  the  most 
1,  proved  favorable 
w  of  the  Duke  of 
whig  ministry,  with 
tatcsmon,  with  his 
long  and  ardently 
in  boroughs,"  pro- 

the  peoole  of  Eng 

nt  having  a  nios> 
■  Europe,  it  will  be 
public  measures  of 
^ho  have  so  essen- 
»f  policy,  in  accord, 
to  the  "  slavish  and 

9th,  at  the  age  o( 
ngest  in  tho  British 
rent  since  February 
•itain.  Earl  L'ver- 
,  first  lord  of  the 
ice  till  1837.     His 


prudence  and  moderation  at  home,  were  strikingly  contracted 
with  till!  course  |)ursuod  by  Custlereagh,  minister  of  the  foreign 
department.  This  luttor  minister  destroyed  himself  by  sui- 
cide,  August  12,  1822.  On  his  interment  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  po|)ular  indignation  against  his  memory  was  strongly 
exiiibitod.  And  that  this  Wfis  not  without  reason,  will  appear 
by  a  rcl'orcncc  to  his  many  unfeeling  and  tyrannical  measures, 
and  his  violations  of  the  constitution.  We  are  Ihtc  constrained 
to  offer  a  passing  remark,  on  the  public  character  of  this  minis, 
ter,  whose  true  reputation  is  not  generally  known  in  this  coun- 
try.  Custlereagh  was  hated  for  his  tyranny  ;  he  was  the  dupe 
of  courts,  and  the  betrayer  of  the  people.  The  part  he  took 
in  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  parcelling  out  and  trafficking 
away  tho  rights  of  weaker  states,  to  build  up  a  military  despot, 
ism  throughout  Europe,  loaded  him  with  the  execrations  of  all 
those  people  whom  he  had  so  basely  sold.  His  death  was  con- 
sidercd  in  England  as  a  hapjty  event  for  the  cause  of  liberty, 
which  his  measures  had  for  so  many  years  crushed.  It  will  be 
seen,  that  the  foreign  policy  of  England  underwent  a  complete 
change  aflcr  his  death. 

In  1816,  the  income  tax  was  taken  off  from  personal  estate, 
capital,  and  colonial  possession.  This  was  but  shifting  the  bur- 
den  of  taxation  from  landholders  to  the  working  classes,  those 
great  consumers  of  the  necessories  of  life ;  who  were  now 
reduced  to  the  greatest  state  of  suffering.  England  for  a  time, 
surmounted  all  these  diflicultics,  and  even  greatly  increased  her 
foreign  trade.  This  k'  ept  the  manufacturing  districts  quiet,  aa 
long  as  they  wore  weil  employed. 

In  the  month  of  August,  1816,  a  British  squadron  of  five  sail 
of  the  line  and  five  frigates,  under  the  command  of  liord  Ex- 
mouth,  bombarded  Algiers,  and  destroyed  the  Algerine  shipping, 
batteries,  and  magazines :  when  the  Dcy  agreed  to  the  total 
abolition  of  Christian  slavery,  and  the  release  of  all  Christian 
captives  in  his  dominions.  A  few  months  afler  this  defeat  the 
Dey  was  strangled,  when  piracy  again  flourished,  till  the  French 
afterwards  conquered  this  piratical  city. 

The  distresses  in  England  led  the  populace  to  offer  public 
insult,  and  assail  the  prince  regent,  in  1817,  on  his  return  from 
parliament  to  Carlton  House.  February  3,  a  royal  message 
and  accompanying  documents  were  communicated  to  parlia. 
ment,  giving  information  of  the  existence  of  societies,  combi- 
nations, &c.  in  the  metropolis,  and  throughout  the  kingdom, 
dangerous  to  the  constitution  ;  and  that  insurrections  had  been 
planned.  In  consequence  of  this  information,  which  was  greatly 
exaggerated,  the  ministry  took  a  high-handed  course.     Lord 


\M 


m 


,  1 


it 


Lttiiiftiiiip 


644 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


S.dn,outh  introduced  a  bill  -nto  « «;  Ho-;J     ^  -  ^^  «- 
1      pc.«iou  of  the  hubcu.  corpvm  ":  l^^  «;''J  ^^    Ir.HS  .k-buting 

r-Tfort-nSg,  witl.  -v-ity.  uU  attc.npt^  to  corrupt  the 
"S^  fSt.  M.y  mK  a^.in  brought  ^--[^^y- 

r-r^-tbf^^^r^riis^^^^^^^ 

Lament,  ^^  '^'^J^'^^^^l^Z^,  .uB,.onHi..n  uct,  accompun.ed 

hLdod  act  Sir  «-"-i.,f  T^^  , '  r  Uibaed  the  righU 
reading  of  the  >'wJ«'""ty,J^ "'  ,  Z'JL^  froui  thorn;  who  had 
of  individuals,  and  took  -" '^'g'^Vuncons  it  t^^^  exerc.He  of 
Buffered  by  an  irresponsible  and  unconsmuuon 

^"^'"'^^^It   1819  there  was  a  meeting  at  Mmichester,  to  di». 

samo  wretches  '''Tiifmeeting  at  Manchester  was  of  a  peace, 
of  the  minis  ry.hmmeer.ng  ^^^^^^^  .^^^^^^^^^ 

able  -''"'-'; ;.^;^;rofrpetitioner..     There  was  no  ap- 

?S.  77r,Z"r^T^  UL,  uA  «™.  of  co.^ 

"°E"rHSy,  to  the  hou»  of  lord.,  moved  for  .n  "f^. 
Ik.  iuS  if  the  Miuicheaer  maparMc,  but  «a»  defe'ted, 

ss^ofir/^^r^^  of"Th»'.t  -.^"  to,^ 


M«UJ  .'  i)U.l)ii!IJIJU'Mi"Wi-''-."' 


ords,  fur  the  sum 
into  u  luw  ;  and 
i|i|)rti88  (luLiiting 
third   bill  was 

it8  to  corrupt  the 

)r\varii  the  qiios- 

was  aided  by  Sir 

votes  being  265 

•  opening  of  par- 

of  the  people,  by 

net,  aoconipuniod 

H  for  such  ti  high* 

il,  on   the   aecond 

liihited  the   rights 

0111  tho8(!  who  had 

tionol    exercise   of 

Vliinchesler,  to  dis- 

ll  sliould  here  be 
ernnient,  hiid  gone 
a  people ;  and  these 
cl  behind  the  power 
t(!r  was  of  a  peace- 
100  souls,  including 

There  was  no  up. 
re  any  arms  among 

during  his  speech, 
ind  many  lives  were 
'his  nefarious  trans- 
sh  populace.  The 
uring  districts,  were 
tinuance  of  twenty. 
)00,000,000  pounds. 

public  discussions. 
It  a  scene  of  conflict 

1  for  an  inquiry  into 
I,  but  was  defeated  ; 
se  of  commons,  and 
was   renewed  before 

guardians  of  public 
;rant  outrage  on  the 

the  ministers  intro- 


RNOLAND. 


645 


duced  several  bills  that  became  Inws,  to  bo  continued  five 
years.  These  have;  gone  by  the  designation  of  the  six  acts. 
They  were  :  Ist,  a  bill  to  take  away  the  right  of  traversing, 
in  cases  of  misdemeanors.  '2d,  for  piiniHiiing  any  person  found 
guilty,  on  a  seeoiul  <'onvictioii  of  IiIk'I,  by  fine,  imprisonment, 
or  banishment  for  lifi;.  'M\,  for  preventing  seditious  meetings. 
4tii.  to  prevent  private  military  trainings.  M\,  the  application 
of  the  severe  stamp  system  to  pamphlets  under  two  sheets,  and 
a  more  rigorous  punishment  of  IIIk-Is  and  seditious  writings. 
6th,  a  bill  giving  magistrates  the  power  of  entering  hoiiw.>s  by 
night,  or  by  day,  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  arms  believed  to  be 
collected  for  unlawful  purpos(!S. 

1820.  The  death  of  (jeorge  III.  this  year,  protluced  no  dif- 
ference in  th(!  public  measures ;  although  the  aspect  of  ('England 
was  quite  changed  by  the  great  increase  of  trade,  and  the  dimi- 
nution of  taxes,  and  by  better  harvests.  The  renewal  of  specie 
payments,  and  the  increasing  value  of  paper  currency,  was 
highly  favorable  to  manufactures.  The  countiy  was  now  rwco- 
vering  from  the  heavy  burden  of  war,  in  which  she  had  so  long 
been  engaged. 

A  daring  conspiracy  to  assassinate  ministers,  called  the  Cato 
street  conspiracy,  was  detected,  for  which  Thistlewood  and  four 
of  his  companions  paid  the  forfeit  of  their  lives,  and  four  others 
concerned  were  transported  for  life  to  Botany  Buv 

July  19,  1821.  The  splendid  coronation  of  George  IV.  took 
place  at  Westminster  Abbey. 

On  the  death  of  the  Marquis  of  Londorderry,  better  known 
as  Lord  Costlereagh,  Mr.  Canning  was  called  to  the  cabinet,  as 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  Sept.  16th,  18iI2.  One  of  the  first 
measures  of  Canning,  was  to  check  the  fanatic  influence  of  the 
French  in  Spain.  In  1823,  England  allowed  her  subjects  to  aid 
the  Greeks,  and  even  acknowledged  their  right  of  blockade. 
With  the  republics  of  South  America,  she  formed  treaties  of 
alliance ;  and  in  1825,  formally  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  the  South  American  states. 

In  the  years  1825  and  1826,  the  commercial  diflSculties  were 
great,  occasioned  by  the  speculation  in  foreign  loans,  and  in 
the  most  costly  undertakings,  which  led  to  bankruptcies,  and 
gave  an  unusual  shock  to  men  of  business.  "  Bankruptcies 
spread  like  a  vast  fog  over  England,  America,  France,  and 
Germany,  at  the  same  moment.  But  the  vigor  of  England  is 
mcalculable."*  Seventy-five  banks  broke  in  the  same  number 
of  days  ;  and  255  joint-stock  companies,  that,  a  week  before, 

*  Crol/i  Life  of  George  IV. 


?< 


VK 


64G 


CHAPTER  Xiy. 


wcio  in  hi«l»  credit,  oiul  ready  for  vu--  undortakiogi,  were  in 

«  u.r    v..  r  conlidcncn  was  r.M,8tal.ii8luMl,  c-,„Mn..rr.>  revived 
tS\:!^;:  butl  w.u.t  forward  wi.l.   reuow.l   actm.y  and 

^"lir^unerous   iuiUues  of  bank,.  tl.-O^'^  ;J;^^;;^-ij5 

X      Thus  rLtres^  of  the  country  wa-  in  a  great  .m-asure 

"'KaO,  \pril  4th.  England  united  with  the  court  of  St.  Peters- 
bug  to  compel  the  Porte  to  cease  hostilit.eBW.th  the  C,rj..eks. 
Mr.  Canning  was  appointe.!  prin.e  mnuster  Apr.  12th  l^J^ 
.v^  died  in  the  month  of  August  of  the  same  year.  His  policy 
was  crown..d  b X  recognition  of  the  South  American  states 
The  maSnanS  of  the  indeiH^ndenco  of  Portugal,  and  the  treaty 
stnedarCulon.  July  mil.  fur  the  settlement  of  the  war  m 
Greece  which  treaty  led  to  the  battle  of  Navarmo.* 

TordGodcrich  succeeded  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  Ho 
ret  n-d  from  office  January  8th.  when  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
wts  made  premier,  alihough  the  duke  had  declared  in  parliumen  , 
The  year  before,  his  entire  unfitness  for  high  c.v.l  ofhce.  In  Apnl. 
a  Catholic  relief  bill  was  passed. 

George  IV.  King  of  Great  Britain,  died  June  26th,  jsaO,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  second  brother,  the  Duke  of  Cbrence 

Tder^hrtitle  of  Villiam  IV.  The  ^^^^XTZ/.tJ^^^ 
of  Wellington  was  overthrown.  November  16th,  and  a  «w  days 
after,  a  nfw  ministry  was  formed,  with  Earl  Grey  at  lU  head. 

nrS'^orwXS  overthrow  was  ascrilyd  to  his 
JsSnce  of  retrenchme'nt.  and  his  "PPf;---  "J  ^ ^ 
riots  and  opposition  to  parliamentary  reform.  Ihe  political 
oSiacy  o??rDuke  arLe  out  of  his  ignorance  and  contempt 
of  the  people,  and  a  blind  confidence  in  his  own  supremacy  and 
J^wer.Tnd   a  thorough   oisregard   of    public  opinion,  while 

.  Mr.  Brougham  .aid  of  Mr.  Canning,  in  the  British  h°»»«  "J^'J"^^;;?; 

10  be  hoped,  that  the  efforts  he  made,  crowned  as  they  were  wim  succeia, 
might  be  followed  up." 


i  I 


i!!BHU,-Jim...'H-"J<*""-'^'-'m''-""'" 


Irtakint^  were  lA 
lli'soliitioii,  ffi  all- 
Ldirirrri;  rtivived, 
Iwid   uctivity  and 


rird  tliu  littxirini 
o  ciirrnicy 
ncnt  itniiu'diutcly 

l(>8.sil)l(3    (l<;8imtcll. 

)  a  iluy,  nnu  Hiip- 
i)f  tlio  mint  on  this 
giiH  pt-r  (lay  wcro 
rnrily,  two  pound 
n  a  groat  tnt^oaure 

:ourt  of  St.  Peters, 
s  with  thn  Greeks. 
April  12th,  1827, 
year.  His  policy 
I  Americnn  states, 
igal,  and  the  treaty 
ont  of  tlie  war  in 
variiio.* 

tlio  treasury.  He 
uke  of  Wellington 
lared  in  parliament, 
vil  office.  In  April, 

me  26th,  1830,  and 
Duke  of  Clarence, 
tration  of  the  Duke 
kh,  and  a  few  days 
I  Grey  at  its  head, 

as  ascribed  to  his 
lension  of  popular 
'm.  The  political 
■once  and  contempt 
>wn  supremacy  and 
}lic  opinion,  while 

sh  house  of  commons, 
ature  sacrifice  to  his 
of  policy ;  and  it  was 
ey  were  with  success. 


ENOLAlfD. 


647 


events  at  home  and  abroad  ptirplexed  him.  The  continental 
inouurcliH  of  the  Holy  Alliunce  had  looked  to  the  tory  ministry, 
'  wit!)  Wellington  at  itH  head,  for  security  and  protection.  What 
'niii.'<t  hav(!  been  the  sensittion  in  the  courtx  of  those  countries, 
when  intelligence  was  received  of  the  Duke's  overthrow  and 
resigiuttion  ? 

The  whig  niiniHtry,  with  Karl  Grey  at  its  head,  was  pledged 
to  sii|>|K)rl  the  reform  bill,*  '/'liix  ministr^  took  upon  them  a 
gr(uit  task — an  arduous  res{/«jii»<bility.  That  gross  ubust^s 
nboundi-d  in  the  Hritish  governmin:,  no  one  could  deny  ;  and 
rellirm  was  demanded  by  the  united  voice  of  the  nation.  Mr. 
Brougham  was  pledged  to  parliamentary  reform,  the  reduction 
of  expenses  and  sinecures,  and  against  negro  slavery. 

The  ministerial  plan  of  re-form,  by  Earl  Grey  and  his  cabinet, 
was  brought  forward  by  Lord  John  Russell,  on  the  1st  of  March  ; 
and  uiler  a  debate  of  seven  days,  leave  was  given  to  bring  in 
three  bills  for  reforming  the  representation  of  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland.  The  bill  wus  ( arried,  after  a  debate  of  two  days, 
to  a  second  rcadiujf,  IVIarch  •-J2d,  by  a  vote  of  302  to  301  ;  but 
was  lost  on  the  third  reading,  the  vote  being  201  for  the  minis> 
try,  209  against  it. 

The  King  dissolved  the  parliament  in  person,  on  the  22d  of 
April.  In  the  speech  delivered  on  that  occusujii,  William  said, 
"  I  have  been  induced  to  resort  to  this  nieuiiure  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  the  sense  of  my  people,"  &ic. 

The  new  parliament,  of  which  a  largo  number  v/m  pledged 
to  support  reform,  assembled  June  14th,  1831,  and  was  opened 
by  the  King,  who  recommended  the  question  of  a  reform  in 
the  representation,  to  their  earliest  and  most  attentive  conxtdera- 
tion.  On  the  24th,  the  reform  bill  was  again  brought  forward 
by  Lord  John  Russell,  in  the  house  of  commons,  and  puwed  its 
second  reading  July  6th,  by  a  vote  of  367  to  235,  and  to  a  third 
reading  Sept.  22d,  by  a  vote  of  349  to  236.  The  bill  was  car- 
ried up  to  the  house  of  lords,  and  on  October  8th,  rejected  by  a 
vote  of  109  to  158.  Parliament  was  prorogued  on  the  20th  of 
the  same  month. 

The  rejection  of  the  reform  bill  in  the  house  of  lords,  on  the 
8th,  led  to  strong  manifestations  of  popular  fury  against  the 
nobility,  especially  those  who  had  voted  against  the  bill.  At 
Nottingham  and  Derby,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  kingdom^ 
riots  commenced  soon  as  intelligence  of  the  defeat  of  the  bill 

*  In  1797,  Lord  Grey  made  a  motion  for  reform.  Its  failure  caused  that 
great  statesman,  Fox,  to  withdraw  from  parliament,  which  was  by  soma 
jadged  to  be  a  dereliction  of  duty. 


*i/,i( 


iu, 


" 


648 


CHAPTER  XIT. 


was  received.  Oa  the  29th,  30th,  and  Slat,  dreadrul  riota  took 
place  at  Bristol — many  of  the  public  buildings  and  an  immense 
amount  of  property  were  destroyed ;  ninety  persons  were  k-lled 
and  wounded  at  that  time ;  afterwards  five  were  executed,  and 
many  were  sentenced  to  transportation.  The  total  damage 
done,  during  this  riot  at  Bristol,  was  estimated  at  300,000  pounds 
sterling. 

Parliament  was  opened  again,  December  6th,  by  the  King ; 
and  on  the  12th,  Lord  John  Russell,  (a  third  time,)  introduced 
a  new  bill  for  reform,  very  similar  to  the  former,  and  declared 
to  be  "  equally  efficient."  It  was  read  the  second  time,  on  the 
16th,  by  a  vote  of  324  to  162.  On  March  23d,  it  was  brought 
up  for  a  third  reading,  and  passed  by  a  vote  of  355  to  239. 
The  bill  passed  to  a  second  reading,  in  the  house  of  lords,  April 
13th,  by  a  vote  of  184  to  175.  An  amendment  to  defeat  the 
bill  was  introduced  by  Lord  Lyndhurst,  which  passed  May  8th, 
by  a  vote  of  151  to  116  ;  and  on  May  12th  it  was  lost  by  a 
majority  of  40.  Earl  Grey  advised  the  King  to  create  a  sufli. 
cient  number  of  new  peers  to  secure  the  success  of  the  bill,  ten- 
dering his  resignation  as  the  alternative,  which  was  accepted. 
On  the  resignation  of  ministers,  great  public  excitement  followed. 
The  political  unions,  organized  throughout  the  country,  deter, 
mined  to  refuse  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  demanded  that  the 
ministers  should  be  reinstated.  Earl  Grey  had  stated,  that  he 
would  stand  or  fall  by  this  bill ;  and  that  nothing  less  efficient 
should  be  supported  by  him. 

The  excitement  was  so  great  in  Birmingham,  that  100,000 
persons  assembled  suddenly  and  spontaneously,  and  forwarded 
an  immediate  express  to  London.  There  was  a  firm  determina. 
tion  to  have  the  reform  bill  carried,  or  pay  no  taxes  ;  and  this 
determination  was  echoed  from  every  part  of  the  kingdom. 
There  was  no  riot ;  the  people  had  risen  in  their  collective 
strength,  to  assert  their  just  rights.  Bursts  of  indignant  feel- 
ings were  directed  against  the  bishops  and  nobility.  The 
Duke  of  Wellington  failed  in  his  attempts  to  form  a  ministry  ; 
when  Earl  Grey  and  his  colleagues  were  reinstated  in  office 
May  18th,  with  the  assurance  from  the  King,  of  having  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  peers  created,  to  secure  the  passing  of  the  bill. 
When  the  lords  were  apprized  of  this  fact,  they  resolved  to  let 
it  pass. 

June  14th,  the  bill  passed  a  third  reading,  by  a  vole  of  106 
to  22,  and  the  royal  assent  was  given  by  commission,  on  the  17th 
of  the  same  month.  It  is  worthy  of  remtwk,  that  not  one  of  the 
bishops  was  present  on  the  final  passage  of  the  bill.  In  answer, 
iog  the  forebKodings  and  objections  made  to  it  by  the  lords,  Eaii 


eadful  riota  touk 
and  an  immcnae 
[irsons  were  k-lled 
3re  executed,  and 
The  total  damage 
It  300,000  pounds 

Ith,  by  the  King ; 

time,)  introduced 

ncr,  and  declared 

cond  time,  on  the 

3d,  it  was  brought 

e  of  355  to  239. 

use  of  lords,  April 

lent  to  defeat  the 

Ih  passed  May  Stli, 

h  it  was  lost  by  a 

g  to  create  a  suiii. 

[ess  of  the  bill,  ten- 

nich  was  accepted. 

xcitement  followed. 

the  country,  deter. 

lemanded  that  the 

lad  stated,  that  he 

thing  less  efficient 

:ham,  that  100,000 
sly,  and  forwarded 
8  a  firm  determina. 
lo  taxes ;  and  this 
:  of  the  kingdom, 
in  their  collective 
of  indignant  feel, 
nd  nobility.  The 
D  form  a  ministry  ; 
reinstated  in  office 
,  of  having  a  suffi. 
passing  of  the  bill, 
ley  resolved  to  let 

,  by  a  vote  of  106 
nission,  on  the  17th 
that  not  one  of  the 
le  bill.  In  answer, 
by  the  lords,  Eaii 


BNOLAND. 


649 


Grey  said — "  That  the  peace,  power,  and  prosperity  of  England 
would  all  be  increased  by  the  reform." 

By  it,  22  new  boroughs,  in  England,  are  to  send  two  new 
members  each  ;  19  new  boroughs,  one  each  ;  62  new  members 
are  added  to  the  English  county  members  ;  three  to  the  county 
members,  and  two  to  the  borougli  members  of  Wales ;  five  to 
the  Scotch  members  ;  and  five  to  the  Irish  members.  By  this 
reform  bill,  56  of  the  old  boroughs,  cullcfl  rotten  or  decayed 
boroughs,  have  been  wiiolly  disfranchised ;  and  30  boroughs, 
tiint  before  sent  two  members  each,  are  to  send  but  one.  The 
united  borough  of  Weymouth  and  Mclcombe  Regis,  which  before 
sent  four  members,  is  to  send  but  two. 

County  members  under  the  reform  act. — Formerly,  each  county 
sent  two  members,  except  Yorkshire,  which  returned  four — 
total  82.  The  counties  in  Wales,  one  each — total  12.  By  the 
reform  act,  the  number  of  the  county  members  of  England  is 
raised  to  144 ;  those  of  Wales  to  15.  And  26  English  counties 
are  divided,  and  return  four  members  each ;  7  counties  three 
each  ;  the  ridings  of  Yorkshire,  two  each  ;  and  the  six  remain- 
ing counties,  two  each ;  and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  one.  Of  the  12 
Welch  counties,  three  send  two  members  each ;  the  remaining 
nine,  one  each. 

The  reform  act  also  extends  to  the  right  of  voting,  in  the  elec 
tion  of  members  for  cities  and  boroughs,  to  every  male  person 
of  full  age,  not  subject  to  any  legal  incapacity,  who  occupies,  as 
owner  or  tenant,  any  house,  warehouse,  shop  or  building,  of  not 
less  than  ten  pounds  yearly  value  :  provided  such  person  pa)rs 
assessed  taxes  and  poor  rates.  And  in  the  election  of  county 
members,  the  elective  franchise  extends  to  every  male  person 
who  shall  be  in  actual  occupation  of  a  freehold  for  life,  or  of 
lands  or  tenements  of  copyhold,  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  not 
less  than  ten  pounds.  In  England,  a  county  member  of  parlia- 
ment must  possess  real  property  to  the  amount  of  600  pounds 
Gr  annum ;  and  a  borough  member,  300  pounds.  But  in  Scot- 
id,  no  such  qualification  is  requisite. 

Lord  John  Russell,  in  his  speech  on  introducing  the  first 
reform  bill,  (March  1,  1831,)  made  the  following  statement 
respecting  the  number  of  voters  that  would  be  added  by  that  bill : 
number  added  in  towns  and  boroughs  in  England  already  sending 
members,  1 10,000  ;  electors  of  towns  in  England  sending  mem- 
bers for  the  first  time,  50,000 ;  electors  in  London,  who  will 
obtain  the  right  of  voting,  95,000  ;  increase  of  electors  in  Scot- 
land, 60,000  ;  in  Ireland,  perhaps  40,000  ;  increase  in  the  coun- 
ties of  England,  100,000.  « It  is  my  opinion,  therefore,"  said 
Lord  Russell,  "  that  the  whole  measure  will  add  to  the  constitu- 


CHAPTEK  XIV. 


^,  of  ,he  common  ho«»  of  p«rU.n,enU  "J»"'  ^f;  "J'ijJ 

nliSLtu'STof 'boo,l,s  an.  >o  W  P«^P»-^»  "••'.ft 
polUnn  <o  contmuc,  if '«'l''"«^>.'-  '"?  ^S    houm  on  U.e 

b7"vi;rrH,t„r„f:r.™-t:L.ep>opo„.a» 

the  English  house  ol  lords  ;  and  o    the  dwin  oi  u 
''T»'p...in«  of  .he  reform  hill  »"  Mo««'l  !H  »£"!"! 

cr°Vhrry^:^^».r^H;XK^. 

re^/fi^^^reissts^hivrxra .«'.  i-- 

ihem  with  complete  hberlv.  parliament,  and 

The  cond.tio»  ol  'j'j  f/^J^^^^^^^^^  investing 

in  connection  with  the  Irish  coercion       ,  session  of 

the  executive  wUh  ^''[.^^"'tl'^Cirfo^^^^^^^^^^ 
disturbances,  various  bills  ««  «  '""f  "•^^j,  „„  ^f  one  of  these, 
of  the  grievances  of  that  country.  ^J;f°'"r'^2  Protestont 
which  had  for  it«  object  ^^e  reform  ^^f  the   Ijish^r^^^^    ^^ 

Church,  involved  the  appropriation  of  l"f  ^'^'^^^^^  ^  -' 

vision  for  the  Protestant  Clergy,  to  the  general  put 


purposes  ot 


|)ut  half  a  million 
property  of  the 
and  deeply  into- 

ured,  so  that  not 

iipartmcnt.     The 

.aaive  days  only ; 

orht  hours  on  the 

be  kept  open  later 

a  third  reading  in 
)f  tiie  same  month, 
I  house  of  lords, 
was  read  a  third 
On  the  16th  of 
ogued  to  the  16th 

irliament  has  been 
wisdom,  and  stem 
or  many  years,  the 
nmons, — a  firm  and 
3crats  and  leagued 

owed  by  a  general 
dry.  The  first  ses- 
thu  king,  in  person, 
session,  the  charters 
I.  The  former  was 
of  the  British  terri- 
le  East  India  Com- 
>wn  open  to  British 
1  memorable  by  the 
slavery  in  the  VVest 
nted  to  the  proprie- 
BS  were  placed  in  a 
(pired  and  invested 

fore  parliament,  and 
I  measure  investing 
-  the  suppression  of 
for  the  amelioration 
lion  of  one  of  these, 
he  Irish  Protestant 
titles,  after  due  pro- 
general  purposes  of 


ENGLAND. 


651 


education.  In  the  session  of  1831,  the  Irish  coercion  bill, 
which  was  to  have  expired  in  August,  was  renewed,  and  ren- 
dered more  stringent,  Init  before  it  was  passed,  the  administra- 
tion of  Earl  (Jrey  was  dissolved.  Upon  the  resignation  of  Mr. 
Littleton,  the  Irish  secretary.  Lord  Althorp  and  Earl  Grey,  Lord 
Melbourne  became  premier,  all  the  other  members  of  the  cabinet 
retaining  office.  One  act  was  carried  by  the  .Melbourne  admin- 
islnation,  which  has  proved  of  great  importance  to  all  classes. 
This  act  had  for  its  object  the  entire  re-organization  of  the  poor 
laws.  Great  difference  of  opinion  exists,  regarding  its  merits, 
but  it  is  clear  that  it  has  relieved  the  owners  and  occupiers  of 
lands  from  heavy  burdens,  and  raised  the  moral  character  of  the 
English  peasantry.  Under  the  old  poor-laws,  they  unblushingly 
sought  the  pittance  of  charity  :  now  they  are  mainly  sohcitous 
to  subsist  by  honest  industry. 

The  rule  of  the  Melbourne  administration  was  brief.  Before 
the  prorogation  of  parliament,  its  weakness  had  been  apparent, 
and  its  want  of  intrinsic  power  had  rendered  it  dependent  on 
O'Connell  and  his  party.  At  the  same  time,  the  public  press 
denounced  its  incapacity  to  carry  on  government  on  any  fixed 
principles.  Certain  of  its  members  gave  high  offence  to  the 
king,  who  availed  himself  of  an  opportunity,  aflbrded  him  by  the 
death  of  Earl  Spencer,  to  dismiss  the  whole  ministry  from  his 
service.  To  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  committed  the  task  of  form- 
ing a  new  cabinet,  which  was  accomplished  towards  the  close 
of  the  year. 

This  change  in  the  administration  was  followed,  in  1 835,  by 
a  general  election.  In  England  the  new  government  obtained  a 
majority  in  the  elections,  but  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  public 
opinion  was  decidedly  against  them.  When  parliament  assem- 
bled, they  were  left  in  the  minority,  in  the  first  subject  of  debate, 
that  of  the  choice  of  a  speaker.  Upoki  several  subsequent  divi- 
sions they  were  equally  unsuccessful,  and  on  being  defeated  in 
a  measure,  concerning  the  appropriation  of  the  surplus  of  the 
revenues  of  the  Irish  church.  Sir  Robert  Peel  resigned.  The 
Melbourne  cabinet,  with  the  exception  of  Lord  Brougham,  were 
now  recalled,  and  during  this  session  they  succeeded  in  passing 
bills  for  the  reform  of  the  English  corporations,  and  for  the 
solemnization  of  the  marriages  of  dissenters  in  their  own 
chapels.  These  measures  were  followed  in  the  session  of 
1836,  by  laws  for  the  better  registration  of  births,  marriages 
and  deaths ;  for  the  commutation  of  English  tithes,  and  the 
nearer  equalization  of  episcopal  sees.  Upon  Irish  questions, 
the  house  of  lords  was  still  opposed  to  the  views  of  the  cabinet, 
and  the  majority  of  the  house  of  commons.     The  lords  refused 


•H\i 


m^ 


Hi 


M 


Wit 

"! 


•/ 


652 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


if 


to  nass  an  Irish  tilhe  bill  with  the  aprropriation  clause,  and  the 
^oJimons  rliecting  the  measure  without  U.  there  was  once  more 

'^  '^Z^ZS^l^C^^^^^  forced  themselves 
At  this  tune,  ine  a  ,pj^     y^^^^^  ^i  assembly  m 

o„  4,  19th  of  June,  h.8  majesty  "P''t*J"°°°' fV^b- 
Few  tiKTOreh.  of  K„gl«nd  ...r  po>».8.ed  the  lo.e  of  thetr  WB- 
jeete  in  s  grentcr  degree  then  Wllham  IV. 


AUxandrina  Victoria. 
1    n   laiT      tieiandrlna  Victoria,  who  now  succeeded  to 

wu  hailed  with  mote  than  ordinary  enthnsiaam.  One  eltect  oi 
1?  descent  of  the  crown  to  a  female,  wa.  the  .eparatton  from 
*  of  Ha!».°r,  after  a  onion  of  more  than  a  oenlory.     The 

'"Cia",::!"'  c^p^^'te^r  fS  °S»> ...  p-* 

di.»   at  .£ao»of  .H.  ^t™ofT..?rM" 
S ZiSToHh;  S."..  l»d  been 'declining,  but  the 


clause,  and  the 
was  once  more 

reed  themselves 
of  assembly  in 
on  to  the  mother 
An  attempt  at 
ution  of  cominis- 
les  of  the  British 
ractory  8i)irit  dis- 
rd  Durham  was 
as,  with  the  most 
evolt,  the  amelio- 
the  institutions  of 

:'s  health  had,  in 
lent  spring,  symp- 
sing  rapidly,  until, 
ithout  a  struggle, 
love  of  their  sub- 


now  succeeded  to 
late  duke  of  Kent, 
as  18  years  of  age, 
im.  One  effect  of 
he  separation  from 
I  a  century.  The 
irer. 

I  with  all  possible 
ts  dissolved.  The 
terfect  tranquillity, 
declining,  but  the 
lity  to  their  power. 
I  educated  by  her 
id  her  countenance 
ernment  and  make 
roclaimed  that  she 
andidates  traversed 
loyalty  to  her 


9ir 


ENGLAND. 

majesty  by  supporting  her  ministers.  This  appeal  to  the  people 
failed  to  accomplish  its  object,  the  triumphs  of  the  political 
parties,  after  a  keen  trial  of  their  strength,  being  nearly  balanced. 

In  the  autumn  of  this  year,  the  corporation  of  London  distin- 
guished itself  by  a  demonstration  of  its  loyalty  to  the  queen,  in  a 
magnificent  entertainment  given  to  her  in  Guildhall,  on  the  9ih 
of  November.  The  utmost  enthusiasm  prevailed  on  this  occa- 
sion. The  queen  opened  the  new  parliament  on  the  20th  of 
November.  The  motions  relative  to  vote  by  ballot,  and  slavery, 
which  occupied  their  attenticm  during  this  session,  were  nega- 
tived. A  bill  which  had  for  its  object  the  education  of  the 
people,  without  reference  to  creed,  was  brought  in  by  Lord 
Brougham,  but  the  difHculties  it  encountered  were  insurmountable. 

A  disaffection  arose  among  the  working  classes  in  the  manu- 
facturing districts,  during  the  autumn  of  this  year,  excited  by  the 
poor  laws  and  the  price  of  provisions,  but.  by  the  exertions  of 
government,  order  was  restored. 

In  the  session  of  1839,  a  bill  was  passed  for  the  regulation  of 
municipal  corporations  in  Ireland.  At  this  time  disputes  existed 
between  the  British  government  and  the  Jamaica  legislature, 
arising  from  an  act,  which  empowered  her  majesty  in  council 
to  make  rules  for  the  government  of  the  West  India  prisons,  to 
appoint  inspectors,  and  to  regulate  other  matters  of  discipline. 
This  was  resisted  by  the  Jamaica  assembly,  as  a  violation  of 
their  rights  ;  resolutions  condemnatory  of  the  act  were  adopted, 
and  the  members  resolved  to  forego  the  exercise  of  their  legisla- 
tive functions,  until  it  was  repealed.  In  consequence  of  this,  a 
bill  was  brought  into  parliament  for  the  suspension  of  the  exist- 
ing constitution  of  Jamaica,  for  five  years.  Before  this  the  minis- 
try had  lost  some  of  their  supporters,  and  others  now  voting  against 
them,  the  result  of  the  debate  brought  about  their  resignation. 
Sir  Robert  Peel  having  failed  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  the  Mel- 
bourne administration  again  resumed  office,  and  measures  were 
taken  by  them  for  the  advancement  of  education,  not,  however, 
commensurate  with  the  wants  of  the  people.  Every  section  of 
the  religious  community  opposed  each  other  on  this  question, 
which  rendered  it  diflicult  for  ministers  to  adopt  any  enlarged 
or  enlightened  educational  measure.  A  bill,  for  the  healing  of 
the  breach  between  the  British  parliament  and  the  Jamaica 
assembly,  was  passed,  which  had  the  desired  effect.  Acts  were 
passed  for  the  better  ordering  of  prisons,  for  the  suppression  of 
the  Portuguese  slave  trade,  and  for  the  disposal  of  waste  lands  in 
the  colonies ;  but  this  session  was  particularly  signalized  by  the 
reduction  of  the  rates  of  postage,  a  measure,  promotive  of  the 
.  interests  of  trade  and  commerce,  and  of  individur*  bennfit. 


I 


ffll 


CIIAITER    XIV. 

A   mntion  to  take  into  consiJeration  a  '«Nalional  Petition," 

?  asses  domandiMK  universal  8uflrn«c,  vole  by  ballot,  annual 
narliaments  and  remuneration  of  members  for  their  attendance 
f„  the  n  anS  the  abolition  of  the  property  qual.ficat.ons,  was 
rol.  tPd  Its  rciectiou  was  c-otemporaneous  with  various  riots 
at'mrlgl  am  iSng  out  of  the  pToceedmgs  of  the  chartists, 
Su  twh    1.  wer^  suppressed  by  the  action  of  parharnent. 

An  announcement  was  made,  at  the  opening  of  the  se  s.on 
of  1840  that  her  majesty  was  about  to  be  married  to  Albert, 
ln.o  of  ?ixe  Cohura  and  (iotha.     A  bill  was  consequently 

rglttr;pa:sed,''for  the  -J-'^ j"-^  ^i^T^it 
an  nnn  npr  annum,  was  a  so  voted  him,  out  ol  tne  con 
SitefS  rcZmence  on  the  day  of  l.is  marriage  wuh 
her  majesty,  and  to  continue  during  life.     The  marriage  tooK 
place  on  the  1 0th  of  February.  ,    . 

\  bill  was  this  year  brouaht  into  parliamenl  and  passed,  lor 
the  urn,  o  the  t  Jo  Canadas.  During  the  last  year,  a  serious 
coUrJio.    took  place  between  the  Chinese  authorities,  and  the 

cannon  wrested'^from  the  emperor  of  that  vast  empire  a  portion 

This  dominions.     The  policy  «f  f -^'-if^^,;? S"    con- 
the  affairs  of  China,  was  made  the  subject  of  a  series  ol  con 
demnSlry  ^Lolutioi'is,  and  they  were  only  negatived  by  a  small 

""iT'this  period  Sir  Robert  Peel  moved  a  resolution,  to  the 
eflect  that  Ter  majesty's  ministers  did  not  possess  the  confidence 
«r.hV  house  sufficiently  to  enable  them  to  carry  any  measure 
o    essenS    imjorunce'^lo  the  public   welfare,   and  that  their 

Ire  mSLty  unfavorable  to  the  administration.  An  amend- 
ment to*he  address  from  the  throne,  representing  to  her  majesty 
ri  c  ssitv  ia  her  ministers  should  enjoy  the  confidence  of 


I 


atioiml  Petition," 
of  the  working 
y  ballot,  annual 
their  attendance 
ualifications,  was 
ith  various  riots 
of  the  chartists, 
arliitrnent. 
ing  of  the  session 
married  to  Albert, 
was  consequently 
of  his  royal  high- 
m,  out  of  the  con- 
his  marriage  with 
^he  marriage  took 

!iit  and  passed,  for 
iist  year,  a  serious 
ulhorities,  and  the 
(vcrnment  had  pro- 
r  country,  and  an 
ry  particle  of  this 
be  delivered  to  the 
s  was  refused,  and 
the  British  govern- 
he  Chinese  empire, 
first  time,  British 
ist  empire  a  portion 
t,  with  reference  to 
Df  a  series  of  con- 
egatived  by  a  small 

I  resolution,  to  the 
isess  the  confidence 
carry  any  measure 
ire,  and  that  their 
!ee,  was  at  variance 
dution  was  adopted, 
Hras  dissolved,  and 
:  general  election, 
his  occasion,  but  at 
ilts  of  the  elections 
ration.  An  amend- 
iting  to  her  majesty 
y  the  confidence  of 


ENGLAND. 


6SS 


the  country,  and  that  it  was  not  possossed  by  the  present  admin* 
istrntiun,  was  carried  against  them  by  a  large  majority.  In 
reply,  her  majesty  stated  tliat  she  would  take  measures  lor  the 
formation  of  a  new  cabinet,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  charged 
with  the  task,  in  executing  which,  he  was  successful.  The 
principal  members  of  the  new  .idministration  were  ihe  Duke  of 
Wellington,  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  the  Karl  of  Haddington, 
Sir  James  Graham,  Lords  Ellcnborongh,  Stanley,  Wharnclifle, 
Lowthor,  and  Lyndhurst;  the  Honorable  H.  Goulburn,  Sir  E. 
Knatchbull,  and  Sir  H.  Hardingo.  The  only  measures  of 
importance,  brought  forward  by  the  new  ministry,  were  bills  for 
the  belter  administration  of  justice  in  the  court  of  chancery,  and 
for  the  continuance  of  the  new  poor  law  commission. 

This  year,  the  differences  which  had  arisen  between  the 
courts  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Chinese  empire,  were,  for  a 
time,  adjusted.  After  the  forts,  surrounding  Canton,  were  cop- 
lured,  the  Chinese  emperor  purchased  peace  by  indemnification. 
The  island  and  harbor  of  Hong  Kong  were  ceded  to  the  British 
crown  ;  an  indemnity  of  6,UOO,000  dollars  was  to  i)c  paid  to  the 
British  government,  and  the  trade  and  commerce  between  the 
two  countries  renewed.  Further  important  concessions  were 
made  by  the  Chinese  empire,  and  the  result  of  the  war  was 
highly  favorable  to  Great  Britain.  It  must  bo  mentioned,  to  the 
honor  of  the  British  nation,  that  great  exertions  have  been 
made,  and  are  still  making,  for  the  Christianizing  of  the  Chinese 
people. 

An  important  treaty  was  this  year  signed  between  France, 
Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  and  Great  Britain,  whereby  the  former 
powers  agreed  to  adopt  the  English  laws  relative  to  the  slave 
trade.  Several  important  measures  were  passed  by  parliament 
in  the  session  of  1842 :  one  of  these  was  a  new  corn-law,  on 
the  principle  of  a  graduated  scale,  to  which  great  opposition 
was  made,  but  which  finally  passed,  in  its  original  state.  The 
next  important  measure  was  an  income  tax  bill,  by  which  all 
persons,  having  an  income  of  more  than  jCidO  per  annum,  were 
subjected  to  a  tax  of  seven  pence  in  the  pound  :  personal  property 
was  also  taxed  to  the  same  amount.  The  passing  of  this  measure 
was  followed  by  extensive  alterations  in  the  tariff,  or  customs' 
duties.  The  duties  on  numerous  articles  of  trade  and  commerce 
were  either  greatly  reduced,  or  wholly  repealed  by  a  bill,  enti- 
tled the  "Customs'  Act."  The  repeal  of  the  corn-laws  was 
demanded,  but  still  opposed  by  government.  .Another  bill  was 
passed,  by  the  exertions  of  Lord  Ashley,  which  had  for  its 
object  the  restraining  of  the  employment  of  children  in  mines 
and  collieries,  which  had  been  a  cause  of  great  moral  degrada- 


!   ! 


■Junilifr"'- 


656 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


A  bill  was  also  passed,  renew  ng  ^!»«  "'"' '^  ^f  education, 
five  years,  and  forming  'l'«'"S\^,  "'„  ^^eSrof  the  session 
with  various  minor  matters    j,'"P~S  view  of  its  opera- 

EoTh  partiel  and  which  gave  "-;».--;-  ^twed.  but  in  this 
Hostilities  with  China  had  recenijy  been  rene       .  ^^ 

year  the  war  was  fi^-^^y^rifj^nese  now  engaged  to  pay 
■the  :-6ih  of  Augtist.  ^y  ^^^^^^Jj^^j^^^  ^  now  JJ  ,„ 

21.000,000  dollars,  and  !  ^  f  [".dsof  ClLan  and  Kolang-soo 

''''  "lo'tS  by  he  B  iih  UU  the  money  payments  were 
were  to  be  heW  ny  lao  "»  „_,,:„„  ,i^e  ports  completed, 
made  and  arrangements  '"-^  «1  ^"'"f  "^^l  this  year,  in  a  war 
The  British  arms  were  also  ^^J'-^f  "^^S,,  commencement 
with  the  Aflghans,  m  the  East  "^rcd  several  reverses,  but 
of  this  war.  the  British  ^^^^^  .i^^^„'  "^'yeveral  fortresses 
they  were  now  every  where  ^'f «™-  -n^  j^g  .lu^t,  while 
were  stormed,  and  some  of  them  levelled  wUi  U^e  t     ,  ^^^^^^ 

thousands  of  the  Affghan  f  7«,.  ^^^i- fJh  "roo '  ,  devastated, 
country,  in  the  line  of  ■"''^^^^wttuH"!  b^e""'!!  .«  the 
The  Affghans  had    for  «--  ^»^-£"j:i,i',i  troops  evacuated 

created  great  disquietude  and  anxiel>.l^^  was  a  con- 

and  industry  there  .^"^f,  f  ^«f  .^^JP^^rp  customs,  and  taxes, 
siderable  decrease  in  the  e''"««>J3r  ^^me  suggested  the 
To  remedy  the  «lif'«f  jj^f/lotted  remigrftln,  as  the 
repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  and  «'^^^"  P°'";*  ^yje.  \  lengthened 
only  means  to  relieve  the  ^/J^^f  J/^  J^^^^^^  government,  to 
debate  took  place  on  a  Pl/"' ^'^""gf,  "!*"i  was  the  animosity 
promote  the  education  of  the  P«oj  ^-J^  ^.j^  ,       i,,  i„, 

displayed  against  ^^v^^''  -orirSe"  and  the  augmentation 
for  the  endowment  of  ^^dmona^  f ^^^^^^^^  ^^i}^^  f^/s  for  these 
of  small  livings,  was  .""^"^^^^'^J^^^^^^^^  Anne's  bounty 

purposes  were  to  be  «1«"^«'^' '"f''''^  bishoprics,  cathedrals, 
Ld  in  part  from  the  revenue   otcermn  bishop  .^  ^^^ 

and  other  ecclesiastical  ^^^^^^^^^'^^^^^hich  materially  altered 
relating  to  defamation  and  hbel. 


la. 


W'JHr'*'! 


ENOLAND. 


657 


having  been  made 
[amed  Dean,  a  bill 
perfect  unanimity, 
law  commission  for 
)se8  of  education, 
Ings  of  the  session 
re  viewof  itsopera- 
s   been  adopted  by 

renewed,  but  in  this 

eaty  was .  signed  on 

low  engaged  to  pay 

orts  were  opened  to 

iHan  and  Kolang-soo 

mey  payments  were 

ts  completed. 

this  year,  in  a  war 

t  the  commencement 

several  reverses,  but 

Several    fortresses 

with  the  dust,  while 

lain,  and    the  whole 

)h  troops,  devastated. 

been  adverse  to  the 

lish  troops  evacuated 

le  which  still  inspires 

jpect  of  public  aflairs 
every  branch  of  trade 
There  was  a  con- 
,  customs,  and  taxes. 
,  some  suggested  the 
1  to  emigration,  as  the 
isure.  A  lengthened 
ird  by  government,  to 
ich  was  the  animosity 
id.  A  bill  brought  in, 
and  the  augmentation 
The  funds  for  these 
Queen  Anne's  bounty 
bishoprics,  cathedrals, 
Several  reforms  in  the 
lich  materially  altered 
iveral  changes  in  that 


Great  commotions  took  place  this  year  in  Ireland.  A  loud 
cry  fur  the  repeal  of  the  union,  was  heard  throughout  the  coun* 
try.  Mr.  O'Connell  and  his  coadjutors  were  arrested  on  charges 
of  coiLspiracy,  sedition,  and  unlawful  assemblage.  Their  trial 
occurred  in  1844,  when  they  were  fined  and  sentenced  to  be 
imprisoned  for  twelve  months,  but  parliament  soon  after  reversed 
their  suiitcnce,  and  they  were  liberated.  There  was  some  com- 
motion also,  at  this  time,  in  South  Wales.  A  war  was  raised 
against  the  turnpike  system,  arising  from  the  vexatious  tolls  to 
which  the  peasantry  were  subjected.  The  toll-gales  were 
every  where  demolished,  and  no  sooner  were  they  re-erected 
than  tiiey  were  again  destroyed.  In  order  to  quell  these  disturb- 
ances, government  sent  a  large  body  of  troops  and  many  of  the 
London  police,  into  Wales.  In  a  short  time,  some  of  the  most 
active  in  these  tumults  were  captured,  and  towards  the  close  of 
the  year  Wales  became  more  quiet. 

This  year  witnessed  another  war  in  the  East  Indies.  It  was 
discovered  that  the  ameers  of  Sinde  were  preparing  to  attack 
tlie  British,  and  Sir  Charles  Napier  was  sent  against  them.  A 
great  battle  was  fought  at  Meeanee,  the  result  of  which  was 
that  the  six  ameers  who  governed  that  country  were  captured, 
and  that  the  whole  of  Sinde  was  annexed  to  the  British  domin- 
ions in  the  East.  The  Sindian  population  every  where  expressed 
their  satisfaction  at  the  change  of  masters.  Sir  Charles  Napier 
was  appointed  Governor  of  Sinde,  and  was  empowered  to  take 
such  measures  as  might  appear  best  calculated  to  suppress  the 
slave  trade,  which  had  long  existed  in  that  country,  and  to 
abolish  all  duties  of  transit,  which  had  been  imposed  by  the 
ameers.  In  the  course  of  this  year  the  British  troops  gained 
two  decisive  victories  over  the  Mahratta  forces. 

In  the  Autumn,  queen  Victoria,  accompanied  by  Prince  Albert, 
visited  Louis  Phillippe,  late  king  of  France,  in  his  own  dominr 
ions.  This  was  an  interesting  event,  as  it  tended  to  increase 
the  harmony  existing  between  the  two  countries.  After  receiv- 
ing a  most  cordial  reception  from  his  majesty,  the  queen  and; 
prince  Albert  proceeded  on  their  voyage  to  Ostend. 

In  the  session  of  1844,  were  passed  several  important  acts; 
one  having  for  its  object  the  regulation  of  railways ;  another, 
containing  salutary  provisions  for  the  regulation  of  joint-stock 
companies,  and  a  third,  entirely  remodelling  the  system  of  turn- 
pike-road management  in  South  Wales.  A  further  alteration 
was  made  in  the  Poor  Law  Amendment  Act,  having  for  its 
chief  object  the  preservation  of  morality  among  the  poor. 
Another  act  permitted  sugar,  not  being  the  produce  of  slave 
labor,  to  be  imported  into  the  country  at  diminished  duties.    A 

42 


»  i 


\ 


^ 


658 


ciiatteh  xrv. 


1  .-,.1  f.ir  i>in  iiboliiion  of  a  number  of  penal  acU, 

bill  was  al«o  passcj  for  the  '^'»»  "  „y  obsolete.     The 

retained  in  the  I'-'^)^  «ta  «tc  »«ok   ^^^  g«"«      l^  ,,^„  ,    „,„^i„„ 

'TuT  r:r?nind  a.7the  aZiniHtrution  of  hanking  con- 

:i;!:;i;:^ir«vatpnncip.^fu..^^^ 

::;rde.and.  -/»S;Zvirr  ;:d1:2i5:!^-^ny  year,  at 
Dunng  th.H  y«"' ^J' .;  2,,;  of  the  East  India  Company.  wa« 
Macao,  as  c»»'«f-»"P''""'"  , "  \,°'   "  cent  acqnisitionH  in  China.     I 

The  income  tax  *7,„^»  ^  ;\l';ii;hc"  and  expectations  of  the 

ingof  P»-^»i«™^'"''J°"^'7Su^rple.l,  wilh^great opposition,     I 
l>eople,  was  renewed^    A  hm  « as  p  ,  y^^^^  ^^^^^^^^  ,.^_^ 

for  improving  "^f  '"".JJ«";^  ^alhoiic  priesthood.  Other  acta 
the  education  ol  the  '^«"'*".  '^''"'""^lieh  had  previously  been 
relieved  the  Jews  from  <=«««;"  ".J;™'  „  ,„„V,icipal  oftices  ;  , 
required  from  ^^^'JP""  '^j";;  ^rwoks  provided  for  the 
regulated  Juvende  labor  -  -  ^  P^^^  J,,^  ,,  sLtland  and  Ire-  , 
better  care  of  l«"""".'  [.^ l"  .i.„,e  ol  the  bank  charter  of 
Sa„°J,  E  fS-"'lh'e  ISSe  o,  c„»,.»n.  in  E„g,.nd 

left  bank  of  the  ^""^'J'  7.^  ,  r  J^aj  declaration  of  war, 

'^'^"  ""TAa^:  Ts  Sat  MooS  in  which  the  British 
and  a  terrible  batt  e  was  lougni »  ,      gj^^        j,o  had 

"'"'"1.LX' ttV -i'recrS  t^Vtlei 

escaped  '^^  ^^-^jf  J*,' J°*  British  followed  them  and  pressed 
the  year  ^  ^46,  the  vtcwrious  ^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

forward  to  Lahore.  T«'"?' "^^iJ!"  dment  of  the  Sikh  army, 
of  the  stipulations  7"  %«/(^3eTNaWr  was  employed  in 
Earlier  in  the  year  1845,  Sir  ^'»»"f *  7'  ^^e  rMit  bank 

military  operations  agrainsUhe  monn.am  .r^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^ 

completely  success  u;  the  ^wer  o^  ^^^^^^^ 

had  been  long  a  '"^'"^I'^J^Tm  important  than  the  phy- 

s^frdett\3rthr;o7eo^ 
-j^t5:^:q^eaiof^^^^^^^^ 

S  rtg-s  otXt  harS:.  sent^to  every  part  of  the 


TC 


V 


!r  of  penal  acts, 

obAolotn.     The 

ir  tho  ri-gulation 

Jof  l)unkiiig  coii- 

|ill  concerned  the 

makers  of  )>roin- 

umld  bo  uhlo  to 

)ld. 

ul  niiiny  years  at 
ia  Company,  was 
isiiionN  in  China, 
■rnment  of  India, 
cesser. 

but  on  the  mect- 
xpectations  of  the 
1  great  opposition, 
■nooth  college,  for 
lood.  Other  acts 
,d  previously  been 
niiiiicipul  ofHces  ; 
;  provided  for  the 
Scotland  and  Ire- 
bank  charter  of 
unions  in  England 

I  dominions  on  the 
ded  by  tho  Sikhs. 
Icclaration  of  war, 
I  which  the  British 
a  Sikhs  who  had 
iitlej  ;  and  early  in 
them,  and  pressed 
igreed  on,  and  one 
if  the  Sikh  army, 
r  was  employed  in 
B  on  the  right  bank 
!  operations  he  was 
ibber  tribes,  which 
;rly  broken.  The 
rtant  than  the  phy- 
de  the  power  of  the 

lad  been  demanded, 
le  had  been  set  on 
>  every  part  of  tho 


r 


659 

country,  to  enlighten  the  |i«of»le  on  this  qnesiion.  Hitherto,  Sir 
Robert  Peel  hiid  been  decidedly  opposed  to  such  a  repeal,  but 
the  utter  failure  of  the  potato  crop,  which  had  created  great 
diNtreM<4  throughout  the  tJiiite<l  Kingdom,  and  rendered  some 
meaHtire  neccMsary  for  its  alleviiitioii,  induced  him  to  alter  his 
opinion.  In  the  session  of  INtC*,  a  bill  was  brought  in  by  the 
premier  and  carried,  which  made  a  great  and  an  immediate 
reiluction  of  duties  on  corn,  and  provided  for  its  free  importation 
at  the  end  of  throe  years.  Ccmnected  with  this  measure  was 
another,  by  which  customs'  duties  were  wholly  repealed,  or  con- 
siderably reduced.  These  enlightened  measures  procured  the 
downfall  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  as  premier.  At  the  same  time 
with  tlicse,  he  brought  in  a  protection  life  bill  for  Ireland,  and 
the  agriculturists,  olVended  by  his  free  trade  movements,  united 
with  the  whigs,  who  were  ailv(  ise  to  coercion,  and  this  bill  was 
rejected.  Sir  Robert  Peel  now  resigned ;  and  to  his  cabinet 
succeeded  a  whig  ministry,  Lord  John  Russell  being  created 
premier.  Sir  Robert  Peel  carried  to  his  retirement  the  sympathy 
and  admiration  of  the  people. 

The  wisdom  of  these  measures  was  seen  in  the  autumn,  in 
the  failure  of  the  potato  crop,  which  had  promised  to  be  abundant. 
The  visitation  was  felt  by  England,  Ireland  and  Scotland.  So 
great  was  the  distress,  that  parliament  was  convened  for  the 
purpose  of  opening  the  ports  for  the  admission  of  corn,  free  of 
duty.  Uy  this  measure,  ships  arrived  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
laden  with  corn,  and  the  impending  famine  was  averted.  Yet 
in  Ireland,  where,  for  ages,  the  people  had  depended  upon  the 
potato  crop  for  food,  famine  and  its  consequent  disease  had 
swept  away  thousands  of  its  inhabitants,  'llie  year  1847  was 
marked  by  grnat  commercial  distress  in  England,  and  numbers 
hitherto  living  in  affluence,  were  plunged  into  poverty.  Various 
causes  gave  rise  to  this  distress;  one  of  the  most  prominent 
was  the  dangerous  spirit  of  speculation,  which  had  for  some 
time  pervaded  the  whole  community. 

The  principal  measures  of  public  policy  which  engaged  the 
attention  of  the  British  parliament,  during  the  session  of  1848, 
were  the  navigation  laws  and  the  sugar  colonies.  A  bill  for 
rendering  Jews  eligible  to  parliament,  which  was  introduced, 
was  lost  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  a  majority  of  thirty-five. 

The  success  of  the  French  revolution  of  February,  1848,  and 
the  outburst  of  popular  feeling  which  ensued  in  almost  every 
part  of  Europe,  gave  a  new  stimulus  to  the  friends  of  reform  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  In  England,  for  about  ten  years, 
there  had  exisied  a  political  association,  denominated  Chartists, 
whose  object  it  was  to  secure  universal  sufTrage  ;  vote  by  ballot ; 


't'  fl 


660 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


annual  parliamonln  ;  pay  to  ifM*  iiiomhi-rH,  nii>/l  no  properly  tiiiaii* 
fication  to  eligibility.  For  thi  mirpone  of  mnkiiig  n  (lornoimtra- 
tion  of  their  strength,  ami  oi  jiromotiniK  tlu>  ohJpctD  of  their 
asHociation,  the  chartinta  proifost  d  a  gciii'ral  incutini;  in  Loiulon, 
on  'ho  10th  of  April,  'i'heir  nunili«>r  having  liccn  much  exag- 
gerated,  the  go/ernmcnt  tortilied  the  public  building!*,  tMilarged 
the  civil  force  to  an  unpnx-cdcnti'd  extent,  and  took  every  pre- 
caution against  the  conHtruction  of  bnrricadi'H. 

On  the  day  appointed,  about  tun  thouHand  iiMsombled  in  Fitzruy 
Square,  marched  quietly  to  Hlacklriar's  liridgc,  which  they 
were  permitted  to  cross,  and  thence  to  Kensington  Common, 
their  place  of  rendo/vuus  for  the  day.  The  number  of  chartists 
and  spectators  hero  was  not  far  from  fiiVy  thousand.  They  again 
crossed  the  Thames,  delivered  their  monster  petition  to  parlia- 
ment, and  dispersed.  The  result  of  this  affair  aflbrded  to  the 
friends  of  the  Constitution  and  of  order  an  evidence  of  their  own 
strength,  and  of  the  weakness  of  the  chartists. 

Of  late  the  chartists  have  renewed  their  assemblages  with 
increased  ardor,  but  they  seem  to  create  no  alarm.  On  the  Gth 
of  July  last,  six  of  their  number  were  convicted  of  sedition,  and 
sentenced  to  two  years  imprisonment. 

In  Ireland,  sympathy  with  the  French  in  freeing  their  nation 
from  the  shackles  of  monarchy,  stimulated  the  friends  of  repeal 
to  renewed  and  greatly  augmented  efforts,  and  inspired  in  many 
hearts  the  hope  that  the  day  of  the  desired  separation  from 
Great  Britain  was  at  hand.  Clubs  were  extensively  formed, 
and  rebellion  against  the  authority  of  government  was  openly 
counselled  and  vindicated  by  their  leaders. 

In  May  last,  John  Mitchell,  a  prominent  agitator,  and  editor 
of  the  "  United  Irishman,"  was  arrested  and  convicted  on  a 
charge  of  treason.  The  types  of  his  paper  were  seized  by  the 
government,  and  Mitchell  was  sentenced  to  transportation  for 
fourteen  years. 

A  new  journal,  entitled  the  "  Irish  Felon,"  was  immediately 
issued,  the  editor  of  which,  Mr.  Martin,  was  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  in  July,  and  sent  to  Newgate.  O'Brien,  Meagher, 
Dillon  and  Doherry,  engaged  most  actively  in  organizing  and 
inspiring  the  clubs,  preparing,  meanwhile, for  an  active  resistance. 

Fearing  that  a  crisis  was  at  hand,  the  government  adopted  the 
most  vigorous  measures.  Viscount  Hardinge  was  sent  into 
Ireland  to  take  connnand  of  the  troops.  Every  available  soldier 
was  despatched  from  England  to  Ireland,  and  largo  rewards 
were  offered  for  the  arrest  of  the  leaders  of  the  insurgents. 

On  the  25th  of  July,  parliament  passed  a  bill. authorizing  the 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  to  apprehend  and  detain  until  the 


<l 


irty  qiiaU* 

omoniitra- 
ul'  their 
Loiulon« 

ucli  exug- 
(Milnrged 

every  pre- 

ill  Fitzroy 
hich  ihey 
Common, 
r  chiirtista 
rii(*y  ugain 
II  to  )>arlia- 
iled  to  the 
f  their  own 

lages  with 
On  the  6th 
edition,  and 

their  nation 
U  of  repeal 
red  in  many 
iration  from 
oly  formed, 
was  openly 

r,  and  editor 
victed  on  a 
eized  by  the 
portation  for 

immediately 
i  on  a  charge 
n,  Meagher, 
^anizing  and 
re  resistance, 
t  adopted  the 
as  sent  into 
liable  soldier 
irgo  rewards 
iirgents. 
ithorizing  the 
ain  until  the 


TC 


FRANri. 


661 


lit  of  MaTfti,  1810,  iiny  pc-rson  HUH|)ect6d  of  conspiracy  against 
her  MitjoHty'ii  xu^'riiinoiit.  He  accordingly  proclaimed  the 
cities  III'  Diililin,  Cork,  Wntcrford,  and  the  town  of  Drogheda,  to 
be  uiiil«-r  tlio  act,  iiiNtruitiiig  the  [mlico  to  search  fur  arms,  and 
to  take  into  cuittody  nil  persons  found  to  bo  in  the  possession  of 
them  without  ii  licuimu. 

On  the  2!Hh  of  July,  the  insurgents  came  in  conflict  with  the 
police  of  Miillingarry,  in  the  county  of  Tippuriiry.  They  were 
armed  with  muskets  and  pikes,  and  commanded  by  Smith 
O'Urit'ii,  but  were  ilispcrst-d  after  u  short  fight.  Seven  were 
killed.  O'lirinii,  Meagher,  and  others,  fled  from  the  officers  of 
justice,  but  they,  with  the  principal  leaders,  were  subsequently 
arrested. 

At  present,  the  agitiitors  of  Ireland  seem  to  have  yielded  to 
the  formidable  preparations  and  energetic  forces  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  that  unhappy  country  is,  for  the  time,  in  a  slate  of 
tranquillity. 

On  the  5tli  of  September,  the  queen  prorogued  parliament  in 
person,  by  a  speech  from  the  throne,  recapitulating  the  most 
important  tivents  of  the  session,  and  immediately  after,  took  her 
departure  lor  Scotland. 


The  French  Revolution  of  February^    1848. 

The  revolution  accomplished  in  Paris,  on  the  24th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1848,  is  without  a  parallel  in  history.  At  once  the  most 
bloodless  and  the  most  complete  of  modem  times,  it  was  the 
spontaneous,  unpremeditated  act  of  the  unarmed  people  of  Paris. 
No  long-matured  and  widely-ramified  conspiracy  preceded  the 
outbreak,  as  in  1830.  The  whole  work  was  accompUshed  by 
the  people  in  the  brief  space  of  three  days. 

A  general  feeling  of  discontent  with  the  measures  and  policy 
of  the  government,  suggested  the  holding  of  political  reform  ban- 
quets throughout  France.  No  fewer  than  sixty-two  of  these 
were  held  in  different  towns,  and  attended  by  th«  leading  oppo- 
sitionists. 

The  omission  of  the  King's  health  from  the  list  of  toasts,  on 
almost  all  these  occasions,  was  a  circumstance  that  gave  pecu- 
liar poignancy  to  the  irritation  with  which  such  displays  were 
regarded  by  the  government.  It  having  been  announced  that 
reform  banquets  were  to  be  held  throughout  France  on  the  22d 


n 


i 
ii 


I 


662 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


of  February,  the  birth-day  of  Washington,  the  administration 
determined  to  put  down  that  which  was  to  take  place  in  Paris. 
Military  preparations  were  made  on  an  extensive  scale ;  guns 
were  mounted  on  the  fortresses  around  the  city  ;  large  stores  of 
ammunition  were  provided,  and  nothing  seemed  wanting  to  enable 
the  government  to  crush  any  attempt  at  insurrection.  On  the 
evening  preceding  the  '22d,  proclamations  were  posted  about  the 
streets  by  the  police,  announcing  that  no  banquet  or  procession 
would  be  permitted,  and  cautioning  the  public  against  tumultuous 
assemblages  in  the  streets. 

In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  an  intimation  to  the  same  effect 
was  received  during  the  early  part  of  the  sitting,  and  at  once 
put  an  end  to  the  discussion  of  all  other  business.  Some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  arose  among  the  members  of  the  banquet  com- 
mittee and  the  deputies  of  the  opposition,  whether  the  procla- 
mation  of  the  government  should  be  obeyed.  A  minority  were 
inclined  to  form  the  procession  at  all  hazards  ;  but  it  was  finally 
agreed  that  the  meeting  should  be  given  up;  that  the  public 
should  be  urged  to  maintain  a  peaceable  attitude,  and  that  the 
late  discussion  of  the  question  in  the  chambers  should  be 
renewed  in  a  form  that  would  lead  either  to  a  dissolution,  and  so 
bring  it  before  the  electors,  or  to  a  change  of  cabinet.  Articles 
of  impeachment  were  therefore  to  be  moved  against  the  ministry 
by  Mr.  Odillon  Barrot. 

In  the  morning  a  formal  announcement  that  the  banquet  was 
deferred  appeared  in  all  the  opposition  papers,  and  the  orders  to 
the  troops  of  the  line  to  occupy  the  ground,  and  all  the  avenues 
leading  to  the  place  of  meeting,  were  countermanded.  Picquets 
only  were  stationed  in  places  where  crowds  might  be  expected 
to  assemble,  sufficient,  it  was  presumed,  to  disperse  the  mob ; 
but  no  serious  disturbance  was  anticipated,  either  by  the  minis- 
try  or  its  opponents. 

The  proclamations,  however,  of  the  prefect  of  the  police,  and 
the  announcement  of  the  opposition  journals,  came  too  late.  At 
an  early  hour,  the  Place  de  la  Madeline,  the  Place  de  la  Con- 
corde, and  the  Champ  Elysees,  were  thronged  by  the  working 
classes.  At  noon,  the  multitude  around  the  Church  of  the  Made- 
line, whence  the  banquet  procession  was  to  have  set  out,  became 
formidable  in  numbers,  though  manifesting  no  symptoms  of  dis- 
order, and  at  one  time  could  not  have  numbered  less  than  thirty 
thousand  persons.  The  regiment,  which  had  arrived,  was 
drawn  up  in  line  along  the  railing  of  the  church.  Soon  after, 
several  squadrons  of  the  municipal  cavalry  arrived,  and  the  popu- 
lace were  desired  to  disperse.  This  order  being  disregarded, 
the  charge  was  sounded,  and  the  dragoons  rushed  on  the  people. 


I 


"fl 


FRANCE. 


663 


iinistration 
e  in  Paris, 
cale ;  guns 
e  stores  of 
g  to  enable 
On  the 
d  about  the 
procession 
tumultuous 

lame  effect 

nd  at  once 

>onie  difier- 

nquet  com- 

the  procla- 

nority  were 

was  finally 

the  public 

ind  that  the 

should    be 

lion,  and  so 

t.     Articles 

the  ministry 

banquet  was 
he  orders  to 
he  avenues 
I.  Picquets 
be  expected 
>e  the  mob ; 
r  the  minis- 
police,  and 
K>  late.  At 
de  la  Con- 
[he  working 
)!'  the  Made- 
out,  became 
toms  of  dis- 
i  than  thirty 
rrived,  was 
Soon  after, 
nd  the  popu- 
ilisregarded, 
1  the  people. 


At  first  an  effort  was  made  to  disperse  the  crowd  by  the  mere 
force  of  the  horses,  without  the  use  of  arms,  and  the  dragoons 
did  not  draw.  This,  however,  proving  ineffectual,  several 
charges  with  drawn  swords  were  made,  the  flat  of  the  sword 
only  being  used.  By  these  means,  the  mu'.atude  was  at  length 
dispersed  without  any  loss  of  life,  or  other  serious  casualties. 
At  one  o'clock  the  main  thoroughfares  were  clear.  During  the 
remainder  of  the  day,  the  principal  streets  were  patrolled  by 
cavalry  of  the  municipal  guard,  the  infantry  of  the  line  keeping 
clear  the  footways. 

At  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  three  impeachments  against  the 
cabinet  were  handed  to  the  president,  who,  without  reading 
them,  ordered  that  they  should  be  taken  into  consideration  on 
Thursday.  One  of  the  impeachments  was  presented  on  the 
part  of  M.  Odillon  Barrot,  and  signed  by  fifty-three  deputies ; 
another  on  the  part  of  M.  Duvergier  d'  Hauranne  ;  the  third  on 
the  part  of  M.  de  Genoude,  deputy  for  Toulouse. 

In  the  evening,  the  disturbances  were  renewed,  and  now 
began  to  wear  a  threatening  aspect.  Gunsmiths'  shops  were 
broken  open ;  barricades  were  formed  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  principal  markets  ;  lamps  were  extinguished ;  posts  of  the 
municipal  guards  were  attacked ;  the  streets  were  filled  with 
troops ;  and  at  night,  anxiety  for  the  result  of  the  sanguinary 
contest  on  the  morrow,  which  had  become  inevitable,  spread 
throughout  Paris. 

At  an  early  hour  on  Wednesday,  February  23d,  crowds  began 
to  assemble  and  to  busy  themselves  in  the  formation  of  new  bar- 
ricades. These  were  attacked  and  partially  destroyed  as  fast 
as  formed,  by  the  municipal  guard,  or  the  troops.  The  morning 
passed  in  skirmishes,  in  which  some  were  killed,  and  success 
was  generally  on  the  side  of  the  authorities ;  the  people,  how- 
ever, when  dispersed  in  one  place,  assembled  instantly  in 
another,  and  rapidly  increased  in  numbers.  Considerable  bodies 
of  the  National  Guards  appeared  in  the  streets,  but  although  at 
first  wavering  as  to  the  course  they  would  follow,  it  soon  became 
evident  that  they  would  yield  to  the  contagion  of  popular  enthu- 
siasm, and  act  with,  rather  than  against,  the  movement. 

About  one  o'clock,  a  portion  of  the  National  Guards  having 
declared  for  reform,  their  officers  held  a  council,  and  agreed  to 
depute  their  Colonel  to  the  King,  to  acquaint  his  Majesty  with 
their  wishes.  Their  requests  being  signified  to  Louis  Phillippe 
at  the  Tuileries,  through  General  Jacqueminot,  they  were  at 
once  acceded  to.  Reform  and  the  dismissal  of  the  Guizot 
cabinet  were  promised,  and  Count  Mol6  was  entrusted  with  the 
charge  of  forming  a  new  ministry.     The  news  of  this  change 


,t  ' 


I 


664 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


was  immediately  carried  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  by  M. 
Guizot  himself,  which  soon  after  rose  in  great  agitation. 

The  dismissal  of  the  ministry  produced  a  momentary  calna. 
But  the  streets  continued  to  be  crowded  with  rioters,  who,  as  e  ven- 
ine  drew  on,  compelled  the  inhabitants  to  illuminate,  and  when- 
ever they  found  themselves  in  sufficient  force,  attacked  the  piquets 
of  the  municipal  guard,  and  often  succeeded  in  disarming  them. 
Between  ten  and  eleven,  the  somewhat  subdued  excitement 
of  the  populace  was  changed  into  rage.  A  crowd  passing  the 
Hotel  of  Foreign  Affairs,  which,  as  the  residence  of  M.  Ouizot, 
had  been  repeatedly  threatened,  and  was  now  occupied  by  the 
14th  regiment  of  the  line,  was  suddenly  fired  upon  by  the  troops 
with  fatal  effect.  Many  fell,  some  dead,  others  desperately 
wounded.  The  people  fled  in  consternation,  but  fear  soon  gave 
way  to  indignation,  and  thirst  for  vengeance.  The  cry  then 
burst  forth  from  every  lip—"  To  arms !  Down  with  the  assas- 
sins !  Down  with  Louis  Phillippe !  Down  with  all  his  race  ! 
Barricades,  barricades !"  and  these  cries  were  speedily  rc-echood 
through  all  the  streets  of  Paris. 

The  attempt  to  establish  a  MoW  administration  having  failed, 
the  King  sent,  late  at  night,  for  M.  Thiers  to  the  Palace  of  the 
Tuileries,  and  asked  him  to  form  a  ministry.  M.  Thiers  under- 
took to  do  so,  provided  he  might  be  permitted  to  join  with  him, 
as  one  of  his  colleagues,  M.  Odillon  Barrot.  To  this  the  King 
acceded.  Marshal  Bugaud  was,  during  the  night,  apjwinted 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  National  Guard,  but  finding  he  was 
not  to  have  a  carte  blanche,  he  resigne.  almost  as  soon  as  ap- 
pointed, and  the  appointment  was  given  to  General  I,amorici«re. 
During  the  night  the  egress  of  the  mails  had  been  stopped,  and 
the  railways  around  Paris  had  been  damaged  or  destroyed  at 
every  point  at  which  troops  were  expected  to  arrive. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  Thursday,  Feb.  24th,  a  placard  was 
posted  about  the  streets  to  the  effect  that,  at  3  o'clock,  A.  M.,  M. 
Thiers  and  Odillon  Barrot  had  been  appointed  ministers.    Subse- 
quently, the  following  proclamation  was  posted  at  the  Bourse  : 
"  Orders  have  been  given  to  cease  firing  every  where. 
"  We  have  just  been  charged  by  the  King  to  form  a  new 

™'"  The  Chamber  will  be  dissolved,  and  an  appeal  made  to  the 

*^  ""oeneral  Lamorici6re  has  been  appointed  commandant  of 
the  National  Guards.  "  Thiers, 

"  Odillon  Barrot, 

'  "  DUVEROIER  Dk  HaWBANNE, 

••  Lamorigieke." 


nitics  by  M. 
ition. 

lentary  calm, 
who,  as  oven- 
e,  and  when- 
3(1  the  piquets 
arming  them, 
d  excitcnicn't 
1  passing  the 
>r  M.  Guizot, 
;upied  by  the 
by  the  troops 
desperately 
ear  soon  gave 
rhe  cry  then 
ith  the  assas- 
atl  his  race ! 
dily  rc-echood 

having  failed, 
Palace  of  the 
Thiers  under- 
join  with  him, 
» this  the  King 
ght,  appointed 
finding  he  was 
IS  soon  as  ap- 
il  Lamoriciire. 
n  stopped,  and 
>r  destroyed  at 
ive. 

,  a  placard  was 
lock,  A.  M.,  M. 
listers.    Subse- 
t  the  Bourse  : 
where, 
to  form  a  new 


';,'■ 


FRANCE. 


665 


The  orders  issued  to  the  troops  were,  it  appears,  not  only  to 
cease  firiri",  but  to  retire  to  their  quarters.  Accordingly,  about 
11  o'clock,  the  trumpets  sounded  a  retreat,  and  most  ot  the 
important  positions  which,  up  to  that  hour,  had  been  occupied 
by  the  infantry,  cavalry,  and  arlilleiy,  were  abandoned  to  the 
people  anil  the  National  Guard. 

Marshal  Bugeaud  protested  against  the  orders  given,  and 
resigned.  Whole  regiments  marched  to  their  barracks,  and 
allowed  themselves  to  be  quietly  disarmed  by  the  mob.  1  here 
was  now  no  want  of  arms  among  the  insurgents,  and  the  number 
of  working  men  and  others  engaged  in  eflorls  to  expel  the  royal 
family,  exclusive  of  the  National  Guards,  was  swelled  to  an 
estimated  force  of  twenty  thousand  men. 

Between  eleven   and  twelve  o'clock,  this  army  directed  Us 
course  to  the  Palais  Royal  and  the  Tuileries.     At  the  Palais 
Royal,  some  severe  fighting  look  place  between  the  people  and 
a  company  of  the  Hih  regiment  of  the  line    m  charge  of  the 
state  apartments,  who  refused  to  surrender  their  arms,  and  main- 
tained a  contest  of  nearly  two  hours  before  they  were  finally 
overcome.     The  noise  of  the  firing  was  heard  in  the  1  uileries, 
and  combined  with  the  unfavorable  reports  reaching  the  court 
from  every  part  of  the  city,  produced  a  panic  among  the  inmates 
of  the  chateau,  and  all  there  assembled.     In  the  court  yard  of 
the  Tuileries  were  3,000  infantry  with  six  pieces  of  cannon 
and  two  squadrons  of  dragoons.     These  might  have  swept  the 
space  before  them  (the  Place  du  Carrousel,)  clear  of  combatants 
but  it  would  have  been  of  little  avail,  for  they  were  surrounded 
by  an  armed  populace  and  six  legions  of  the  National  Guard, 
demanding  the  abdication  of  the  king,  and  ready  to  c bse  in 
upon  them,  if  rendered   desperate  by  their  position.      It  was 
represented  to  Louis  Phillippe,  that   abdication  would   alone 
secure  the  interests  of  his  family,  and  that  his  disposal  of  the 
crown  in  favor  of  his  grandscm,  the  young  Comte  de  Pans,  with 
the  appointment  of  his  mother,  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,   as 
Regent,  would  satisfy  all  parties— few  voices  having,  as  yet, 
been  openly  raised  for  a  republic.     In  the    ourse  of  this  day, 
the  king  signed  an  act  of  abdication,  presented  to  him  by  hmile 
de  Girardin,  but  before  this  fact  could  be  known  in  Pans,    he 
troops  of  the  line  were  summoned  to  quit  the  court-yard  ot  the 
Tuileries.      Not  knowing  whom  to  obey,  the  commander-in- 
chief  having  resigned,  and  the  government  having  been  dissolved, 
they  agreetl  to  yield  their  post.     The  Chateau  was  to  be  pro- 
tected by  the  National  Guards,  but  the  armed  populace  rushed 
by  them  and  entered  in  triumph.     Bonfires  were  made  of  the 
royal  carriages  and  furniture,  at  the  Palais  Royal  and  imlenes. 


Li      < 


( 


MB 


666 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


The  throne  of  the  slate  reception  room  wus  carried  in  triumph 
through  the  streets,  and  finally  burned  in  the  I'lace  de  la  Bas- 
tille. The  plunder  and  destruction  of  property  was  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  insignia  of  royally,  and  speedily  checked.  Sentinels 
were  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  Tuileries  by  the  leaders  ot 
the  people,  and  no  person  allowed  to  leave  the  Chateau,  with- 
out a  vigorous  search. 

xMeanwhile,  the  ex-King  and  Queen  had  passed  out  at  a 
private  door  into  the  gardens,  and  demanded  an  escort  ol  the 
National    Guards    through   the    crowd   beyond.      A   troop  ot 
National  Guards  on  horseback,  and  about  thirty   persons   in 
difTerent  uniforms  attended  them,  to  ensure  their  safety.     1  he 
Queen  walked  with  a  firm  step,  casting  around  looks  of  mingled 
assurance  and  anger.     She  was  dressed  in  full  mourning  :  the 
King  wore  a  black  coat,  with  a  common  round  hat.     Arriving 
at  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  they  drove  oft'  to  St.  Cloud  with  so 
much    rapidity    that  the  coach  appeared  carried   rather  thau 
driven  away.      They   pursued   their    way  to    Versailles,   and 
thence  to  Dreux,  where  they  passed  the  night  with  a  friend,  who 
procured  disguises  for  the  royal  fugitives.     That  of  the  king 
was  a  green  blouse,  with  a  sailor's  frock  coat  over  it,  a  red  and 
while  comforter  and  a  casquette,  or  peasant's  cap.      I  he  queen 
concealed  her  former  dress  by  a  woollen  cloak  of  black  and 
white  plaid.     From  Ureux  they  proceeded  to  Honfleur,  where 
they  remained  concealed  for  some  days,  the  boisterous  weather 
not  allowin.r  their  embarkation  until  Thursday  of  the  next  week, 
when  they  were  conveyed  in  a  French  fishing  boat  to  Havre, 
thence  sailing  for  England,  and  arriving  at  New  Haven  that 

^'^  About  half  past  one  of  the  day  on  which  the  Royal  pair  left 
Paris,  it  was  rumored  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  that  the 
Duchess  of  Orleans,  and  the  two  young  princes,  her  sons,  were 
about  to  arrive.  Shortly  after,  the  Duchess  and  her  sons  entered, 
followed  by  the  Due  de  Nemours  and  the  Due  de  Montpensier. 
The  Comte  de  Paris,  led  by  one  of  the  Deputies,  entered  first, 
his  way  being  made  with  difficulty  through  the  crowd  of  officers 
and  soldiers  of  the  National  Guard.  His  presence  and  that  ot 
the  rest  of  the  royal  party,  created  a  great  sensation.  A  moment 
afterwards,  the  Duchess  of  Orleans  seated  herself  in  an  arm- 
chair, with  her  sons  on  either  side  of  her.  Immediately  every 
vacant  place  was  filed  with  such  of  the  populace  as  had  suc- 
ceeded in  crowding  themselves  in  with  the  National  Guard,  a 
number  of  men  forcing  their  way  under  tl\e  tribune.  1  he 
Duchess  then  arose  and  retired  with  the  young  princes,  to  one 
of  the  upper  benches  of  the  Centre,  and  opposite  to  the  f  resi- 


li^^ 


-_*  ...A*.—-——  ' 


FRANCE. 


667 


in  triumph 
c  (le  la  Bas- 
chiofly  con- 
Sentincls 
10  leaders  of 
lateau,  with- 

9C(1  out  at  a 

escort  of  the 

A   troop  of 

persons   in 

safety.     The 

ws  of  mingled 

ourning :  the 

lat.     Arriving 

Jloud  with  so 

rather  than 

ersailles,   and 

a  friend,  who 

t  of  the  king 

it,  a  red  and 

.     The  queen 

of  black  and 

inflcur,  where 

erous  weather 

he  next  week, 

oat  to  Havre, 

V  Haven  that 

loyal  pair  left 
jties  that  the 
ler  sons,  were 
:  sons  entered, 

Montpensier. 

entered  first, 
iwd  of  officers 
;e  and  that  of 
[\.  A  moment 
If  in  an  arm- 
ediately  every 
e  as  had  sue- 
onal  Guard,  a 
ribune.  The 
irinces,  to  one 
J  to  the  Presi- 


dent's bureau.  1'he  Due  do  Nemours  and  the  Due  de  Mont- 
pensier placed  thetnselvtifi  in  the  lust  line  of  seats,  directly 
behind  the  princess  and  her  sons.  The  greatest  agitation 
prevailed. 

M.  Dupin  then  ascended  the  tribune,  and,  amid  deep  silence, 
said,  that  in  the  present  situation  uf  the  capitol,  it  had  been 
found  necessary  to  re-assemble  the  Chamber  without  loss  of 
time.  The  King  had  abdicated  the  crown  in  favur  of  his  grand- 
son, and  devolved  the  regency  on  the  Duchess  of  Orleans. 
This  announcement  was  greeted  with  applause  from  all  the 
benches  of  the  centre,  and  from  some  of  the  public  tribunes. 
Disapprobation  was  expressed  on  the  benches  of  the  left,  and 
one  voice  was  heard,  exclaiming,  "  It  is  too  late."  The  scene 
of  confusion  that  ensued,  it  is  impossible  to  describe.  A  num- 
ber of  deputies  and  the  National  Guards  hastened  to  surround 
the  royal  family. 

M.  Marie  then  ascended  the  tribune,  and  after  silence  was 
restored,  reminding  the  Chambers  that  a  law  existed  giving  the 
regency  to  the  Due  do  Nemours,  and  which  could  not  be  abro- 
gated by  an  act  of  the  King  in  favor  of  another,  demanded  the 
nomination  of  a  provisional  government.  M.  Cremieux  and  the 
Abb6  de  Genoude,  supported  the  proposition.  Odilion  Rarrot 
then  declared  himself  in  favor  of  the  regency  of  the  Duchess  of 
Orleans,  a  ministry  of  tried  liberal  opinions,  and  an  appeal  to 
the  country.  The  Duchess  then  arose  and  addressed  some 
words  to  the  Chamber,  but  was  advised  by  those  about  her  to  be 
seated.  Odilion  Barrot  resumed  his  discourse,  appealing  to  all 
parties  to  defend  the  crown  of  July,  now  committed  to  the 
custody  of  a  chiM  and  a  woman,  as  the  only  means  of  averting 
a  civil  war.  A  majority  of  the  deputies  signified  their  assent, 
but  their  tokens  of  approbation  were  drowned  in  murmurs  from 
the  galleries,  and  cries  of  "  Vive  la  Hepublique."  M.  Cheval- 
lier,  editor  of  the  "  Bibliotheque  Historie,"  ascended  the  tribune, 
amidst  cries  of  "  you  are  not  a  deputy,"  "  you  have  no  right  to 
be  there."  He  cautioned  the  Chamber  against  proclaiming  the 
Comte  de  Paris,  without  the  consent  of  the  people,  into  whose 
hands  the  real  sovereignty  had  again  fallen.  The  Marquis  de 
Larochejaquclin  rose  to  speak,  but  hac'  only  uttered  a  few  words 
when  a  crowd  rushed  into  the  Chamber,  some  armed  with 
swords,  lances,  muskets,  spears,  and  tri-colored  flags;  others 
unarmed,  in  blouses,  with  dragoons'  helmets  on  their  heads,  or 
with  cross  belts  and  infantry  caps.  These  persons  it  once 
seized  on  such  deputies'  seats  as  were  unoccupied,  several 
ascending  the  tribune  and  stationing  themselves  there. 

A  number  of  the  deputies,  appearing  to  consider  their  position 


668 


CIIAITER   XIV. 


'■'. 


perilous,  bcgnn  to  withdraw,  and  as  they  abandoned  their 
places,  the  crowd  took  thoni.  The  tumult  was  tremendous,  and 
many  deputies  looked  with  anxiety  towards  the  Duchess  of 
Orleans  and  her  children,  but  she  sat  calm  amidst  the  uproar. 
After  M.  Ledru  Kollin  and  M.  Lamartine  had  succeeded  in 
making  themselves  hoard  for  a  few  moments,  a  violent  and 
imperative  knocking  arose  at  the  door  of  one  of  the  tribunes.  It 
being  opened,  a  crowd  of  armed  men  rushed  in.  Several  of 
them  forced  their  way  to  the  front  seats,  and  pointed  their 
muskets  at  the  deputies  below.  Some  of  these  weapons  were 
turned  in  the  direction  of  the  royal  party. 

Immediately  the  persons  near  the  Duchess  of  Orleans  seemed 
to  address  her  energetically,  and  at  once,  with  her  sons  and  the 
two  princes,  she  quitted  the  Chamber  by  a  door  on  the  extreme 
left.  M.  Sauzet  left  the  chair,  and  a  great  number  of  deputies^ 
rose  from  their  places.  The  greatest  disorder  was  visible. 
Shortly  after,  silence  being  somewhat  restored,  M.  Ledru  Rollin 
said,  "According  ns  I  read  out  the  names,  you  will  say  *  Yes,' 
or  'No,'  just  as  they  please  you  ;  and  in  order  to  act  officially, 
1  call  on  the  reporters  of  the  public  press  to  take  down  the 
names  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  received,  that  France 
may  know  what  has  been  done  here."  The  honorable  deputy 
then  read  the  names  of  M.  M.  Dupont  (de  I'  Eure)  Arago,  De 
Lamartine,  Ledru  Hollin,  Gamier  Pages,  Marie  and  Cr^niieux, 
all  of  which  were  received  with  acclamations. 

Cries  of  "  To  the  Hotel  de  Ville,"  here  arose,  followed  by  a 
cry  of  "  No  civil  list,"  and  another  of  "  No  King  !"  Some  one 
having  directed  the  attention  of  the  crowd  to  the  picture  of  liouis 
Phillippe  swearing  obedienco  to  the  charter,  cries  of  "  Tear  it 
down  !"  arose.  A  workman,  with  a  double-barrelled  fowling 
piece,  who  was  standing  in  the  same  circle,  cried  out,  "  Just 
wait  until  I  have  a  shot  at  Louis  Phillippe!"  and  at  the  same 
moment  both  barrels  were  discharged.  Great  confusion  ensued, 
amidst  which,  two  men  jumped  on  the  chairs  behind  the  Presi* 
dent's  seat,  and  prepared  to  cut  the  picture  to  pieces  with  their 
sabres.  Another  workman  ran  up  the  steps  of  the  tribune  and 
exclaimed,  "  Respect  public  monuments !  respect  property !  why 
destroy  the  pictures  with  balls  ?  We  have  shown  that  the  peo- 
ple will  not  allow  itself  to  be  ill-govemed :  let  us  now  show 
that  it  knows  how  to  conduct  itself  after  victory."  (Great 
applause.) 

The  next  instant,  M.  Dupont  (de  I'  Eure)  was  placed  in  the 
chair.  M.  de  Lamartine  and  Ledru  Rollip  attempted  to  obtain 
a  hearing,  but  were  unsuccessful.  Several  of  the  guards  and 
some  of  the  people  made  a  similar  vain  eflbrt.     A  cry  then 


andoned   their 

mcndous,  and 

Duchess  of 

8t  the  uproar. 

succeeded  in 

a  violent  and 

le  tribunes.     It 

n.     Several  of 

pointed  their 

weapons  were 

Orleans  seemed 

er  sons  and  the 

on  the  extreme 

ber  of  deputies^ 

or  was    visible. 

^f .  Ledru  Rollin 

will  say  '  Yes,' 

to  act  officially, 

take  down  the 

ved,  that  France 

honorable  deputy 

5ure)  Arago,  De 

e  and  Cr6inieux, 

ie,  followed  by  a 
ig !"  Some  one 
I  picture  of  Jiouis 
:ries  of  "  Tear  it 
)arrelled  fowling 
cried  out,  "  Just 
and  at  the  same 
:onfusion  ensued, 
lehind  the  Presi- 
pieces  with  their 
f  the  tribune  and 
ict property!  why 
>wn  that  the  peo- 
et  us  now  show 
victory."     (Great 

as  placed  in  the 
tempted  to  obtain 
f  the  guards  and 
>rt.     A  cry  then 


rnANcB. 


609 


arose  in  one  of  the  tribunes,  "  Let  I^amurtine  speak  ;"  and 
"  Larnartine"  resounded  from  all  quarters. 

M.  dc  Lamarline.  "  .\  provisional  government  is  about  to  be 
proclaimed."     (Cries  of  Vive  Lamartino  I     "  Nsimcs,  nnmcs  !") 

The  noise  not  ceasing,  the  names  were  written  on  a  slip  of 

faper,  and  carried  round  the  chamber  on  the  lop  of  a  musket, 
n  the  midst  of  shouts  Ledru  HoUin  road  the  names.  Nearly  all 
the  deputies  had,  by  this  time,  departed,  and  the  N'atiomil  (luards 
and  the  people  had  the  chamber  to  themselves.  .VI.  Rollin 
continued,  "  We  are  obliged  to  close  the  sitting  in  order  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  seat  of  governnKMil." 

(From  all  sides  shouts,  "To  the  Hotel  de  VjIIo!"  "  Vive  la 
R6publique  !")     The  crowd  then  dispersed  at  four  o'clock. 

Another  terrible  scene  now  took  place  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville, 
where,  on  adjourning  from  the  chamber,  the  members  of  the 
provisional  government  sat  to  decide  upon  the  course  to  be 
adopted.  Suddenly  the  doors  of  the  Salle  de  Conseil  were 
violently  shaken,  and  the  people  loudly  demanded  the  commu- 
nication of  the  first  act  of  the  government.  The  great  majority 
of  the  members  wore  opposed  to  the  establishment  of  an  unmiti- 
gated democracy,  but  the  populace  were  resolved  that  a  purely 
democratic  Republic  should  be  formed,  and  that  every  male 
above  a  certain  age  should  be  eligible  to  the  National  Guard, 
and  empowered  to  carry  arms.  Every  attempt  to  oppose  this 
was  the  signal  of  renewed  shouts.  In  vain  it  was  attempted  to 
adjourn  the  question  till  minds  should  become  calm.  The  popu- 
lar will  prevailed,  and  resolutions  were  passed  in  accordance 
with  it. 

The  provisional  government  at  once  issued  the  following 
proclamation : 

"  TO    THE    FRENCH    PEOPLE. 

"  A  retrograde  and  oligarchic  government  has  been  overturned 
by  the  heroism  of  the  people  of  Paris.  This  government  has 
fled,  leaving  behind  it  traces  of  blood  which  will  forever  forbid 
its  return.  The  blood  of  the  people  has  flowed  as  in  July,  but 
happily,  it  will  not  have  been  in  vain.  It  has  secured  a  national 
and  popular  government,  in  accordance  with  the  rights,  the  pro- 
gress, and  the  will  of  this  great  and  generous  people.  A  Provi- 
sional Government,  chosen  by  the  acclamation  and  at  the  call 
of  the  people,  and  some  of  the  Deputies  of  the  departments  in 
the  sitting  of  the  24th  of  February,  is  for  the  moment  invested 
with  the  care  of  organizing  and  securing  the  national  victory.  It 
is  composed  of  MM.  Dupont  (de  I'Eure,)  Larnartine,  Cr^mieux, 
Arago  (de  I'lnstitut,)  Ledru  Rollin,  and  Gamier  Pages.     The 


m~ 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

.crrcarirs  to  tl.U  fiovcrnmnU  are  MM.    ^™d  ^arra«^  e.litor 

of  the  '  National ;'  \.o\m  iUnnc,  iMTdinaml  Hocoii,  tclitor  ol  ino 

/i L.nr  •  and  AlLert.    Th.-nr  ctti/.cns  have  not  hrH.latr.l  for  an 

i  /s   r  o  a"l  ho  patriotic  mission  whic-h  ha«  been  .mpoHed 

J  Wv  th.:  urLMM  cv  of  the  ocea«io.i.     When  iho  rapitai  ol 

Fni  i-n^nJer  n^  .Kt^.m  of  the  i-ron«ional  t;overnment  Jj 

hTo  ,m     c  saf.tv.     All  Franco  will  understand  this,  and  w.ll 

t:^:1^^of  its  patriotism.  ,  Under  ^^^V^l^^' 

men*  now  nrorluimed  l)V  the   Hrovisional  C.overnmont,  .  very 

"^enir  a' magistrate.'  Frenchtnen.    «-e  U,   the   wodd^  t^^^^^ 

^Ls  which  vrare  abont  to  be  called  upon  to  R.ve  y.o«"elve»^ 
S-  Provisional  C;ov..rn.nont  desires  a  Hepnbhc,  H'-bject  to  the 

r/Z  nent  dVsiro\o"ufsth        their  opinion  for  tho  opin.on- 

^'ItrScns  at  large,  upon  '»'•;''{:''" tl'r '^'rSrS^ 
which  the  national  Hovercignty  ^Imll  proclaim^  1  Uc  """[  »' 
The  nation,  formed  henceforth  of  all  ^l"-- "'.V^^^^/'^^X 

and  pass-word  to  be  '  1  tie   J  « opie  ,     ^u  „hirh  our 

Boveniment  which  France  owes  to  herself,  and  which  our 
E  will  assure  to  her.  St.ch  are  the  first  acts  of  the  Pro- 
vi8i.mal  Government.  Lamartine,  Ledru   Rollin, 

bI'XmIJSJ^^^I  Arai.  Bcthmont.  Marie.  Canto, 

"^"X^S^S  oSS  is  disbanded.  The  protection  c^ 
cityofrurins  Confided  to  the  National  Guard,  under  the  orders 
of  M.  Courtais." 

This  proclamation  was  Allowed  by  another  appointing  a  Pro- 

ernor  of  Algeria.     To  these  decrees  succeeded  . 

"The  Municipal  Guard  is  dissolved.     M.  Gamier  Pages  is 


VI arrant,  editor 

I,  t'ditor  of  the 

ir(«ilatP(l  for  nn 

been  iinpo«e(l 

the  capital  of 

(iovornment  is 

this,  and  will 

()opiilar  govern- 

eriiment,  every 

the    world   the 

lare  yourselves, 

n  Htrong  institu- 

nivo  yourselves. 

c,  subject  to  the 

ho   inimedialcly 

the   Provisional 

for  tho  opinions 

>  of  Kovcrninenl 

Tlic  unity  of 

he  people  which 

y  itself;  liberty, 

national  device 

i  the  democratic 

and  which  our 

nets  of  the  Pro- 

5,  Ledru   RoUin, 
It,  Marie,  Camot, 

protection  of  the 
under  the  orders 


appointing  a  Pro- 
le I'Eure,)  Presi- 
inariinc,  Minister 
uslice ;  M.  Ledru 
ioudechaux,  Min- 
ster of  Marine; 
Vlinisterof  Public 
ter  of  Commerce ; 
('avaignac,  Gov- 
1: 

Qarnier  Pag^s  is 


TRANCK. 


671 


named  Mayor  of  Paris,  and  to  him  are  given  as  mljoints,  MM. 
Guinard  and  Keeiirt,  M.  I'liilard  is  niiined  Sccntary-uoni'ial. 
All  the  other  Mayors  of  Paris  are  provisionally  maintained. 
The  Pr^leciuro  of  Police  is  under  the  drpciidi'iice  of  the  Mayor 
of  Paris.  In  tho  name  of  France,  the  Provisional  (ioverninent 
decides  that  the  Chamber  of  iJeputios  is  dissolved,  'I'ho 
ex-Chamber  of  Peers  is  forbidden  to  meet.  A  Nalional  .\ssem- 
bly  will  be  convoked  as  soon  as  the  Provisional  (iovertimeiit 
shall  have  regulated  the  necessary  measures  of  order  and 
police." 

Further  appointnionis  followed  in  rapid  succession.  General 
Siibervie  was  substituted  for  (Joneral  Hedean,  as  Minister  of 
War ;  Cieneral  lledeau  taking  command  of  the  first  military 
division  ;  Admiral  llaiidin  was  appointed  ('ominander  of  the 
Fleet;  the  Police  department  was  entrusted  to  the  citizens 
Caussidiere  and  Sobrier ;  and  M.  Arago  was  appointed  to  the 
Direction-General  of  the  Post-oHico.  A  notice  also  advised  the 
bukers,  or  furnishers  of  provisions  of  Paris,  to  keep  their  shops 
open  to  all  those  who  might  have  occasion  fur  them.  The 
people  were  expressly  recommeiuled  not  to  quit  their  arms, 
their  positions,  or  their  revolutionary  attitude.  It  was  further 
announced  that  the  liberation  of  all  who  had  been  imprisoned 
on  political  grounds  had  been  effected ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
all  who  had  been  convicted  of  crimes  against  persons  and  prop- 
erty were  detained. 

The  revolution  was  now  consummated  ;  royalty  had  vanished 
like  a  dissolving  view,  and  its  place  was  already  filled  by  a  now 
and  totally  diflerent  spectacle. 

The  day  after  tho  battle  was  one  of  strange,  tumultuous  ex- 
citement, but  passed  without  any  infraction  of  the  peace.  The 
streets  were  crowded,  during  the  whole  of  Friday,  with  men 
and  women,  and  wore  the  appearance  of  a  festival. 

The  people  had  not  dismissed  from  their  minds  all  apprehen- 
sion of  an  attempt  to  rally  on  the  |iart  of  those  favoring  the  claims 
of  the  DuchesB  of  Orleans  and  her  son,  and  maintained  a  jeal- 
ous attitude  towards  the  soldiers  of  the  line,  who  were  still  in 
arms.  Yet  they  displayed  the  moat  frank  and  generous  forgive- 
ness towards  their  vaiupiishcd  foes.  Disarmed  Municipal  Guards 
and  soldiers  of  the  regiment,  who  had  fired  on  the  people,  were 
seen  walking  about  the  streets,  and  no  one  insulted  or  molested 
them. 

Among  the  scenes  of  the  late  conflict,  none  attracted  more 
painful  curiosity  than  the  space  before  the  Hotel  of  the  Minister 
of  Foreign  Aflfairs,  where  the  fatal  volley  had  been  tired  on  the 


u 


r- 


I 


072 


OIUPTKR    XIV. 


niifht  III  the  '^3il.  Pools  of  l)loud,  fil'ty  pacnn  long,  HtitKnatod 
horribly  on  tin*  unpliultu  |mvuiiiont. 

The  lioiili-vunlit  preitoiitfil  u  terrible  proof  of  that  reckless- 
iii'S8  of  iii'Htructioii  coiiiinoii  to  ull  kinds  of  battle.  The  trees, 
which  wiTu  tlu)  ortiiiiiiciit  of  tliu  splendid  stroots,  were  all  cut 
down.  Till  V  W(>rt'  Nttvered  about  three  feet  from  the  ground,  and 
formed  ii  line  of  posiH,  neither  useful  nor  ornamental.  The  mu- 
tilated Htuiii|ii4  rumiiinud  Btandin)(  for  some  days,  when  they  were 
rcuujveii  by  u  liirjjo  body  of  laburors. 

All  tlif  tlt'tacUitil  {Hists  around  i'uris  surrendered  this  day  with- 
out rosiiit  incu.  A  lari^u  body  of  the  National  Guardt,  and  of 
the  crowd,  had  marched  against  the  fort  of  Vinconnes,  but  their 
presence  proved  unnecessary,  for  the  soldiers  of  the  line  had 
tacitly  joined  the  revolt. 

liy  l-'riday  evening,  order  was  to  a  great  extent  restored  ;  one 
proof  wiLi  the  rc-opuning  of  the  Bunk  of  France,  which  was 
chiefly  due  to  the  admirable  conduct  of  l\u>  National  Guard,  and 
the  intrepidity,  energy  and  good  sense  of  the  Provisional  Gov- 
ernment. To  M.  Lamarlinu  especially  belongs  the  renown  of 
having,  that  day,  saved  his  country  from  the  most  bloody  an- 
orchy. 

Among  the  earliest  resolutions  adopted  by  the  Provisional 
Government,  were  the  abolition  of  capital  punishment  for  politi- 
cal od'ences,  and  the  re-adoption  of  the  tri-colorod  flag.  lioth 
these  measures  were  proposed  by  M.  Lamartine,  and  owed  their 
success  to  his  extraordinary  eloquence  and  courage.  Five 
times  on  Friday,  he  addressed  the  [teople,  still  tierce  with  ex- 
citement, assembled  under  the  windows  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville. 

On  Saturday,  the  restoration  of  order  was  complete.  The 
public  departments  resumed  their  duties,  and  among  them  the 
department  of  Finance.  It  was  (mly  on  the  previous  Monday 
tliat  the  notice  to  pay  the  city  taxes  had  been  issued.  The 
whole  of  the  coming  year's  taxes,  derived  from  per-centage  on 
rents  of  the  apartments  and  shop  keepers'  licences,  would  thus 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  new  Ciovernmenl— an  enormous  fund 
with  which  to  begin.  The  million  a  month  had  already  been 
confiscated,  or,  us  the  ordonnance  has  it,  "restored  to  the  people," 
a  handsome  addition  to  the  fund  applicable  to  the  relief  of  dis- 
tress. 

The  streets  being  partially  cleared  of  the  barricades,  under 
the  scientific  direction  of  the  students  of  the  "Ecole  Polytech- 
nique,"  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  compromise  the  security  against 
a  surprise  afforded  by  these  popular  fortiftcations,  the  country 
people  were  enabled  to  bring  in  their  provisions,  of  which  there 
wa9  an  abundant  supply.     The  vast  number  of  cabmen  and 


ihat  recklew 
lo.  The  treea, 
In,  were  ull  cul 
ihc  ground,  nixA 
iiittl.  The  mu- 
wheii  they  were 

.  this  day  with- 

Guardb  and  of 

lennes,  but  ihoir 

f  iho   line   had 

nt 


restored ;  one 

,   which  was 

„ial  Guard,  and 

rovisional  Gov- 

tho   renown  of 

most  bloody  an- 

r  the  Provisional 
ishmvnt  for  politi- 
lorcd   flag.     Both 
ue,  and  owed  their 
J   courage.     Five 
ill  fierce  with  ox- 
Hotel  de  Ville. 
M  complete.     The 
1  among  them  the 
previous  Monday 
een   issued.     The 
>m   per-centage  on 
;e»ces,  would  thus 
-an  enormous  fund 
I  had  already  been 
lorod  to  the  people," 
to  the  relief  of  dis- 

te  barricades,  under 
B  "Ecole  Polytech- 
ihe  security  against 
cations,  the  country 
ions,  of  which  there 
iber  of  cabmen  and 


i 


9 


t 


1 


Ijil 


FRANCE. 


673 

coachmen  were  thus  allowed  to  resume  their  occupation.  The 
law-courts  again  connnnnced  their  sittings  ;  the  shops  were 
opened,  and  every  thing  was  done  to  calm  apprehension. 

On  this  day,  Lamartine  declared  the  Republic.  He  presented 
himself,  with  the  other  members  of  the  Government,  on  the 
steps  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  thus  addressed  the  multitude  : 
■'  Citizens  !  The  Provisional  Government  of  the  Republic 
has  called  upon  the  people  to  witness  its  gratitude  for  the  mag- 
nificent national  co-operation,  which  has  just  accepted  these 
new  institutions.  . 

"  The  Provisional  Government  of  the  Republic  has  only  joy- 
ful intelligence  to  announce  to  the  people  here  assembled. 
Royalty  is  abolished.  The  Republic  is  proclaimed.  The  peo- 
ple'will  exercise  their  political  rights.  National  workshops 
are  open  for  those  who  are  without  work. 

"  The  army  is  being  re-organized.  The  Nation'/i  Guard  in- 
dissolubly  unites  itself  with  the  people,  so  as  to  promptly  re- 
store order  with  the  same  hand  that  had  only  the  preceding  mo- 
ment conquered  our  liberty. 

"  Finally,  gentlemen,  the  Provisional  Government  is   anxious 
to  be  itself  the  bearer  to  you  of  th^  last  decree  it  has  resolved  on 
and  signed  in  this  memorable  sitting ;  that  is,  the  abolition  of  the 
penalty  of  death  for  political  matters.     This  is  the  noblest  decree, 
irentlemen,  that   has  ever  issued  from  the  mouths  of  a  people, 
the  day  after  their  victory,     ii  is  the  character  of  the  French 
nation,  which  escapes  in  one  spontaneous  cry  from  the  soul  of 
Government.     We  have  brought  it  with  us,  and  I  will  now  read 
it  to  you.     There  is  not  a  more  becoming  homage  to  a  people, 
than  the  spectacle  of  its  own  magnanimity." 
He  then  read  the  following  noble  proclamation: 
"  The  Provisional  Government,  convinced  that  greatness  of 
Boul  is  the  highest  degree  of  policy,  and  that  each  resolution, 
effected  by  the  French  people,  owes  to  the  world  the  consecra- 
tion of  an  additional  philosophical  truth  ;  considering  that  there 
is  no  more  sublime  principle  than  the  inviolability  of  huniaa  life  ; 
considering  that  in  the  memorable  days  in  which  we  live,  the 
Provisional  Government  has  remarked,  with  pride,  that  not  a 
single  cry  for  vengeance  or  for  death  has  dropped   from  the 
mouths  of  the  people,  declares— That,  in  its  opinion,  the  pun- 
ishment of  death  for  political  offences  is  abolished,  and  that  it 
will  present  that  wish  to  the  definitive  ratification  of  the  National 
Assembly.     The  Provisional  Goyemment  has  sc^  firm  a  con- 
viction of  the  truth,  that  it  proclaims,  in  the  name  of  the  French 
people,  that,  if  the  guilty  men  who  have  just  ca«sed  the  blood 
of  France  to  be  spilt,  were  ia  tbe  hands  «rf  the  people,  it  would, 

4» 


11-^ 


*'■ 


674 


CHAITER   XIV. 


.„.Wropinion,bea.o.e  exemplary  Chastisement  to  ae,r^^^ 

cal  offences  tended,  "^7,^^=^"  Siv  „f  the  entire  nation,  m 
to  produce  the  unparalleled  unammuy  .^       ^,j^        j. 

accepting  the  new  men.  as  the  "«^«««;'X  ,,  ,,eU  as  all   the 

die  classes   in   Pans  ''"d^"  J?"  Ctatio-^to  t^e  Government 
press,  yielded  >-?^°«\rrrtof  the  army,  and  the  Archbishop 
Slarshal  B^^^'^'rof  Kergy  gave  in  their  adhesion  to  the 
of  Paris,  on  the  part  of  the  ciergy,  b 

new  Republic.  .     ^^e   barricades  had  all  been 

Sunday  was   a  high  festival,     in  ^,^,„^k,  the 

removedfand  the   streets  we  e  thronged.^ ^^^  ^ody  of  National 
Provisional  Governmen    '«"«75  '"  „„  ^^.^  steps  of  which, 
Guards,  before   the  Column  of  July,  on   .^^^    \^^  ^      „ 
the  celebrated  astronomer,  ^J^go,  P  Comtais,  with  his 

amidst  the   >vildest  enthus^^m     General      ^^^^^^  ^^^^^ 
,,hite  her.   "-covered, harangued  every  grj      ^^^^^^^^^ 
I     Bouleva.a.      the  Foreign  Office,  re<.om  .        i,iu„,inated. 

quillity.  • "  '  «ning,  the  «^P'^-^^  j^,  ,^^  t^-color  transpa- 
Venetian!  ,,  '  '  «l/«P°«^«.f  ^^'" ^Boulevards  were  exceed- 
rent,  were  --"«^"^*y  ,T  wTndows  and  under  .he  lamps,  were 
ingly  gay.  People  at  all  t^e  -"f"^^^^^^^^  „„  every  body  to 

devouring  the  journals.  HawRers  ^^^^^^  ^^  j    „„. 

purchase  little  tri-colored  cockades  tU^^^  ^ 

guish  it  from  the  red,  ,^^»*^» 'f/ '  °"'   ^inst  private  persons   and 
was  the  capital  freer  from  "V  '*8««  l^gj'^^    ^  i^^j^n,  b„t  it 

properly,  than  during  the  wild  turn^^^^^^^^     ^^  ^, 

must  not  be  ^nPP^i'^^'^^trn  Paris  who  thought  they  saw  m 
weredesperate  male  ac^rsm  Pans  ^.^.^^  ^^^^  ,apine,  but 

struction  of  Property.  The  ex  King  ^^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^re 

was  burned  on  S=;turday;  but  most  o  ^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^ 

carefully  removed,  and  sent  to  the  pumic  -  j     j^^^^  ^aved, 

of  conflagration  began.     Among  th^^^^^^^^^         ^^^  ^  K^  ^,^^y 
were  two  volumes  of  'l^^  "^"^^  ^'^^^  of  the  Con- 

terminating  at  t^  F""J  r^Stc  ?n  presence  of  the  armies  of  the 
Bulatc  proclaimed  the  R"?"'^  "=  '"^J  y^^nds  of  the  new  Govern- 
enemy'  There  '^l-P-;:J;7,he  ex-King,  among  which  was 
ment,  various  pnvate  P-^P*-"  °'  '"    <  ^^,J^^  Men  I  am  sure  of. 


lent  to  degrade 

ileath  for  politi- 
le  Government, 
ntire  nation,  in 
ime.  The  mid- 
well  as  all  '.He 
the  Government, 
the  Archbishop 
r  adhesion  to  the 

ides  had  all  been 
two  o'clock,  the 
Ijody  of   National 

steps  of  which, 
id  the  Republic, 
omtais,  with  his 

he  met,  along  the 
ng  order  and  tran- 
iantly  illuminated. 
[  tri-color  transpa- 
rds  were  cxceed- 
er  the  lamps,  were 
g  on  every  body  to 
lal  color,  to  distin- 
lad  adopted.  Never 
rivatc  persons    and 
B  Revolution,  but  it 
committed.     There 
lought  they  saw  in 
ties  for  rapine,  but 
id  punished   by  the 

is  much  wanton  de- 
jI  chateau  at  Neuilly 
luable  contents  were 
,ury,  before  the  work 
cresting  items  saved, 
s  of  Louis  Phillippe, 
ssioners  of  the  Con- 
>  of  the  armies  of  the 
of  the  new  Govern- 
jr,  among  which  was 
"Men  1  am  sure  of." 
child   was  burned  on 


T' 


FllAXfE. 


675 


Sunday,  under  the  imprcsNion  that  it  belonged  to  the  King. 
The  greatest  destruction  was  that  committed  on  the  Northern 
Railway,  the  damage  done  to  which  amounted  to  no  less  than 
jC400,000.  Repairs  were  quickly  made,  sutFicient  to  render  the 
line  practicable  to  a  certain  extent  ;  hut  the  effect  of  the  mis- 
chief was  not  confined  to  the  heavy  loss  of  capital ;  three  fourths 
of  the  traffic  of  the  line  were  annihilated.  ^ 

^  'I'he  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  in  Paris,  is,  in  some 
respects,  a  continuation  of  the  Revolution  of  July,  1830,  while 
in  other  points,  it  is  entirely  new.  The  old  principle  combined 
with  the  new  to  overturn  the  throne  of  Louis  I'hillippe,  and  to 
proclaim  the  republic,  but  as  soon  as  the  monarchy  was  abolished, 
the  old  and  new  principles  commenced  a  war  againsl  each 
other.  The  old  principle  included  the  right  of  self-government, 
and  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and  merely  attempted  what  the 
American  people  have  realized  under  a  republic.  Louis  Phil- 
lippc  invaded  this  principle,  and  fell.  The  new  principle,  which 
aided  in  his  overthrow,  went  much  further,  insisting  not  merely 
U|>on  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and  upon  a  share  in  government, 
through  the  suffrage,  for  the  adult  male  population,  but  upon  the 
establishment  of  new  social  relations  between  wealth  and  labor. 
It  was  in  fact  Socialism,  or  Communism  ;  and  affirmed  that  the 
State  collectively  can  and  must  supply  food  and  labor  for  the 
whole  population.  The  one  principle  was  purely  political  and 
philosophical ;  the  other  was  social  and  unpliilosophical.  Both 
were  active  in  France  during  the  reign  of  ].iOuis  Fhillippe  ;  both 
desired  a  change ;  the  one,  that  France  might  become  a  great 
republic  like  the  United  States — the  other,  that  France  might 
work  the  mighty  problem  of  Communism,  and  show  to  the  world, 
by  a  new  distribution  of  wealth,  and  by  the  destruction  of 
individualism,  that  every  man  might  have  more  than  enough  for  his 
wants,  and  poverty  and  crime  be  altogether  banished  from  society. 
The  first  acts  and  proclamations  of  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment were  looked  to  with  great  interest  throughout  Europe.  It 
was  announced  that  the  constituent  National  Assembly  was  con- 
voked for  the  20th  of  April,  a  dale  afterwards  postponed  to  the 
4th  of  May.  It  was  decreed  that  the  electoral  colleges  should 
meet  on  the  9th  of  April,  and  that  every  Frenchman,  without 
respect  to  property,  being  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  should 
have  a  vote,  under  the  protection  of  the  ballot  —  the  Assembly, 
80  elected,  to  consist  of  900  members,  or  one  member  to  every 
40,000  of  population,  each  member  to  be  twenty-five  years  of 
age,  or  upwards.  The  principle  of  the  payment  of  members 
was  affirmed,  and  the  indemnity  for  each  was  fixed  at  25  francs 
a  day  during  the  session. 


if 


676 


CHAPTER   XIV- 


„f  i>ifi  revolution  was  the  first 
The  interment  of  the  v^'^'uns  of  .he   e  « ^  ^,,^,„,,i,,,  .„ 

great  ceremony  of  the  J^'a.cS  er  of  the  people,  U  was 
fts  general  aspect   as  suited  tlu-c^^  ^^^^.,^i  returns  gave 

nevertheless  grand  and  ^f.^'X  fiihting,  but  it  was  believed 
150  killed,  and  500  ^"""f.f";;^  larger-  All  the  members  of 
that  the  number  was  '•«^'»"y  T"  eeremony  of  interment,  excep 
Ihe  mimstry  -"^.P^frbsence  was  accounted  for  on  the  ground 

M   Lamartine.  whose  absence  w 

of  excessive  fatigue.  revolution,  the  people  were 

For  the  first  few  ^^««^«  ^^^^'i^ed  tree«  of  liberty  to  amuse 

kept  in  good  humor,  ^^'".l^eet  to  street  with  uprooted 

thLselvL,  and  -arched  from  ^rect^  .^^  ^,,^^  ,„  p,    ,^em^ 

poplars,  seeking  vacant  P>°^«  «'^^i^  banners  flying,  and  with  a 
Jrhey  marched  in  Pf^^'I'f' °"\J ".ees  in  the  name  of  bod,  and 
priest  at  their  head,  to  ^ess  the  tree^  ...nusement    and 

S  the  cause  of  liberty.  ..^^oX  theatres,  the  people  did 
favored  with  gratuitous  '^?;jf '"^^^^^^nt,  taking  a  lesson  from 
not  think  of  mischiet.      l  ne  go»  .    ;,„,„,i  its  irorgeous  ffete,  ana 

r  £y  of  the  fi--«,rs'rb";  r  7^^ 

brought  large  -^^^^J'^^^f  ^J^.J^  an^  banners,  the  firmg  ol  artil-      , 
the  republic  with  spears,  sworas,j^^jjgg  ^ 

lerv  and  the  shouting  of  enthusiastic  m  ^^^  j,„t    j 

The  "People."  however   ^^  f^^Sient  and  necessary  to    |, 
occasion  npoi.  which  ^^^^^^-"f^IueTof  uniform  among  the      , 
show  their  P«r''XoTers  orone  favorite  division  insisted 
National  Guard.       1  jY^^hnlnt'  which  the  working  classes    | 
upon  a  distinctuia  «/. '^^''''"""f.Ue  principle  of  '' equality. 

Zked  upon  as  an  infringement  c,^  ,}'&,)  the  emissaries  of 
Early  on  Friday  morning  (nth  of  M^^^^,.^^ 

the  clubs  proceeded  to  all  the  8»o«rD  ,  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^  ,„ 

endlvous  on  difi-frent  I»intB,  an«i  ^^     ^,^^^^^,^,,  laborers 
bodies  to  the  Hotel  de  Vile.     About  e  ^^^  ^^^.^  j 

Zired  down  in  massea  tnt«.^^^„"^?.v' ^e  who  assembled  in  the 
P:;rire  working,  to  pin  the-     1  ho-;  p^„^  ,,^,,„l,  «as 

Champs  Elysees  exceeded  30,OU 

covered.  ,  ,    .     .,,  ^^^   the  crowd  remained  on  the 

From  twelve  o'clock  t}"  '^°'. '".^^Is  raising  the  chorus  of 

Place,  cheering  and  shouting,  ^J^  j"^^^^  their  drums.    There 

5  e«  Marseillaise."  or  beatmg  ^he  ^JP    «'  „f  f^,,,      ,  the 

was  no  sign  of  oppo^tt^o"  »o  'h>„^  J^^^  ^^^„  ^,^,x.    Towards 
guard  on  duty  was  e^en  l«f  ""I"  though  very  slowly, 

fio  o'clock,  the  crowd  began  ^"f^ffjjumphoveran  attempted 
^^The  demonstration  was  con-^^^^  those  who.  U  « 


I  was  the  first 
iiit  theatrical  in 
people,  it  was 
1  returns  gave 
it  was  bcUeveJ 
the  members  of 
iterment,  except 
>r  on  the  ground 

the  people  were 

liberty  to  amuse 

!t  with  uprooted 

ch  to  plant  them. 

yring,  and  with  a 

ame  of  tiod,  and 

anmsement,  and 

es,  the  people  did 

ng  a  lesson  from 

rorgeous  f6te,  and 

ther  to  inaugurate 

,  the  firing  of  artil- 

es. 

times.     The  first 
It  and  necessary  to 
iniform  among  the 
le  division  insisted 
B   working  classes 
)ie  of  "  equality." 
)  the  emissaries  of 
vite  the  laborers  to 
Bed  from  thence  in 
o'clock  the  laborers 
J  all  their  comrades 
^o  assembled  in  the 
Pont  d'Arcole  was 

d  remained  on  the 
iising  the  chorus  of 
their  drums.     There 
,tion  of  feeling ;  the 
m  usual.     Towards 
lough  very  slowly, 
ph  over  an  attempted 
ver  those  who,  it  is 
republic. 


FRANCE. 


677 


The  succeeding  night  passed  in  perfect  tranquillity,  though 
the  ileiiiDiistr.-ition  continued  to  a  late  hour.  Hodies  of  men, 
marcliiiig  nine  and  ten  abreast,  continued  to  defile  along  the 
Boulevards  fnnn  four  till  seven  o'clock.  As  night  fell,  crowds 
collecteil  in  diflVrcnt  spots,  but  principally  about  the  Porte  St. 
Denis  and  Porte  St.  Martin.  The  inhabitants  in  this  quarter 
illuminated  their  houses,  and  about  eight  o'clock  an  immense 
body  of  the  people  began  to  move  slowly  along  the  Boulevards 
in  the  direction  of  the  .Madeleine,  singing  and  calling  on  the 
shopkeepers  to  light  up ;  the  citizens  were  taken  by  surprise, 
and  whenever  a  delay  occurred,  cries  of  "  Des  lampions  .'"  were 
raised  :  as  soon  as  lamps  were  fixed  to  the  balconies,  the  crowd 
gave  a  round  of  applause,  and  marched  on.  In  this  way  they 
advanced  in  comparative  darkness,  leaving  a  blaze  of  light  behind 
them.  They  were  in  a  very  good  humor,  and  not  the  slightest 
damage  was  done  :  not  a  single  pane  of  glass  was  broken,  nor 
did  the  shopkeepers  exhibit  any  alarm,  though  neither  police 
nor  military  were  to  be  seen.  By  ten  o'clock  the  throng  began 
to  diminish,  and  by  midnight  everything  was  quiet  again. 

The  Minister  of  War  addressed  a  circular  to  all  the  chiefs  of 
corps,  directing  them  to  present  in  future  for  promotion  none  but 
candidates  entitled  to  it  by  their  military  service. 

.\fter  their  demonstration  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  workmen 
of  Paris  proceeded  to  the  ministry  of  the  interior  to  salute  M. 
Ledru  Hollin  personally,  and  the  different  trades  succeeded  each 
other  without  interruption  from  four  to  seven  o'clock,  P.  M. 
Not  less  than  100,000  men  presented  themselves  at  the  Hotel 
during  that  interval,  and  M.  Ledru  Rollin  stood  constantly  under 
the  porch  receiving  addresses  and  replying  to  them. 

The  position  of  the  armed  force  of  France,  in  relation  to  the 
people,  was  singular.  The  army,  notwithstanding  many  re- 
assurances, had  not  recovered  from  the  disgrace  inflicted  by  the 
general  disarming  ;  the  public  were  not  sufficienily  reassured  of 
its  disposition  to  permit  the  introduction  even  of  two  regiments 
into  Paris  without  a  nmrmur.  The  National  Guard  was  tainted 
with  anti-revolutionary  tendencies ;  the  Garde  Mobile  was 
imperfectly  armed  and  quite  undisciplined,  and  the  military  and 
political  systems  seemed  alike  disorganized. 

The  Mint  was  encumbered  with  an  enormous  mass  of  silver 
plate,  brought  there  to  be  coined  into  pieces  of  five  francs  each. 
A  number  of  silversmiths,  despairing  of  selling  their  second- 
hand articles,  resorted  to  this  expedient  to  render  their  dead 
stock  available:  others  announced  a  reduction  of  10  percent, 
on  their  goods,  in  order  to  ensure  such  a  sale  as  might  keep 
their  workmen  employed. 


i.t 


f  I 


678 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


.  „f  thfi  newly  enrolled   Garde 

The  arming  and  «a"!Pr";,:L  rapidity.^  A  decree  in  the 

Mobile  was  urged  on  ,^'"V      .  ITf  War  to  issue  from  the  stores 
ELeur  au  Jrized  U.e  M.n.  e  o   War^to^^  ^^^^^^  ^.  ^^^^  ^„. 

of  the  army  such  clothing,  i-c, 

convenience  to  the  ^^''"W,^..^^smeT^i,  the  Government  was 
In  the  face  of  financial  ^n'^arrassme    ,  ^.i.eady  too 

compelled  to  find  the  ."--^-"^  "^^^J^^^^  Jf  the  country-  The 
large  for  the  necessities  or  '^^^J^  „f  ^^e  republic  the  young 
Sa'rde  Mobile  enl^,^  -  ^^^  ^^^^^^^^  ^.^  higher  rate  than  the 
men  of  the  "people     paid  them  a  .^  ^^^  ^  „f  jis- 

troops  of  the  line,  and  bor«  '  W  ^j   they  formed  the  greatest 
cipline.     As  it  afterwards  appeared        y^^^^ 

bulwarks  against  f  "^^^y.^^'p^Ji^jroni  20  to  55  years  of  age 
All  able  bodied  men  in  fans,  i  ^    ■      j  Guard.     The 

^ere  invited  to  f "r«»,tTrm  them  all,  to  provide  clothing  at 
Government  undertook  «  """JJ^'^ere  not  able  to  equip  them- 
the  public  expense,  fo^.  ^^°r„„7o°  Sens  were  enrolled  m  the 
selves,  and  in  a  sl^^^^^^f^tf  A  d  scount  office,  under  the 
guard  of  Pans  and  "« J  "^i  Traders,"  was  directed  to  be 
title  of  "  Endowment  f^^/^'jf  >  „\  facilities  for  pecuniary 
established  for  thmr  ''^^^JgJ^^\f  ,tamp  duties  on  journals 
accommodation       rhe  suppressto^^^^  Another  decree, 

and  other  perio^U-al  pi^UcaUon^was  a  ^^  ^^^^^.^^ 

dated  3d  March,  ordered  that  the  a  ^^  ^^^  ^  ^ 

Paris  and  in  the  «ubur  s    shouW  be^h^^^^  .  ^  ^^^  ^,^  r,,„,h 
for  all  professions,     blavery  w  ^  i 

colonies  and  possessions.  Provisional  Govern- 

The  French  "  people"  no  soone'  «J^^«        ^^         ^  manifest    , 
niont  installed  at  the  Hotel  dej^l^^^  t^^n    J^  uf  transfom  into 
the  hopes  which  they  ^^VfZ^ll  Liaginary,  was  laid  at  the 
realities.     Every  grievance  jea^  or  '     fj  Arago.  with  a  view 
feet  of  Messrs.  De  Lamartine  Marras  ,  B  ^^.^^^^^  ^^^p.    , 

to  a  remedy.     Carpenters,  buddersslu,^^^^^^^^   ^hoe-cleaners, 
stresses,  purse-knitters,  .l«T"'„"'ery  maids,  formed  deputations, 
grooms,  waiters,  ^ookB,^^A  iHrocLrion  through  the  streets  to 
day  after  day,  and  marched  in  P™J^J^'     .^ey  suffered  in  their 
delail  to  the  government   ^«  ^"XP^.ong  were  dwellers  in 
Respective  callings.     ^^•"fl^^^Ja  Workers  ^and  head-workers  ; 
the  town  and  in  the  <=««""y :  ^^^^^^^^^^      wants  of  society    and 
those  who  administered  to  ^h«  '^g'J-^     j^        ^^j  Englishmen, 
those  who  flourished  on  Its  vices     tren  ^^  j, 

Swiss,  Poles.   Germans    Italians    tHj^^^,^^^^^^^ 
SutatrtS  rlSr,  tli:  Owenite,  all  ranks,  classes  and 
degrees  of  men. 


Inrolled  Garde 
decree  in  the 
[from  the  stores 
Ved  without  in- 

jvernment  was 
:my  already  too 
country.     The 
ublic  the  young 
er  rate  than  the 
manner  of  dia- 
led the  greatest 
have  raised. 
)5  years  of  age, 
lal  Guard.     The 
>vide  clothing  at 
le  to  equip  thein- 
e  enrolled  in  the 
office,  under  the 
iis  directed  to  be 
les  for   pecuniary 
luties  on  journals 
Another  decree, 
effective  labor  in 
ten  hours  a  day, 
n  all  the  French 

rovisional  Govern- 
began  to  manifest 
n  to  transform  into 
y,  was  laid  at  the 
irago,  with  a  view 
ters,  tailors,  semp- 
srs,  shoe-cleaners, 
}rmed  deputations, 
jugh  the  streets  to 
r  suffered  in  their 

were  dwellers  in 
ind  head-workers ; 
:it8  of  society,  and 
n  and  Englishmen, 
rs  of  slavery,  the 
t,  the  patriotic,  the 

ranks,  classes  and 


FRANCE. 


They  sought  relief  in  every  form,  possible  or  impossible  ; 
fewer  hours  of  labor,  better  wages,  and  more  holidays.  All  these 
were  but  a  small  portion  of  the  tasks  it  was  expected  that  the 
Government  would  accomplish  in  behalf  of  "  th*'  people." 

In  the  way  of  business,  things  continued  deplorable.  Money 
became  scarce,  misery  increased,  and  anxiety  as  regarded  the 
present,  alarm  as  regarded  the  future,  did  not  diminish.  The 
rich  families  who  left  Paris  during  the  revolution,  did  not  return, 
and  the  few  who  remained  continued  to  emigrate. 

The  elections  for  the  National  Assembly  caused  great  ex- 
citement throughout  all  France,  ami  there  was,  or  appeared  to  be, 
reason  to  believe  that  in  the  Provinces  the  Republic  was  not 
quite  so  popular  as  in  Paris.  The  danger  here,  the  Provisional 
Government  deemed  fit  to  provide  against ;  for  it  was  justly 
felt  that  if  by  any  combination  of  circumstances,  an  assembly 
should  be  elected,  f;ontaining  a  majority  of  anti-republicans,  a 
state  of  anarchy  and  bloodshed  would  most  probably  be  the  con- 
sequence. 

The  Republicans,  if  proved  to  be  in  a  minority,  would  show 
themselves  a  continual  source  of  alarm  and  mischief,  a  minor- 
ity that  never  would  submit,  and  that  would  change  itself  into  a 
majority,  by  dint  of  its  zeal,  energy,  and  strength  of  conviction. 
To  prevent  this  renewal  of  a  struggle,  of  which  the  only  possi- 
ble result  could  be  the  triumph,  at  a  somewhat  later  period,  of 
republican  principles,  iM.  Ledru  Rollin  and  M.  Carnot  issued  cir- 
culars to  their  agents,  which  excited  much  indignant  remark. 
That  of  M.  Ledru  Rollin  was  the  most  bold,  and  attracted  the 
greatest  blame.  It  expressly  declared  that  the  agents  of  the 
Government  should  use  all  means  at  their  command  to  secure  or 
forward  the  return  of  Republican  candidates.  The  circular  of 
M.  Carnot  took  the  same  ground,  and  insisted  that  it  was  better 
to  choose  an  uneducated  Republican  from  the  ranks  of  the  peas- 
antry or  the  workmen,  than  an  educated  Royalist,  however  great 
his  reputation,  or  pure  his  character.  The  object  of  this  procla- 
mation was  somewhat  misunderstood,  as  meaning,  that  in  all 
cases  an  uneducated  was  better  than  an  educated  representative. 
This,  however,  he  never  stated ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  appealed 
to  the  teachers  in  the  public  schools  throughout  the  country 
to  offer  themselves  as  candidates,  showing  them  the  career 
that  was  opened  to  talent  and  learning  by  the  Republic,  and  merely 
insisting  that  Republicanism  was  the  first  requisite  for  a  seat 
in  the  Assembly.  Republicanism  with  education,  J'"  possible — 
but  on  no  account  education  without  Republicanisn.  This  was 
his  meaning ;  and,  his  advice  was  generally  acted  upon.  Can- 
didates were  found  in  sufficient  numbers  combining  both  rcqui- 


I 


I 


u 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

rapid  and  f -'"^  a  rat*,^^^^^^^^^^     ^f  he tcpe-e  of  paying  ihem 

come  reaUy  useful  and  productive  Communist 

On  Saturday,  the    I5th   of  AP"!;   "»         j  extensive,  gave 

clubs,  whose  organization  ^"^^  ^^^Pj^'^^d  Jloustration  uiH,n 

orders  to  the  working  classes  for  a  grand  dcm  ^^^^^l^^ 

the  following  day.  ?\S""S;^'Sg  groups  of  workmen 
curred.  From  an  early  hour  in  the  morning,  ^o  i  ^^^  ^  ^^^^ 
assembled  in  the  Champ  de  Mars    wh«r«  t  Ja*  ^^^^^^ 

the  elections  of  the  Captains  of  the  Stan  ottn  ^^    ^^^^ 

destined  to  'eF««''"S%  ^l^"^eir' but  it  soon  became 
These  elections  passed  ofT  ^'"^^'y  ^"Sm„„  ^t,  and  other  men 
known  that  the  party  of  B  anqin  th«  Comrn  «ist       ^^^^^^^  ^^ 

of  extreme  opinions,  ^•'^^"'^"^^Vwh.ch  caused  the  greatest 
make  a  demonstration  in  ^^^^J^^^'.^,  „ "^e  most  extravagant 
alarm  among  the  middle  «^''^««^«' ^"''"'VrediL  by  reasonable 
reports.  Although  these  rumors  ve  «  not  ^^^^^^^^^  Ouard  should 
people,  it  was  deemed  P-^^f-^^^J'^'^^J^.rrs  beaten  in  every 
be  called  out.  Accordingly,  ^^.^J''JJ''',;„e  closed,  and  the 
quarter  ;  and,  in  a  ew  m.nutes  af   r    ho  s  weje^.^^^^;^ 

National  Guard  might  be  ^^^""""y'  ^4^3      por  some  lime  the 
of  rendezvous  of  their  respective  companies      !<  ^^^^^  ^^^^ 

town  presented  the  appearance  of  t^  ^J^^^^  ^,„„j  ,, 

S/r^^^aSSsS^^-J;^;"^^^^ 

were  no  barricades.  rhamo  de  Mars  continued  to 

Meanwhile,  the  crowd  on  the  Champ  ae  ^^,,„,ati„ns, 

increase,  and  it  soon  a^oume-^;-  "/^^^^^^  ^  ™  ^^^^^  ^^^.  „„ 
to  one  hundred  '^^'^^^.^^Zo^^^  the  different  trades 
was  nearly  as  great.  ^<^'f/'*'^„r^„  they  made  a  collection 
had   elected  their  respective   officer^^^^^^^^ 


le 


scandal  that 
been  elected 


increased  at  so 
)ne  month  they 
of  paying  them 
nd  even  Louis 
le  Government 
■nied  should  be- 

lus  Communist 
extensive,  gave 
onstration  u^ton 
irst  outbreak  oc- 
ups  of  workmen 

been  tixed  that 
National  Guard, 
ere  to  be  held. 
I  it  soon  became 
It,  and  otlier  men 

the  workmen  to 
lused  the  greatest 
most  extravagant 
ited  by  reasonable 
nal  Guard  should 
beaten  in  every 
re  closed,  and  the 
5  different  places 
For  some  time  the 
le  day  of  the  24th 
I  children  stood  at 
lurried  to  and  fro, 
ere  was  one  great 
Revolution — there 

lars  continued  to 
most  calculations, 
iltitude  looking  on 
he  different  trades 
nade  a  collection 
patriotic  gift  to  the 
lotel  de  Ville. 
the  Garde  Mobile 
icipal  places — the 


FRANCE. 


681 


Place  dc  la  Bourse,  the  Place  du  Carrousal,  tht  Place  de  la  Con- 
corde, <^c.     Patrols  of  theni  al^o  Iraversfd  tliu  stri-ct.'s. 

'I'he  manner  in  which  the  Natiunal  (iuanl  acted,  excited  un- 
bounded admiration  among  the  middle  and  ros|)oct:il)lu  classes 
of  society,  struck  the  Communist  piirlies  with  dismay,  and  great- 
ly strengthened  the  moderHtc  soctiun  of  the  Provisional  (lovern- 
nieiit.  This  section,  tliougli  forming  the  majority,  was  continu- 
ally kept  in  check  by  the  dread  of  the  immense  ph)  sical  power 
which  it  was  supposed  that  the  minority — Ledru  Uollin,  Flocon, 
Albert,  and  Louis  Diane — had  at  their  connnand  ;  but  this  dem- 
onstration proved  that  the  real  physical  power  of  I'aris,  consist- 
ing of  the  National  (iuard,  the  Garde  Nationale  Mobile,  and  other 
forces,  were  not  only  in  favor  of  the  moderate  party,  but  ready 
and  even  anxious  to  crush  their  enemies,  who  were  also  the  en- 
emies of  law  and  order.  To  this  force  the  moderate  section  of 
the  Government  could  have  added  from  20,000  to  30,000  regu- 
lar troops,  who  were  stationed  within  easy  reach  of  Paris. 

On  Tuesday  morning,  the  1  Hth,  at  six  o'clock,  the  rappel  for 
the  assembling  of  the  National  Guards  was  beaten  in  all  quarters 
of  Paris,  in  consequence  of  information  that  the  Communists, 
and  most  violent  of  the  ('lubs,  had  determined  on  another  attempt 
to  overthrow  the  Provisional  (Jovernment,  to  establish  a  commit- 
tee of  public  safety,  and  to  attack  the  Hotel  de  Ville. 

During  the  night,  great  numbers  of  the  Connnunists  assem- 
bled in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Motel  de  Ville  and  the  Tuil- 
eries,  uttering  threats  against  the  moderate  members  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. 

The  intentions  of  the  "  people"  being  made  somewhat  clear 
by  these  events  ;  and  the  danger  to  society  being  somewhat  more 
manifest  than  before,  the  Government  became  anxious  to  dis- 
cover whether  it  could  with  safety  resort  to  a  step  so  bold  as  the 
re-introduction  of  the  troops  of  the  line  to  Paris.  The  National 
Guard  was  worn  out  and  harassed,  and  would  hail  the  return  of 
the  troops  as  the  greatest  boon  that  could  be  offered  them.  But 
the  working  classes  and  Communists  might  be  mistrustful.  To 
inquiries,  made  both  openly  and  secretly  by  the  emissaries  or 
employes  of  the  Government,  a  satisfactory  reply  was  obtained, 
and  at  length  it  was  decided  that  the  troops  should  be  recalled. 
It  was  not  wise,  however,  to  allow  the  real  secret  of  their  recall 
to  be  promulgated ;  and  a  scheme  was  adopted  to  throw  the  peo- 
ple off  their  guard,  and  flatter  their  national  and  proverbial  love 
of  grand  spectacles,  by  one  which  should  cast  into  the  shade  by 
its  magnidcence  all  the  previous  spectacles  of  the  Revolution. 
The  Grand  Festival  of  Fraternity  was  devised,  and  passed 
off  in  the  most  brilliant  manner.     As  early  as  five  o'clock  on  the 


fi! 


,i. 


682 


CIIAI'TKR    XIV. 


'Li  1" 


morning  of  thu  2Utli  of  April,  the  druniM  wt-re  beat  for  the  aii8em« 
blin){ul  the  iliflcrtint  legions  of  tlu;  Nutioiial  (iuards  ;  hy  uighl, 
all  I'aria  suimiumI  to  havi!  pourrd  down  into  the  Htrout.  'I'lii-  day 
wim  dull,  drizzly,  and  drviiry,  hut  llu-  ardor  neither  of  the  actors 
in  the  mighty  show,  nor  of  the  (-rovvda  of  spoctators,  was  to  be 
damped.  Countlesis  thron(>H  jioured  along  the  ('hanipn  Elyaeus 
to  the  chief  point  of  interest. 

The  immi  UHC  estnule  erected  beneath  and  l)efor«  tho  Arch  of 
Triumph,  with  its  ascending  galleries  and  tribunes,  and  decora- 
tions of  Koman  and  Cirocian  uttribules,  was  not  without  a  cer- 
tain grandeur  of  etfect.  lJ|ion  this  eslnulr.  were  assembled  all 
the  generals,  the  courts,  and  the  tribunals,  the  wounded  of  the 
days  of  February,  delegates  from  the  schools,  the  commissions 
and  associations  of  the  working  classes,  and  from  the  clubs. 
On  either  side,  and  in  the  galleries  behind,  was  a  crowd  of  priv- 
ileged spectators  and  ladies,  adtnitted  by  tickets. 

The  ceremonies  were  announced  to  commence  at  nine  o'clock ; 
at  eight  the  tribunes  had  been  tilled,  but  it  was  past  ten  before  the 
main  body  of  the  members  of  the  Provisional  Government  made 
their  appearance.  An  address  to  the  armed  force  was  read  by 
M.  Arago,  as  Minister  at  War.  About  eleven  o'clock  l)egan  the 
display.  Nothing  could  be  more  imposing  than  the  flood  uf  bay- 
oneis,  as  it  poured  up  the  long  avenue  of  the  Champs  Elysees, 
towards  tho  Arch  of  'rrium|)h.  Tlie  dilferent  troops  were  min- 
gled in  the  order  of  their  approach — now  a  legion  of  the  Garde 
Mobile,  now  a  regiment  of  the  line ;  a  legion  of  the  National 
Guards,  the  schools,  the  associations  of  artisans,  then  cavalry 
and  infantry.  Across  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  down  the  ex- 
Rue  Koyale  (now  called  the  Rue  Nationale,)  and  along  the  line 
of  the  Boulevards,  the  scene  was  the  same.  The  ferment  of 
the  returning  troops,  and  the  swarming  crowds,  continued  until 
long  after  midnight.  The  whole  city  was  brilliantly  illuminated. 
It  was  expected  that  during  the  night,  when  all  tho  Naticmal 
Guards  were  exhausted  by  fatigue,  a  fresh  attempt  would  be  made 
by  the  Ultras  ;  but  nothing  of  the  kind  took  place.  The  number 
of  men  under  arms  during  the  day  amounted  to  400,000. 

At  night  the  illumination  in  the  Champs  £lysees  presented  a 
fairylike  scene.  Lights,  festooned  from  tree  to  tree,  were  hung 
from  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  all  the  way  to  the  magniticent  trium- 
phal arch,  and  then  the  vista  was  terminated  by  a  splendid  display 
of  various  colored  lamps.  All  the  public  buildings,  of  course, 
shone  resplendent ;  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  the  noble 
edifices  on  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  glared  with  lights,  and  added 
to  the  glories  of  the  scene.     In  the  midst  of  all  this,  hosts  of 


FKANCE. 


(JS3 


or  tli«i  assem- 

,rd»  ;  liy  oiKht, 

ml.     'I'll*'  liay 

of  the  actors 

tors,  wa8  to  be 

lumps  Elyseus 

ore  the  Arch  of 
08,  iiiul  dccora- 
t  withuiil  a  cor- 
0  aHstMiibled  all 
wounded  of  the 
he  coininisHioiis 
from  the  clubs, 
a  crowd  of  priv- 

at  nine  o'clock ; 
H8l  ten  before  the 
overninenl  made 
irce  wa8  read  by 
D'dock  began  the 
1  the  Hood  of  bay- 
Champs  Klysces, 

troops  were  min- 
ion of  the  Garde 
n  of  tl»e  National 
aiis,  then  cavalry 
do,  down  the  ex- 
Eind  along  the  line 

The  ferment  of 
Is,  continued  until 
iantly  illuminated. 

all  the  National 
npt  would  be  made 
ace.  The  number 
to  400,000. 
lysees  presented  a 
to  tree,  were  hung 
I  magnificent  triuni- 
r  a  splendid  display 
lildings,  of  course, 
ilies,  and  the  noble 
th  lights,  and  added 
f  all  this,  hosts  of 


Republicans,  male  and  female,  sang  their  songs,  with  that  light- 
heartedneHS   peculiar  to  the  I'ariNiaii. 

In  thi>  meautiuie,  the  elections  for  the  Assembly  hiid  com- 
menced, and  were  conducted  for  the  iuonI  part  with  great  tran- 
quillity, regularity  and  order. 

It  WHS  remarked  as  a  singular  thing  in  Paris  that  not  more  than 
one  third  of  all  the  persons  entitled  to  vote  exercised  the  fran- 
chise, The  working  classes  hung  back — a  fact  greatly  lament- 
ed, it  proved  that  the  French,  though  skilled  in  ellectiiig  rev- 
oluti(ms,  were  so  little  alive  to  the  vahie  of  liberty,  as  to  be  indif- 
ferent to  the  right  to  vote,  the  great  privilege  of  the  freeman ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  created  the  apprehension  that  it  was 
not  by  peaceful  constitutional  means,  but  by  actual  violence,  that 
the  working  classes  wt^re  disposed  tocause  their  wishes  to  prevail. 

Lntc  on  Monday  night,  the  2  lih  of  April,  the  ballot-boxes  were 
closed,  and  the  elections  terminated.  The  general  examination 
of  the  votes  was  fixed  for  Friday,  the  28tli  of  April,  by  an  order 
of  the  Mayor  of  Paris,  who  also  laid  down  the  regulations  to  be 
followed  on  the  occasion.  Candidates,  who  obtained  more  than 
'20UU  votes,  according  to  the  order  of  sulFrages  given  to  them, 
were  proclaimed  "  representatives  of  the  people"  by  the  Mayor. 

The  elections  throughout  France,  generally,  showed  a  liirgo 
majority  in  favor  of  the  moderate  party.  Some  Monarchists,  but 
few,  found  their  way  to  tlie  Chamber. 

The  Assembly  mot  on  the  day  appointed,  and  an  immense 
multitude  assembled  on  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  on  the  liridgo, 
and  in  all  the  places  commanding  u  view  of  the  National  Palace, 
as  the  building  formerly  known  as  the  C'hambor  of  Deputies  was 
called.  On  the  demand  of  General  Courtais,  the  Commander 
(if  the  National  Guard,  the  Assembly  showed  itself  bodily  to  the 
people  upon  the  peristyle  of  the  building ;  and  the  "Republic" 
was  proclaimed,  amid  the  waving  of  innumerable  banners,  the 
firing  of  artillery,  and  the  shouts  of  the  delighted  multitude. 

All  the  preliminaries  having  been  gone  through,  [lowers  veri- 
fied, a  president  (M.  Buchez,)  and  vice-presidents,  secretaries, 
&c.,  appointed,  the  members  of  the  Government  proceeded  to  lay 
before  the  Assembly  an  account  of  their  ministries  since  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Republic. 

On  Saturday,  May  6,  .Vlinister  Lamartine  ascended  the  tri- 
bune, and  read  a  document,  which  purported  to  be  a  report  of 
the  acts  of  the  Provisional  Government  in  the  restoration  of  order, 
the  organization  of  the  National  Guard,  Mobile  Garde,  the  army, 
&c.,  enumerating  what  had  been  done  in  the  midst  of  two  months 
of  a  crisis  during  which  not  a  drop  of  blood  had  been  shed. 
Many  portions  of  this  report  were  much  applauded. 


i> 


III 

m 


"  The   Mini.u-r  «i   •'"'""^•' ^^  "       ,3  <      his  official  .ut^u. 
trihun.-.  .n.l  pro.-o.l.-     to  ;;,,,,,r  ',;,,,,  to  the  uanunis- 

bunc  vvu«  M.  Louis  y^^'-^^-;^^^^;::^^  "i  ich'he  Hui.l   the 
i„  favor   of  his  "^>.""".-'  '""'',  '  o^  ;«  to  the  people  asncn.. 

blo.l  before  the  Hotel  .le  \  lie    th«      "J  ^.^^^^^^  ^,,^  ^,,„. 

His  oration  was  r.-ceived   with  ^"l"""  "«      ,        ,   ,,„a  ^as  suc- 
ister  ..f  l'«hlie   I"'''"'^'""  ^'m     rr^M  om^  who  laid 

ceedcd  by  M.  »-'""""  l''*:,,^';^    d  part.nent. 

onthe  finaucial  ^^^^;l^^Su'-^-^,  and  M.  Marie, 
M.  Arago,  the  ^    "  f  "^^^^    ^.^^     ,e«cnted  the  sUimtion  of 
the  Minister  o(  Public  ^\  'j^;;  "      ,;.j  hy  M.  Lanmrl.nc,  Mm- 
their  departments  ^  J'^^X  to  ok  a  slu.rl'^  review  of  the  aspect 

-f  ^-TTS^n^^-^^^^^  poet. 
J"nt;rrea" pSrLs.read;  but  the  Assembly  unant- 
Sly  fefused  to  aecepuhe  resignation  ^^  ^  ^^^^.^ 

A  stormy  f ''"^^f  ,£  Assembrto  the  Provisional  Govern- 
offerinjj  the  thanks  of  \''"  ^T'"°'Jmini8tration  of  affairs,  and 
ntent  for  theu  «^»».tl;"fi;eLctra  Government  «J  m^.r,.., 
nominating  a  committee  of  five  to  act  as  ^^^^  ^^^^^,. 

until  the  P«'^'"''""^"\^""3S  was  mSdby  the  withdrawal 
tuted.     Subsequently,the  motion  was  mo  ,^^^^^^^  p^^^^. 

„„„ld,ooc..ion  'l'"»''>«"Ji„,tSs  W  been    ..nt  .0  the 
signal. 


\ 


Tn 


N 


FEANCR. 


685 


iili 


Jer  of  thn  Inlo- 
liiintralion,  with 

imrfindtid  the 

otficinl  nets,  ill 

to  the  iidniiniH- 

imeiit  for  polili- 

iccntU'd  ihc  iri- 
tcmjiore  oration 
ich  ho  miitl  the 
people  asMem- 
the  Hevoliitioii. 
Jarnot,  the  Min- 
i\,  and  was  suc- 
rnerce,  wlio  laid 
ent. 
eluded  his  report 

p,  and  M.  Marie, 
I  the  sitimtioii  of 

Lamarline,  Min- 
iew  of  the  aspect 
ne  of  his  remarks 
»le8  of  his  address 
ranee, 
•ranger,  the  poet, 

Assembly  unani- 

ion  of  M.  Domds, 
rovisional  Govern- 
in  of  affairs,  and 
rnment  ad  interim, 
y  had  been  consti- 
by  the  withdrawal 
3d  that  the  Provi- 
ountry.     The  vote 

ez,  the  President, 
ult  of  this  sitting 
was  stationed  in 
been  sent  to  the 
narch  at  the   first 


On  the  following  Wednesday,  the  appointment  of  an  Kxeeu- 
tive  Ciiuunittet',  in  lieu  of  the  I'roviHiuiiul  (Jovornmeiit,  wun 
annomiied.     The  result  of  the  ballot  wun — 

Arnno,       ....  7'i& 

(iarnier  I'agds,  .         .  715 

Mario,  70'.i 

Lamartine,    .....         643 

Ledru  Kollin 598 

Those  five  nieml)crs  having;  obtained  the  re(|iiired  niiijurily, 
were  procliiinied  iiiemliers  of  the  Kxeciilive  (."oiiimittee.  M. 
Louis  Hlanc,  M.  .Mbert,  and  .M.  i'locon  wen  entirely  exclinlfid; 
a  fart  which  the  "  people"  and  the  "  Communists"  clieriMhed 
in  vindictive  remembrance.  .M.  Ledrii  Uolliii,  whose  violence 
had  alarmed  the  majority,  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  list ;  and  M. 
dc  l/imartine,  who  had  lent  his  hi^h  name  ami  <.;reiit  popularity 
to  Mupport  M.  Ledru  U<»llin,  was  placed  next  lowest — all  beiii^ 
most  siijniticant  facts  to  show  the  spirit  of  the  .\ssembly,  anil 
the  probable  policy  to  be  hereafter  exploded  from  it. 

VVhilo  these  scenes  had  been  takiiiK  place  al  Paris,  the  work- 
ing classes  in  Uouen,  Kllxi-uf,  and  otluT  mitnufacturinf(  towns, 
alarmed  that  the  revolution  would  not  take  up  the  (luestions  of 
Socialism  and  (\)mmunism,  and  decree  labor  and  food  to  every 
man — whethttr  idle  or  industrious,  skilled  or  unskilled — hud 
been  in  considerable  agitation. 

On  Monday,  the  15th  of  May,  Paris  was  the  scene  of  another 
revolutionary  struggle.  The  National  Assemltly  was  surrounded 
and  entered  by  thousands  of  the  population,  led  by  Uarl)es,  Ulaii- 
(|ui,  Hubert,  and  others,  who  drove  the  deputies  I'roni  their  seats, 
and,  amid  a  scene  of  indescribaule  tumult,  assumed  the  functions 
of  Government.  General  Courtais,  Commander  of  the  National 
Guard,  had  treasonably  opened  the  gates  of  the  Assembly  to  the 
mob,  and  the  Prefect  of  Police,  M.  Caussidiere,  was  sup|)osed 
to  be  another  of  the  conspirators.  Louis  Ulanc  was  also  impli- 
cated in  the  plot ;  and  thus  organized  and  supported,  the  insur- 
rection manifested  itself.  Having  forced  their  way  into  the 
National  Assembly,  the  conspirators  were  not  slow  to  announce 
their  objects  and  intentions.  With  a  drawn  sworil  in  his  hand, 
Barbes  addressed  the  Assembly,  and  proclaimed  that  a  contribu- 
tion of  a  thousand  millions  of  francs  should  bo  levied  on  the 
rich  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor, — that  a  tax  of  another  thousand 
millions  should  be  paid  by  the  rich  for  the  aid  of  Poland, — that 
the  National  Assembly  should  be  dissolved,  and  an  Executive 
Government,  composed  of  Barbes,  Albert,  Louis  Ulanc,  Flocon, 
Blanqui,  Raspail,  and  Cabet,  be  immediately  appointed.  He 
concluded  his  proposals  by  demanding  the  re-establishment  of 


f 


ii 


«'! 


)  5 


'4fi'  '^'' 


686 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


:v.' 


'"it, 

'Am 


the  guillotine!     The  members  of  the  Assembly  withdrew,  leav 
iiig  the  hall  in  possession  of  the  mob. 

As  soon  as  the  fact  of  the  erime  committed  against  the 
National  Assembly  was  known  in  Paris,  about  four  o'clock,  the 
rappel  was  beaten  in  all  the  legions.  The  National  Guard 
immediately  assembled  with  admirable  ardour,  to  cries  of  "  Vive 
I'Assemhlee  Nativnalc .'"  The  10th  and  3d  legions  went  towards 
the  National  Assembly  to  protect  it.  Several  representatives 
joined  their  ranks,  asking  for  arms.  The  other  legions,  detach- 
ments of  the  Garde  Mobile,  detachments  of  infantry  and  cavalry, 
and  a  battery  of  artillery,  went  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  to  possess 
themselves  of  the  two  or  three  Provisional  Governments  who 
had  installed  themselves  therein.  M.  de  Lamartine  and  M. 
Ledru  Rollin  were  on  horseback,  side  by  side,  in  the  ranks  of 
the  2d  legion.  Ev  irywhere  on  their  passage  they  were  received 
with  acclamation,  i  nd  by  the  cry  of  *'  Vive  I'Assemblee  Na- 
tionale  .'"  On  arriving  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  they  entered  it 
without  resistance.  They  found  about  a  hundred  individuals 
assembled,  the  greatest  number  of  whom  were  arrested,  the  rest 
escaping.  No  act  of  violence  had  to  be  deplored.  M.  de 
Lamartine  and  M.  Ledru  Rollin  left  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  7 
o'clock,  (they  were  both  on  horseback,)  and  proceeded  to  the 
National  Assembly.  The  immense  and  compact  crowd  scarcely 
allowed  their  horses  to  advance  ;  they  were  almost  borne  by 
thousands  of  arms.  Unanimous  cries  broke  out  on  their  passage. 
M.  de  Lamartine,  with  his  arms  extended,  and  shaking  hands 
with  thousands,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  addressed  thanks  to  the 
multitude  of  devoted  citizens.  This  demonstration  accompanied 
him  to  the  Palace  of  the  National  Assembly.  Between  six  and 
seven  o'clock,  the  legions  of  the  banlieue  entered  Paris,  by  all 
the  barriers,  to  oiler  their  support  to  the  National  Assembly,  and 
their  co-operation  to  the  executive  commission. 

At  six  o'clock,  Barbes  was  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  drawing  up 
a  proclamation,  which  was  to  be  printed,  and  by  which  the  dif- 
ferent administrations  were  distributed  among  his  friends,  when 
two  captains,  and  about  ten  National  Guards  of  the  3d  and  6th 
legions,  entered  the  salle.  "  Barbes !  Where  is  Barbes  ?  We 
must  have  him !"  was  their  first  cry.  "  No,  no !  To  arms  !" 
cried  some  men  with  red  belts.  "  You  shall  march  over  our 
dead  bodies  sooner  than  have  him !"  A  greater  number  of 
National  Guards  then  entered,  and  endeavored  to  go  into  the 
salle  occupied  by  three  members  of  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment. The  sentinels  posted  by  Barbes  offered  great  resistance. 
A  deputy-mayor  of  Paris  then  came  up.  There  were  cries  of 
"  Vive  Lamartine .'"   M.  Lamartine  having  then  arrived ;  and 


t 


iHiAMfeili 


i  I 


withdrew,  leav 

led  against  the 
our  o'clock,  the 
^'ational  Guard 
(  cries  of  "  Vive 
[18  went  towards 

representatives 
legions,  detach- 
ilry  and  cavalry, 
Ville,  to  possess 
Dvernments  who 
inartine  and  M. 
,  in  the  ranks  of 
ey  were  received 

I'AssembUe  Na- 
,  they  entered  it 
idred  individuals 

arrested,  the  rest 
leplored.  M.  de 
icl  de  Ville  at  7 

proceeded  to  the 
,ct  crowd  scarcely 

almost  borne  by 
X  on  their  passage, 
nd  shaking  hands 
ssed  thanks  to  the 
ation  accompanied 
Between  six  and 
ered  Paris,  by  all 
»nal  Assembly,  and 
n. 

!  Ville,  drawing  up 
1  by  which  the  dif- 
g  his  friends,  when 
i  of  the  3d  and  6th 
re  is  Barbds  ?  We 
0,  no !  To  arms  !" 
lall  march  over  our 

greater  number  of 
ored  to  go  into  the 
'rovisional  Govern- 
red  great  resistance, 
rhere  were  cries  of 
f  then  arrived;  and 


-J 


FRANCE. 


687 


he  was  borne  in  triumph  into  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  could  only 
sav  a  few  words,  which  were  received  with  noisy  acclamations. 
The  5th  and  7th  batteries  of  the  artillery  of  the  National  Guard, 
headed  by  their  chefd'  cscailron,  made  a  line  in  the  passage  lead- 
ing to  the  piace  occupied  by  Barbes,  Albert,  Thore,  and  others. 
Shortly  after  seven  o'clock  the  following  was  issued  :— 
"  The  Hotel  do  Ville  is  delivered.  The  Provisional  Govern- 
ment is  leaving  it  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  people.  The 
conspirators  have  been  arrested.  Citizen  Bois  Lecomte,  bearer 
of  the  present  proclamation,  is  charged  to  read  and  cause  it  to 
be  placarded  in  all  the  mairies  of  Paris. 

"  Flottard, 
"  Secretary-General  of  the  Marie  of  Paris. 
"  May  15. — Seven  o'clock  in  the  evening." 
At  eight  o'clock  the  following  proclamation  was  issued  from 
the  Hotel  de  Ville  :  — 

"French  Rkpublic. 
»  Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity. 
"The  National  Assembly  is  not  dissolved.  The  President, 
yielding  to  the  tumult,  declared  the  sitting  at  an  end.  The 
brave  citizens  of  Paris  are  called  on  to  maintain  the  respect  due 
to  the  National  Assembly,  which  was  elected  by  universal  suf- 
frage To  attack  the  National  Assembly,  is  to  attack  the 
republic  conquered  in  February,  and  proclaimed  by  the  Assem- 
bly.     •  Vive  VAssembUe  Nationale ."     '  Vive  la  Republtque  ! 

"  Armand  Marrast, 
"  Representative  of  the  People,  Mayor  of  Paris." 
Thus  the  fidelity  of  the  Guards,  and  the  firmness  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, averted  the  crisis.  The  plot  was  widely  ramified,  and 
parties  high  in  oflice  were  implicated.  The  Government  did  not 
deem  it  prudent  to  proceed  against  all  the  delinquents,  but  most 
of  the  leading  desperadoes  were  committed  prisoners  to  the 
Castle  of  Vincennes,  among  whom  were  M.  Barbes,  a  man  of 
fortune,  and  highly  educated;  M.  Raspail,  a  distinguished 
chemist ;  and  M.  Blanqui,  a  gentleman  of  ancient  family,  and  of 
high  acquiiements  and  talents. 

Paris  had  scarcely  subsided  into  c  Jiet  after  these  terrible 
commotions  and  alarms,  when  the  inhabitants  were  summoned 
by  the  Government  to  a  great  National  F&te  of  Concord,  which 
took  place  on  Sunday,  the  21st  of  May.  A  procession  was 
formed  from  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  to  the  Champ  de  Mars. 

In  the  evening  all  Paris  was  brilliantly  illuminated.  The 
Champ  de  Mars,  Champs  Elys^es  and  the  Tuileries,  were 
lighted  by  half  a  million  of  lamps,  aided  by  ten  thousand  Lhi- 


II 

if 


M 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

at  a  cost  of  upwards  of  two  hundedm^^^^^^^        ^^^  1 

Immediately  after  ^^^.^^V'^fuislation  and  oratory.  On  the 
Assembly  resumed  Us  ^"^"'^ji  5  Banishment  Bill,  ^h'^^^.^^J 
24th  of  May  the  <^^1«^"^^,^^,"'",7j  unanimously  approved  of  by 
been  referred  to  a  ^omm  tlee  a"  ^^^^  read  from  the 

them,  was  brought  up.  J^'^^^^J  .'^nd  the  Duke  de  Nemours, 
Duke  d'.\umale,  Prmce  *!';  "'"^^^^'prancsois,  Henry,  and  Louis 
(denominated  i"  ^he  Proceedings  as  ^J^S  a  declaration  was 
^'Orleans,)  against  the  decree  oban^shm  ^^^  .„^^^„,,i  ^o  the 
unanimously  adopted  by  the  Assemoy,  .^^^^^^l  compact 

Executive  «"v«"r"'' Ins  n  ction  o    a„  independent  and  tree 
with  Germany  ;  the  '^^construction  o     ^^  ,^^^^  ^^^^  ^        j 

rt  Etcr™C=:Sn  "^^^^        the  clubs  of  which     |, 
bUbs  and  Blanqui  were  p^f-;'-^^.^^  ,,,  „,anifested     \\ 

An  unusual   display  «f  ""^'^e  line  of  the  quays  on  the      : 
around  the  Chamber.  J  he  entire   Un     ^^  ^^  f 

«outh  bank,  adjoimng  the  CjKimber  ^^   ^^^  opposite   sue 

troops,  (horse  and  foot.)      ^ '"l^^j^-gction,  were  occupied  by 
Sding  from  the  l>"<lg?;,';,^'^^^^he  precinc'ts  of  the  legislative     \ 
battalions  of  the  Garde  M°^Jj;^,i,7,,^  consisting  of  infantry  «t      ^ 
palace  literally  «warmed  wihsoiaie    ,_^^^   ^^^^^  ^^^^       , 

[he   line,   cavalrj-.   and   artiUe  ^  ammunition-waggons 

mounted  on  l^>«  l'"^^*^'  ^' nrtanrprenarations  were  taken  on 
in  the  court.  These  »"iP°f ''."^ J^taly  and  Poland,  the  topics 
account  of  the  debate  aPP«'"^f  J^the  outr^^^^^  of  ^^^  ^th.  . 

Sh  had  served  as  a  P-^-^^^^^if^.t^of  another  popular  mani- 
""  The  reports  which  «'«'^?,  "XTof  the  Assembly  to  transfer 
Testation  determined  ^^^^  ^'^^  J^-^^^^f  War,  the  full  command 

^^KSli  whole  w.ek  ^i -Si^^S^f  t^* 
was  found  absolutely  necessary,  horn  n  ^^  ^^^      ^,i 

finances,  to  put  a  ^^op  j^emP  «y  ng  ^^^^^  alarmed  the 

expense,  and  the  !f«X^%"SS  Government.    To  abolish 
workmen,  and  excited  them  agamst  ^^      ^jble  and  inhu- 

evil. 


•••■I  ■ 


FRANCE. 


689 


(verywhoe  \re- 

slivily.     1    -vas 
[ia  the  f6te,  and 

ited  among  the 
was  estimated 

ancs. 

e,   the   National 
)ratory.     On  the 

Bill,  which  had 
y  approved  of  by 
re  read  from  the 
ukc  de  Nemours, 
Henry,  and  Louis 
A  declaration  was 
instruction  to  the 
i'raternal  compact 
Rpendent  and  free 
crecs  were  signed 
le  clubs  of  which 

n  was  manifested 
the  quays  on  the 
:upied  by  bodies  of 
the  opposite   side, 
I,  were  occupied  by 
cts  of  the  legislative 
isliug  of  infantry  of 
y-men   stood  reae*/ 
mmunition-waggons 
»ns   were  taken  on 
d  Poland,  the  topics 
re  of  the  5th. 
lOther  popular  mani- 
\s8embly  to  transfer 
r,  the  full  command 
ut  the  palace  of  the 

a  state  of  alarm.  It 
)ndition  of  the  public 
borers  at  the  public 
hat  end,  alarmed  the 
ernuient.  To  abolish 
impossible  and  inhu- 
ssity  of  stopping  the 


The  Minister  of  Public  Works  issued  a  proclamation,  in 
which  he  dislinctly  stated  that  the  Government  was  occupied  in 
preparing  for  the  organization  of  the  national  workshops 

At  an  early  hour  of  Monday,  the  29th,  the  rappel  was  beaten 
in  live  or  six  arrondissements,  and  great  numbers  of  the  National 
Guard  immediately  turned  out  in  arms.  By  eight  o'clock 
several  thousand  of  them  were  assembled  at  the  different  ren- 
dezvous. They  were  then  marched  to  the  National  Assembly, 
the  Garden  of  the  Tuileries,  the  Luxembourg,  the  Hotel  de 
Ville,  and  other  places.  The  different  ministries  were  also 
strongly  guarded.  At  the  National  Assembly  the  force  was 
immense,  not  only  of  National  Guards,  but  of  troops  of  the  line. 
The  quays,  the  Pont  de  la  Concorde,  and,  in  fact,  all  the 
approaches  to  the  Assembly,  were  strongly  guarded.  The 
occasion  of  this  overwhelming  display  of  bayonets,  was  the  fear 
of  a  threatening  demonstration  against  the  Assembly  and  the 
Executive  Government.  Affairs  continued  in  this  state  for 
many  days,  when  the  election  of  Louis  Napoleon,  as  represen- 
tative of  Paris,  for  a  vacancy  caused  by  the  double  returns  of  the 
original  elections,  led  to  a  demonstration  of  a  more  serious  kind. 
His  popularity  seemed  great,  and  he  was  not  only  elected  for 
Paris,  but  for  three  departments  wherein  vacancies  had  occurred 
from  a  similar  cause.  On  the  following  Sunday  his  name  was  to 
be  heard  in  all  the  assemblies  of  the  holyday  people  of  the  lower 
class,  outside  the  barriers  of  Paris.  On  Monday  morning,  a 
new  journal  appeared  entitled,  Le  Napoleonien,  the  advocate  of 
the  Prince,  and  its  first  number  displaying  considerable  ability. 
Crowds  collected  in  the  quarters  leading  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly ;  troops  and  National  Guards  were  called  out,  and  amid 
much  excitement,  because  M.  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was 
expected  to  take  his  seat  in  the  National  Assembly. 

During  the  day  a  placard  appeared,  bearing  an  address  of 
General  Piat,  Colonel  of  the  Fourth  Legion  of  National  Guards, 
(he  who  had  taken  possession  of  the  Hotel  de  Yille  on  the  24th 
February,)  in  which  he,  as  an  avowed  friend  of  Prince  Louis 
Napoleon,  disclaimed  for  him  any  ambitious  project.  Other 
friends  of  the  Prince,  in  the  country,  were  not,  however^  equally 
discreet.  They  carried  their  ballot  in  front  of  their  hats,  on 
which  was  inscribed,  in  large  characters,  "Louis  Napoleon  ! 
Vive  VEmpereur !  A  bos  la  Republique  .'" 

About  five  o'clock  in  the  evening,  the  Government  ordered 
strong  measures  against  the  crowds  assembled  in  the  Place  de 
la  Revolution.  Regiments  of  infantry  and  cavalry,  and  large 
bodies  of  National  Guards  immediately  crossed  the  bridge  in 
front  of  the  Palace  of  the  Assembly,  and  forming  a  junction  with 

44 


^ 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

oyu 

0.0.0  already  on  the  P^ee^^it.  ^I^rlr.^^^ 

of  the  immense  ^^^'^"^^^^'^f'^^^^.^ry  violence  on  the  part  of 
Complaints  were  made  of  unnecess    >^^  ^^  ^^^  government, 

the  armed  fo^'^^^^^f^l^^ter  of  War,  under  whose  eye  the 
conveyed  through  '^«  .^l'^'^','^  ^ers  had  come  to  something 
£"rSs!lTstt2' was"  allowed  when  the  command 

"  Withdraw"'  was  issued.  ^^^^^  gOOO  Gardes 

Having  cleared  tt'«/\"jl"'^  '   JeRi^"*''  *"^  ^""'"""^ 
Mobiles  wheeled  up  to  the  Rue  de  K  ^  ,^^^^^      ^^^ 

twenty  abreast.  Fhe  «^J" J'^^^^j  ^^  double  quick  time  along 
beat  a  charge,  and  the  «/«'""  TJ^,  R^es  Castiglione  and  La 
the  Rue  de  Rivoh,  and  Ij^^^fJjJ,^;^,  ^hey  proceeded  n  the 
Paix  Having  reached  the  »o"'®^*'  '  u^^  \  ^f  the  Ministry 
r.mi  order  an'd  at  the  «-«  P/^^d  in  the  tanwhile.  the  ! ' 
for  Foreign  Affairs  ^"^/^fp^t  de  la  Revolution,  by  the  R«e 
dragoons  advanced  from  the  ^''J^«  "j  ^^^  did  not  comply     , 

I     Royale,  driving  the  people  hefore^^^^^^^^^^^^  , 

sileW.  f«^  <^T  "^  Ifthem   vigl^^^^^^      The    Boulevard     | 
'     /,„„  -"    were   shouted   b>  .^^^™.  3,:.:o,/    The  whole  of  the     i 
cTeared,  the  dragoons  remained^^n^^^^^^^^^  Access  to  the 

Rue  Roy  ale  was  filled  with  ^^^"O"  ^^^.     This  con-     1 

l> Uca  d^  la  Revolution  was  re  «^ed^  to  j^ery^bo^J  ^^  .^^^^^  ^^^^ 

tinned  for  an  hour  or  two  "^"^^  ^ater  in  the  evening,  I 
venting  their  displeasure  >«  «^«»»"^''  ^,,,  dispersed  withou  j 
:S  tS     f^^^e  Asrei?  itsdf  the  greatest  excitement     I 

prevailed.  o^vant-iire  of  the  panic,  and  proposed 

P  M.  de  }^--^-^rx8TSmi!iorhm^g  the  entry  o    the 
that  the  laws  of  ^^16  an^  J«     ^        ^^  ^^,.^^^^^  ^  ,he 

l::S::.  %";i&  -  rU^ived  amid  deafening  shouts  of 
^<Vive  la  Republique!"  ^^^^^^  minister  of  Louis 

The  recent  election  »[  JJ"  * "  ^^  '^f  popular  excitement  and 
PhiUippc,  --;;;VtSrha"indicate5  'growing  restlessness 
jealousy,  and  every  tning 

and  discontent.  ^^      imposed  on  the  public 

The  Government,  hnding  me  0  .determined  on   sendmg 

treasury  too  heavy  to  be  borne,  i  workmen 

rif'paris  to  the  provinces  about  U,000   ^_^^^^   ^^    ^^^^^^ 
in  the   national   workshops^  ^^^  ^.^,^,^  ,„  p,o 

and  on  the  22d  of  June,  a  ^o^  f„,   ^^e   purpose  of 

cession   to  the  ly'^'^'^f^XehM  oi  the  Government  con- 
remonstrance.     1VL  Mane    m  beha  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^„ 

Bented  t<  receive  five  ot  tnem. 


l! 


t  of  the  bayonet,  ; 
,  in  five  niinutes. 
5  on  the  part  of 
the  government, 
whose  eye  the 
me  to  something 
n  the  command 

•ast  2000  Gardes 
nd  formed  about 
rch.     The  drums 
quick  time  along 
stiglione  and  La 
proceeded  in  the 
■1  of  the  Ministry 
e  meanwhile,  the 
lution,  by  the  Rue 
o  did  not  comply     j 
Vive  Louis  Napo-     \. 
The    Boulevard     L 
The  whole  of  the      \ 
18.     Access  to  the     |j 
r  body.     This  con-     | 
eople  retired,  after     1 ; 
er  in  the  evening,     |i 
dispersed    without     ji 
greatest  excitement      . 

panic,  and  proposed  j ; 

ig  the  entry  of  the  , 

nforced  against  the  j; 

deafening  shouts  of  J 

jr  minister  of  Louis  i' 
mlar  excitement  and  1 ! 
Trowing  restlessness     \\ 

nposed  on  the  public 
icrmined  on   sending      j 
100   of  the  workmen     \\ 

a  signal  of  alarm,  , 
jut  400  wont  in  pro- 

for  the  purpose  of  ; 
the  Government,  con-  ! 
f  these,  who  had  been 


FRANCE. 


691 


an  active  party  in  the  affair  of  the  Ifnh  of  May,  he  refused  to 
rsten  n7  uldressing  the  others,  said,  "you  are  not  t^je  slaves 
of  that  man:  you  can  stale  your  own  gnevances."  He  heard 
In  vHattention,  hut  failed  to  satisfy  them  with  the  course 
1,.  had  been  adopted.  ( >n  returning  to  their  companions  they 
d  Ir teV  M.  .Mario's  expression,  and  said  that  they  had  been 
clled  ''s  avos."  The  mob  then  cried,  "Down  with  Marie  ! 
'S'otn  w.Ih  the   Executive  Committee!"     "Down  with  the 

""tt  "^^^y  stationed  themselves  in  the  Place  de  la 

Rastile  and  at  the  Harriere  du'  Trone.  ,  n    .    c, 

Barrlcaies  were  formed  at  the  Porte  St.  Denis  and  Porte  St. 

'^Theenvirons  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  of  the  Luxembourg  the 
Boul  vardl,  and  the  quarters  of  St.  Martin,  St.  Denis,  and  Le 
Temple,  w;re  all  thronge.l  with  multitudes  of  operatives. 

Atei^ht  o'clock  the  square  of  the  Panth6on  was  filled  with 
se  eral1housands,whom\rched  with  banners  to  the  Faubourg 
du  Temple,  wher^  they  were  joined  by  large  bodies  of  working 

'"  Measures  of  precaution  were  taken  during  the  evening.     The 
NaUonT  Guard  were  called  out.     Numerous  detachments  of 
™  were  stationed  at  the  Luxembourg.     At  ten  o^clock  a 
sauadron  of  dragoons  and  several  companies  of  the  troops  of  the 
r  bivouacked  on  the  Place  de  I'Hotel  de  V.Ik.     At  eleven 
I    o'clock  a  battalion  of  the  line  took  possession  of  the  court  of  he 
Prefecture  of  Police.     The  peristyle  of  the  Palais  de  Jus  ce 
Vas  guarded  by  the  Garde  Mobile.     The  Assembly  was  filled 
with  uoops      Everywhere  the  armed  force  was  very  numerous^ 
The  "nsurgents,  in  the  course  of  Friday  morning,  threw  up 
barricades  U.  various  quarters  on  both  banks  of  the  Seme,  and  at 
i"o"  was  to  be  seen^i  all  directions  the  formidable  nature  of 
"he  preparations  which  they  had  made  for  the  coming  contes. 
Spfr  nKn  disDlaved  great  strategic  skill  and  correct  judgment. 
TtHn    r^S  e^^  on  the^right  bank  from  the  Faubourg 

Poissonniere  to  the  Seine,  embracing  thus  the  whole  Faubourg  St 
Antoine  •  on  the  left  bank  it  occupied  the  Faubourg  St.  Marcel, 
StTcto'r,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  Quarlier  St.  Jacques  ;  these 
two  pSns  were  connected  by  the  occupation  of  many  pojn^. 
such^as  the  church  of  S^^'er-is,  a  part  o  the  Quartierdu  Tem- 
ple, the  approaches  of  Notre  Dame,  and  the  Pont  St.  M  chel 

The  church  of  St.  Severin  served  as  head  quarters,  and  the 
Faubourg  St.  Antoine  as  a  magazine.  This  plan  was  ingeni. 
onsly  conceived,  for  the  insurgetits  were  thus  master  of  an 
immense  semicircle,  which  formed  nearly  one-halt  of  Pans.     In 


['A: 


'li 


692 


CUAl'TKR    XIV. 


■m 


success,  ii.  was  easy  <«[. '^"^  " '"^'"  „ '   s  and  Boulevards,  and 
occupv  the  important  lines  of    he  qu.>s       yin^^hich  would 

thoTcoul'l  «""«""•!  '^.y  •^'''^'^r  %  on  e  masters  of  that  and  the 
ha/ebeen  thus  i"  ^^^^'/^       '.n'.HsS  their  government. 
Jrefecture.  they  could  have  e^n^bl^^^^^^^^^  ^  „„^ber 

P  The  measures  »''''«"  ^^f^^^  inevitable,  from  the  savage 
of  lives;  but  that  sad  .'^'^''""_'^,^*;_L,ded  themselves, 
energy  with  which  the  "-urger^  cMe -le^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^ 

Across  the  boulevard,  and  ^^J^  ^^^^  „,  five  omnibuaes,    i 
was  an  immense  barricade    t^''^^^^^^^^^^^  ^^^en  from 
several  carriages  a  huge  w-g^--^^"^  PonsiLral.le  distance  on 
the  streets,  which  were  torn  "P  '«;        ^     ^^^^^^  was  another 
both  sides.     A  little  beyo"dt^^^^^^^^^^  ^ 

barricade,  as  formidable  as  Ae  first  an  |^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^^ 

same  miscellaneous  '"f  ";;i«t;,;iV  not  quite  so  large  as  the 
Porte  St.  Mfinwas  a  ^irl^"'^^,,^.!  jefence  against  a  coup 
first,  but  stiU  sufficient  to  be  a  po  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^j 

de  mam.  The  end  of  \^«^^f  "f. '^  Vhich  prevented  the  approach 
closed  up  with  a  huge  Jamcade  whicn  p^  ^^^  .^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^. 
of  troops  from  the  outskirts      U  e  ^^^  ^^^^^^  ^,^^^  ^    ^ut. 

leneuve  Bourbon,  the  ^"^„^'fJ,e  conspirators,  were  similarly 

ting  on  the  spot  in  P««««««„V"  ^m  '  were  industriously  working 
defended,  and  thousa^ids  of  g«m.«s  w  ^^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^.^^^  ^^  ^^^ 

with  pikes  and  spades,  tearin^    v 

defences.  j<.fpnd>'d  by  some  hundreds  of  the  peo- 

The  barr  cades  were  aelend>-a  oy  ^^^j  ^^,1 

pie  in  6Jo«se.,  of  whom  "l-y  ^^^^r^S:? 'of  tri-colored  flags 
Show  their  arms.  TJey  ^^^  ^^  ,  with  the  words  •'  Atehers 
stuck  upon  the  top  of  the  bamcaae^  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^.^ 

Nation^x"  in^^^^^'l^P"" 'Sors  was  decorated  with  a  black 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  conspira  jrs  ^^  paving-stones 

flag,  and  on  the  top  "f  »t  were  arra  g  ^^^  ^^^^     f 

apparently  for  the  purpose  o^h^ng      ^^^^  J^.^^  ^^^^  ^^n^j 
those  who  might  attack  U.     1  je  u      ^  ^^  commenced 

u^on,  without  effect,  to  ^urren^^^,  the  e^^^^    ^^  ^^^  mfantry  the 

aSd  lasted  twenty  ""^""^^^^^ /j^nSt  only  from  the  barricades, 
rioters  responded  with  a  sharp  fire,  no        y  ^^^  ^^^ 

but  from  the  neighboring  streets.  |^  g  loss,     [he 

Jaken,  but  not  until  the  "oo^^^^^^^^^^^^^^    was  mortally  wounded 
commanding  officer  of  the  Natumai^^^^^^^  ^^^.^^  ^^^  ^^^^„ 

and  many  men  and  otticerB  o 
army  were  killed. 


(  narrow  streets 
he   troops,   and 
reat :  in  case  of 
mcing  a  little,  to 
Boulevards,  and 
lie,  which  would 
rs  of  that  and  the 
)vernment. 
I  a  great  number 
from  the  savage 
smselves. 
:  Porto  St.  Denis, 
)r  five  omnibuses, 
stones  taken  from 
arable  distance  on 
lenis  was  another 
posed  of  much  the 
ler  on  towards  the 
lite  so  large  as  the 
i\ce  against  a  coup 
St.  Denis  was  also 
ented  the  approach 
Denis,  the  Hue  Vil- 
>  other  streets  abut- 
itors,  were  similarly 
dustriously  working 
is  and  adding  to  the 

lundreds  of  the  peo- 
Bd,  or  at  least  did  not 
er  of  tri-colored  flags 
the  words  "  Ateliers 
wte  St.  Denis,  which 
ecorated  with  a  black 
aps  of  paving-stones, 
)d  upon  the  heads  ol 
ts  having  been  called 
lagcment  commenced 
>ns  of  the  infantry  the 
ly  from  the  barricades, 
;th  the  barricades  were 

Jd  a  severe  loss.     The 
was  mortally  wounded, 

le  Mobile  and  regular 


FaXNCB. 

Disrhartres  of  n.uskctry  were  heard  throughout  the  night,  and 
noth  ;g3d  exceed  thJalarn.  everywhere  pr-a^ng.     Abou 
n     oVlock  on   Saturday,  notice   was  given   by  the  National 
A  sem  ly  Lt  Paris  was'in  a  state  of  siege,  and  Gen.  Cavaignac 
tZ  declared  commander  of  the  whole  military  force 

Il'.^r  h  s  decree  was  passed,  .he  Executive  Counc.  ad- 
dressed  the  following  com'.nunication  to  the  President  of  the 
Assembly  : 

safety  of  the  Republic.  ..  u„,ht.ne, 

"  Araoo, 
"  Ledro  Rolun, 
"  Garnier  Pages, 
«'  Marie, 
Members  of  the  Executive  Committee. 

..24th  June.  .'Paonerre.  Secretary. 

OnP  of  the  first  orders  of  General  Cavaignac,  after  the  capital 

twd  gS'he  «,eeu,  prevent .!«  .s.en.bh"g  o    c.owJ.,  and 

carrying  ball  cartridges  in  their  l'^«''«'^«-.  ,  ^^^J".  fT^ifh  gun- 

break  on  Saturday  mormng,  the  se/^^««\'""|''      one  o'clock, 
1J^^?S^5S^I^."  e  S=e  I^^iadecon- 


i 

i 


m\ 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

tor  took  place.     At  the  «an.e  hour    ho^^fTf ^^  ^„„  ^^u  the 

^^'I'Vr^"\1w°p'rthe  fnsurgem.  were  drive,,  to  the 
At  half-past  three,  1 .  M.,  ine  ni      b  desDeralely,  and 

Pantheon  and  ^here  surrounded  ;t^^^^^^^ 

:l:  rnHt^ttvS'th^tL^^^  was  recovered  fro. 

them  'after  three  — -^^f  ^^SV  )'™^^^^^  "^  ^^^ 

In  the  cour«eo  the  day  (baurda^,)^  .^^  ^l.^  ^^^^^ 

received  a  wound  m  the  8^0"'.'™"'  Cavaiiinac  to  go  on  a 
The  venerable  priest  having  offered  Gtn.  V^^^^  ^       ^^^  ^^^^ 

accepted   and  three  membrs  ot  ^^^^^^^^    ,o,„.,teered   to 

Larabit,   Gait   Caxa  et    «,  j^^.  „  t^e  Faubourg 

accompany  hm^  Arrhb  shorand  his  companions  advanced  to 
St.  Antoine,  the  Arch')t8hop  ara^^^^^  ^  ^^^^^^^^ 

1     speak  to  them.  ^/^J^p^^^^^J'^'^hen  unfortunately  the  beat  of 
at  the  entrance  to  the  t  aubourg,  wiie  .jigp^arged  on  both 

a  drum  alarmed  the  msurgents      Shots  were  m3        g 

the  ^'^^^^'^^'.''^"''i'ZonS^U  nigbt  was  still  very  alarm- 
The  situation  of  Pans  on  ^'''"^^y  "'8^^'      f       their  position 

ing;  thot.gh^\«»-:f":f„e^l  wS  quite 

on  the  lef^bank  of  the  Seine  and  Itiatp^^^^        ^^^7    ^^^.^^^^ 

free  from  them,  being  held  ''^  ^"^""g  P^  ^j^^  g^eat  force  at 
Guards,  and  Molnles,  J;«yj'',;^XhX  troops  had  been 

occurred. 


,'t*3fir  'J 


pieces  of  can- 
ihe  insurgents, 
)dtMl  in  forcing  ) 
n  o'clock  this  j 
iloody  ciicoun-  1 
Is  of'the  Fau-  | 
iiclion  with  the  i 
en  o'clock  was  1 
that  after  that    j 

resumed.    Shot 

;entre  of  whose 

'he  battle  raged 

and  thousands, 

e  driven  to  the 
lesperately,  and 
Bvoted  to  a  just 
recovered  from 

hbishop  of  Paris 
d  in  his  death, 
ignac  to  go  on  a 
iflor  was  tit  once 

Assembly,  MM. 
volunteered  to 
to  the  Faubourg 
ons  advanced  to 
lidable  barricade 
lately  the  beat  of 
ischarged  on  both 

the  Archbishop, 
Its  went  immedi- 
,  who  was  carried 
gents  denied  that 

is  still  very  alarm- 
rom  their  position 
the  city  was  quite 
»f  troops,  National 
ith  great  force  at 
16  troops  had  been 
most  vigorous  and 
great  loss  of  life 


FKANCB. 

.r„e  K-K,,,,.  si„rT'r:  '::E:':hSKr.t 

the  east,  and  the  tlos  St.  l.a^.iro,  on  u 

formed  their  strong  holds  in  th>^  -^•rc^^  »"^  commenced. 

At  ».n  early  hour  on  Sunday,  »'»;™o  to  erect  barricades  on 
r.uring  the  Ji^y --.""^'"C,  Zy  Trei^^untly  destroyed  by 
the  Ivft  bank  of  the  Seine,  Dui  imy  we 

the  National  Guard  and  tl'«  ^^^P^dispe  ed  wi"th  Z  exception 
the  insurgents  here  were  «""^'y  fS^J^^'J^,  ,no«t  remote 
of  a  few  isolated  parties,  who  ^'^1  h«»d  ""^  'J  ;\„  ^^^ij  have 
part  of  the  great  Faubourg  St.  '^''/V^^"'  '^"  ,„„„„  them  that  no 
Surrendered  before,  but  ^^aj  -  --^^i^^*^^^^^^^^^^  however, 

quarter  was  to  be  given.  In  '^'^/J^'^  "' '  ^  „ot  the  slightest 
the  danger  was  at  an  end,  ^"^  t^«^"  ^i'^i^^a  ^f  St.  Louis, 
appearance  of  a  fresh  insurrection  Tj^  ';'^"°^°  insurgents, 
Jl'nchhad  been  for  ™ -«  ^.Vtant  t^^^^^^^^^ 

r  e^t^SruSbi^^i^  st^i^j-.;^  :-^:rz 

struggle,  in  which  ^J^^^^^^^ll^^.^Z^Zus  which  they 
both  -'I-. -;^X/l    ASlicTn^    the'streets  between  the 
D  de  Yi      1  the  basin  of  the  Canal  St.  Martin^ 
"  The  National  Guard  and  the  troops  """J-^if  ^^t^^^^^^ 
line  of  the  canal  from  the  Place  de  la  Ba^.le  U,  t  ^^  ^ 

called  the  Chapelle  St.  Denis,  ^^ich  last  place  wa 
late  hour,  after  a  murderous  ^'f "gf  V^^^  who  ^^^^^^^ 
formed  a  junction  -f  ^^enenil  La'^^^^^^^  .„  ^^, 

'"r'^WSr?irl    The  "action  was  thus  driven 
S;tSl:^t^  I^'whichith^^ 

l^UTshrSrirS  h^oS^X^en  concealed  behind 

X  to  this  period  of  the  conflict,  U  was  es^^^^^^^^^^ 
number  of  troops.  National  Guards  and  Gar^eJ  ,^^.  ^^^ 
and  wounded,  was  upwards  of  IS.UUU.  v^u 
^urJL  the  casualties  were  -t  so  X^--  ,heu  the  insur- 
On  Monday  mormng  an  "'">«»'^Vsurrender  on  the  condition 
gents  sent  a  deputation  to  propose  a  f""«nj^'  ""^^is  proposal 
fhat  they  should  ^e  aUowe  to  ret.„  the  r  m  ^V^  P„  ^„ 
was  at  once  rejected  by  general  v^amgnd  ,  ^-n   t^n 

unconditional  surrender,  and  allowed  the   "'^^^S^^        -^  ^,, 
o'clock  to  determine  what  they  «h«"»d  do      At  that  hou 
thought  that  ihe  terms  proposed  were  agreed  to,  but 


i 


696 


(•IIAITIIll    XIV, 


goviTiimpnt  troops  ImviiiK  n'.it  within  the  linos  of  tho  inniirgpnts, 
wtru  I'lrod  at,  and  a  uron  nuinhor  of  tliiNii  wxrr  killetl.  Ilostiii- 
tieH  inuni^liatfly  recommciiL-cd,  which,  at'icr  a  Hhurt  cuntost, 
was  l)rou|irht  to  an  end  by  the  unconditional  surrundcr  of  tlio 
insurgent!*,  who  thornselves  assisted  in  pulling  down  their 
barricades. 

During  the  conflict  on  Sunday  and  Monday,  it  should  be 
mentioned,  the  National  Guards  from  the  departments  near 
Paris,  particularly  Kouen,  Amiens,  Orleans,  &c.,  fought  gal- 
lantly by  tho  side  of  their  i'aris  brethren. 

Monday  night  passed  without  the  slightest  disturbance  or 
appoariince  of  an  intention  on  the  part  of  the  insurgents  to  renew 
the  contest.  After  one  o'clock  in  the  day  there  was  no  fight- 
ing, but  it  was  not  till  twenty-rive  minutes  to  ten  o'clock  at  nii^'lit 
that  M.  S6nard,  the  President  of  the  National  Assembly,  an- 
nounced that  all  was  terminated,  that  tho  barricades  had  been 
taken  down,  and  that  nothing  remained  excepting  that  agitation 
which  was  inseparable  from  such  events. 

A  great  number  of  the  insurgents  had  laid  down  their  arms, 
but  by  far  the  greater  number  of  them  had  taken  refuge  in  the 
country  between  Vincennes  and  St.  Denis,  where  they  were 
pursued  by  several  regiments  of  cavalry  and  infantry.  In  tho 
course  of  Monday  evening  1500  took  up  their  quarters  in  the 
cemetery  of  Pere  la  ("haise  ;  but  on  an  alarm  that  the  tro«)ps 
were  coming,  they  retreated  to  the  neighborhood  of  Uoinain- 
ville. 

The  total  number  who  had  fled  to  the  country  amounted  to 
several  thousands.  The  number  of  prisoners  already  made  was 
very  great.  Tho  prisons  were  filled  with  them,  and  every  hour 
added  to  the  number.  On  Monday  night  300  prisoners,  who 
had  surrendered  in  the  Faubourg  du  Temple,  were  marched 
along  the  Boulevard,  strongly  guarded  by  infantry,  and  carried  to 
one  of  the  detached  forts  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris.  They 
consisted  principally  of  ouvriers,  but  several  of  them  were 
dressed  in  the  uniform  of  National  Guards,  and  a  considerable 
number  in  that  of  the  Garde  R6publicaine ;  and  on  the  same  even- 
ing the  whole  of  the  city  was  illuminated,  not  so  much  as  a 
token  of  rejoicing  for  the  victory  gained,  as  to  enable  the  sen- 
tries to  distinguish  each  other,  and  to  prevent  any  further  attempt 
upon  the  part  of  the  insurgents. 

The  insurgents  had  resolved  to  defend  themselves  to  the  last, 
and  had  posted  up  a  printed  proclamation  in  the  streets,  declar- 
ing that  they  would  bury  themselves  under  the  ruins  rather  than 
surrender,  except  on  their  own  terms.  They  had  cannon  of 
large  dimensions,  from  which  they  poured  a  murderous  fire  upon 


^yiH 


BIII>l«Wll 


10  insiirgpnts, 
led.  llostili- 
Nhorl  contest, 
rcmltT  of  'ho 
down    thoir 

it  should  be 
artmitnts   near 
fou|{ht  gal- 

iisturbance  or 
gents  to  renew 
was  no  lii^ht- 
)'cluck  at  night 
Assembly,  an- 
ados  had  been 
{  that  agitation 

)wn  their  arms, 
n  refuge  in  the 
tiere  they  were 
ifantry.  In  the 
quarters  in  the 
that  the  troops 
ood  of  Uomain- 

try  amounted  to 
ready  made  was 
,  and  every  hour 
I  prisoners,  who 
,  were  marched 
■y,  and  carried  to 
of  Paris.  They 
1  of  them  were 
d  a  considerable 
)n  the  same  even- 
jt  so  much  as  a 
)  enable  the  sen- 
t\y  further  attempt 

selves  to  the  last, 
le  streets,  declar- 
ruins  rather  than 
ly  had  cannon  of 
urderous  fire  upon 


m^Si 


VI  - 


11 


raxNcM. 


697 


the  froop^t.  nn.l  tlioy  only  irnvo  way  wlin.  thry  found  ihnl  the 
howiizt'rs  wore  rapidly  tliiiiiiiii«  tli.'ir  riiiiks.  'I  licy  thou  l..'«an 
to  (ly  in  tnery  diri'ilioii,  many  "f  ihcni  iihanilnninK  ihoir 
niimk.'ts ;  l.ut  the  (•xiisperiuion  of  ih(^  troops  of  the  hue,  and  tho 
nrlillery  of  the  National  (iimrd  was  fundi  that  it  was  impossible 
to  prevetit  ii  consiehirabh;  ntassiicre  anions  tin-  insnrKents.  A 
ureat  number,  however,  were  iiuuhf  prisoners  ;  and  ilie  armed 
fujiitives,  who  in  their  ni«ht  fre.pieiilly  turned  round  to  conlinuo 
tho  attack,  were  pursued  by  a  division  of  the  artillery  of  tho 
National  CJuard  to  a  consideral)lo  distance. 

Thi^  iiisurreelioii  was  by  far  the  most  terrible  that  has  over 
des(d!.ti;!  Paris.  The  number  of  killed  and  wounded  will 
probably  never  bo  known,  but  certainly  amounts  to  many 
thousands.  Many  calculate  the  numb.T  as  IukIi  as  20,000,  and 
none  estimate  it  below  10,000.  The  troops  of  the  line  suth-red 
greatly,  and  of  the  Oarde  Mobile  nearly  one-third  were  either 

killed  or  wounded.  r        u-  i    .u 

(!en.  Cavai<,nmc,  having  fulfilled  the  purpose  for  whicli  the 
dictatorial  power  had  been  confided  to  him,  resigned  it  to  the 
Assembly,  and  issued  the  following  proclamation  to  the  National 
Guard  and  the  army :  ..    ,     ,,       ,,•    i 

"  Citizens,  soldiers  :— Tho  sacred  cause  ot  the  Republic  has 

triumphed;   your  devotedness  and  unshakeable  courage  have 

balllcd  guilty  projects,  and  done  justice  on  fatal  errors.     I"  "'» 

name  of  tho  country,  in  the  name  of  all  humanity,  be  thanked 

for  your  efforts— be  blessed  for  this  necessary  triumph.      1  his 

morning  the  emotion  of  the  struggle  was  legitimate,  inevitable. 

But  at  present,  be  as  great  in  calm  as  you  have  just  been  m  the 

combat      In  Paris  I  see  victors  and  vanquished,  but  may  my 

name  be  accursed  if  I  should  consent  to  see  victims.     Justice 

will  take  its  course— let  it  act— that  is  your  wish,  and  it  is 

mine  also.     Ready  to  return  to  the  rank  of  simple  citi/en,  I  will 

carry  in  the  midst  of  you  the  remembrance  of  having,  in  these 

grave  trials,  only  taken  from  liberty  what  the  salety  of  tht 

Republic  itself  demanded,  and  of  leaving  an  example  to  whoever 

may  be  in  his  turn  called  on  to  fuUill  such  great  duties.' 

The  Assembly  then  passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  him  and  Mi» 
associates,  and  unanimously  yielded  to  him  the  chief  executive 
authority,  with  the  power  of  electing  his  ministers. 

The  council,  formed  accordingly,  was  ultimately  composed 
of  the  following  members  : 

General  Cavaignac,  President. 

M.  Marie,  Minister  of  Justice. 

M.  Bastide,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

M.  Senard,  Minister  of  the  Interior.  .: 


(syifi! 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


General  Lamoriciere,  Minister  of  War. 

M   de  Verninhac,  Minister  of  Marine. 

M.  Goodchaux,  Minister  oil- inance. 

M   Recurt,  Minister  of  Public  Works. 

M   Tourct,  Minister  of  Couimevce. 

U    Vaulabelle,  Minister  of  Public  Construction^ 

General  Chargarnier  was  appointed  Commander  of  the  Wa 

'^"S:Ss^^?^r  the  most  part.  ^^^^^  ^S 
talents  and  character  ^"«P"«  I««P^,^  '  ,„^tX„es'  tmambitious 
self  is  considered  a  ^^^'^^^^ZwlTiCnuZ^^^^^  oi 

and  able  man-one  who  will  «f  .^^^  ^"J^^^^J^  ^1^^^^^  personal 
the  affairs  of  his  country,  not  ^^P'^^J"^  advance  the  public 
aggrandizement,  or  private  -ter-ts.  but  ,.  ad^vance^^  ^^  p  ^^^_ 

tion  thus  far  has  been  distingmshed  by  judgment,  energy 
resolution. 


Revolutions  in   Germany  in  1848. 

The  large  number  of  independent  states,  of  ^Jj^^^f  f^^";';,^, 
ConLeraLn  is  formed,  renders  a  ^^^--^^^X"  of  S^^ 
.evolutions  that  have  taken  pUcen  them  a  ™aU.r^«'^^.      J 

federalempire,  hasexisteainme  11  .,.  .       ^    f  ^he  great 

triotic  men  in  Germany  ;  and  ^';\;f;X^r^^^^^^ 
•/olverein.  or  Customs  Union,  was  hailed  wiin  joy,  a» 

mill,.    The  ...11  r"  "P^tok Tihese  ™..»r,,  .»d  very 


■Of' 


ler  of  the  Na^ 

of  men  whose 
^avaignac  him- 
!St,  unambitious 
mpled  crisis  of 
own  personal 
ance  the  public 
jnt  of  the  van- 
his  administra- 
ent,  energy  and 


8. 

which  the  United    ! 
count  of  the  great 
liter  of  difficulty, 
them  being  very 
ernment,  and  only 
ionate  contingent 
langer.     For  hun- 
lany  into  one  great 
earts  of  many  pa- 
nent  of  the  great 
I  joy,  as  one  of  the 
•lished.     With  the 
and  Mecklenburg- 
immediately  join- 

r  had  been  making 
ig  the  employment 
on  of  factories  and 
opulation,  with  its 
3  matters,  and  very 
t  their  Government 


GERMANY. 


699 


increased  their  evils,  without  attempting  to  alleviate  them.  They 
recognized  in  the  government  of  Austria  an  open  despotism  ;  they 
saw  through  the  pretexts  of  constitutional  liberty  with  which 
Frederick  William  of  Prussia  soug^ht  to  hide  the  despotic  ten- 
dencies of  his  mind ;  they  learned  to  despise  the  disgraceful 
profligacy  of  King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  ;  they  discovered  the  petty 
tyrannies  practiced  by  the  smaller  Princes  and  Electors  of 
Germany ;  and  their  minds  awakened  to  a  just  sense  of  their 
rights  and  privileges  as  men,  as  well  as  subjects.  Silently, 
these   impressions   were    circulated    throughout  the    diflerent 

*  \rBaden,  M.  M.  Welcker  and  Basserman  openly  called  for  a 
constitutional  government,  and  freedom  of  the  press.     The  time 
for  action  was  approaching  ;  men  understood  that  it  was  neces- 
sary, and  were  beginning  to  measure  their  strength,  when  sud- 
d^iiilv  the  fire  of  the  French  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  in- 
flamed all  Europe ;  its  sparks  flying  in  all  directions,  kindled 
the  train  in  preparation  throughout  Germany,  and  immed(ately 
the    .hole  country  was  in  a  blaze.     Popular  commotions  took 
pla  -  in  all  the  large  cities,  and  the  cry  was  for  a  political  con- 
stitution, which  should  give  the  people  a  share  m  legislation, 
establish  the  liberty  of  the  press,  abolish  odious  restrictions,  re- 
form the  judicial  system,  nnd  otherwise  extend  popular  rights. 
On  the  29th  of  February,  1  ^-18,  at  Carlsruhe,  in  Baden,  depu- 
tations from  every  town  in  the  Grand  Duchy  besieged  the  Grand 
Duke,  demanding  liberty  of  tlie  prr.s,  mal  b'    jury,  extended 
sufFrage,  constitutional  Government,  institution  of  a  burgher  giiard, 
right  of  public  meeting,  and  amended  ^fepreseniation  of  the  Ger- 
man nations  in  the  Diet  at  Frankfort.     On  the  2nd  o    March,  the 
Grand  Duke  yielded  to   the  demands  of  his  people,  dismissed 
his  obnoxious  ministers,  and  called  to  his  council  M.  W  elcker, 
for  many  years  the  firm  and  consistent  opponent  of  all  the  des- 
potic proceedings  of  the  Government.         ,     .    ,  r    •     i 

Great  popular  demonstrations  were  made  in  favor  of  similar 
concessions  at  Mayence.in  Hesse  Darmstadt ;  Hanau,in  Hesse 
Cassel;  Wiesbaden,  in  Nassau;  Stuttgardt,  in  Wutomburg  ; 
and  many  smaller  towns  in  those  neighborhoods. 

On  the  3rd  of  March,  «.t  Cologne,  the  people  proceeded  in  a 
'  body  to  the  town-house,  where  the  Council  were  sitting,  and 
required  of  the  Prussian  authorities  their  sanction  to  similar  pe- 
titions. A  riot  ensued,  the  town-house  was  stormed  and  the 
authorities  made  prisimers.  The  intervention  of  the  military  re- 
leased  them,  and  the  Governor  of  the  Rhine  Provinces  prom-sed 
to  forward  the  petitions  of  the  inhabitants  to  Berlm.  <-''<"»« 
sameday  the  inhabitants  of  Frnnklort  met  together,  and  added 


%. 


m^ 


\.  I 


sS 


700 


CHAI'TEri    XIV. 


their  voices  to  the  almost  universal  shout  for  reform,  express- 
ing their  discontent  with  the  meagre  concessions  which  the 
Diet  had  that  day  made.  The  Diet  had  abandoned  the  idc  .  of 
a  universal  law  of  the  press  for  all  Germany,  and  resolved  to 
allow  each  stale  to  exercise  its  own  judgment  in  the  matter,  sub- 
ject to  certain  guarantees.  The  4th  of  the  month  witnessed  the 
bloodless  revolution  of  Munich.  On  that  day  the  people  of  Mu- 
nich assembled  together  in  large  numbers  in  the  streets  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  palace,  and  demanded  reform.  In  the  ex- 
citement of  the  moment  they  stormed  the  arsenal,  possessed 
themselves  of  the  arms  it  contained,  and  thus  equipped,  uncheck- 
ed by  the  military,  proceeded  to  the  palace,  and  forced  from  King 
IjuJwig  those  concessions  which  he  had  refused  to  make.  A 
week  had  thus  elapsed  since  the  occurrences  at  Paris,  and  we 
find  that  at  its  close  the  demands  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  king- 
dom of  Bavaria,  the  dukedom  of  Baden,  the  kingdom  of  Wirtem- 
burg,  the  dukedom  of  Nassau,  and  the  electorate  of  Hesse  Darm- 
stadt, had  been  conceded  by  the  ruling  powers.  At  Hanau,  in 
Hesse  Cassel,  an  insurrection,  with  barricades,  and  conflicts  be- 
tween a  portion  of  the  people  and  the  soldiery,  were  needed  be- 
fore the  Elector  would  yield. 

At  the  united  Diet  at  Frankfort,  they  agreed  that  their  rulers 
ought  to  cease  to  be  alone  represented  at  the  Diet,  and  demand- 
ed that  the  people  should  have  their  representatives  at  its  sittings. 

On  the  5th  of  March,  fifty-one  representatives  of  different  coun- 
tries of  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Wirtemburg,  Baden,  Hesse  Cassel, 
Nassau,  and  Hesse  Darmstadt,  met  together  at  Heidelberg  to 
consult  on  the  state  of  Germany,  and  the  steps  necessary  to  be 
adopted  in  such  a  crisis.  They  unanimously  adopted  a  series 
of  resolutions,  embodying  the  following  plans  : — That  no  war 
of  intervention  should  be  made  against  the  new  order  of  things  ; 
that  no  attempts  should  be  made  to  deprive  other  nations  of  the 
liberty  and  independence  which  they  had  earned  as  a  right ; 
that  a  representative  assembly  should  be  convened  for  all  German 
states,  to  avert  internal  and  external  dangers,  and  to  develop  the 
energy  and  prosperity  of  the  country  ;  that  a  body  of  volunteer 
representatives  should  be  organized  to  offer  their  assistance  to 
Government  in  this  matter  ;  and  that  all  Germany  should  unite 
to  defend  the  country  against  foreign  aggression.  The  Diet,  then 
sitting  at  Frankfort,  on  the  fallowing  day  declared  its  conviction 
of  the  necessity  of  reforming  ihe  Federal  Diet,  and  invoked  the 
different  (Jerman  states  to  send  immediately  to  Frankfort  men 
enjoying  the  confidence  of  their  countrymen,  to  assist  in  the  de- 
Uberalions  necessary  for  anew  constitution  of  the  Diet.  During 
this  first  week  of  March,  matters  remained  tranquil  in  the  north 


form,  express- 
jiis   which  the 
[led  the  idc  .  of 
nd  resolved  to 
he  matter,  sub- 
i  witnessed  the 
5  people  of  Mu- 
streets  in  the 
m.    In  the  ex- 
inal,  possessed 
ipped,  uncheck- 
Kced  from  King 
>d  to  make.     A 
t  Paris,  and  we 
mts  of  the  king- 
;dom  ofWirtem- 
of  Hesse  Darm- 
At  Hanau,  in 
and  conflicts  be- 
were  needed  be- 


;hat  their  rulers 
iet,  and  deniand- 
ves  at  its  sittings. 

of  diff"erent  coun- 
>,  Hesse  Cassel, 
at  Heidelberg  to 
J  necessary  to  be 

adopted  a  series 
: — That   no  war 
'  order  of  things  ; 
ler  nations  of  the 
arned  as  a   right ; 
led  for  all  German 
Mid  to  develop  the 
body  of  volunteer 
their  assistance  to 
nany  should  unite 
1.     The  Diet,  then 
aredits  conviction 
t,  and  invoked  the 
'  to  Frankfort  men 
,  to  assist  in  the  de- 

the  Diet.     During 
ranquil  in  the  north 


GERMAN  V.  701 

and  south  of  Germany,  though  the  uneasiness  felt  by  the  royal 
heads  and  their  councillors  had  very  much  increased.  The  agi- 
tation of  the  sturdy  inhabitants  of  the  Rhine  provinces,  and  slight 
symptoms  of  the  same  near  the  capital,  induced  Prince  Fred- 
erick William  of  Prussia,  on  the  fith,  \.o  promisr.  that  he  would 
grant  to  the  assembled  States  the  right  conferred  by  the  law  of 
the  3d  of  February  on  the  assembled  Committees  of  the  States,  to 
meet  periodically,  at  fixed  times  ;  and  he  promised  to  confirm  the 
privileges  of  the  Committees  in  a  corresponding  manner.  No  time, 
however,  was  fixed.  On  the  same  day  the  Prince  of  Prussia  was 
appointed  Governor-General  of  the  lihine  Provinces.  He  did 
not,  however,  leave  Berlin.  Largo  bodies  of  troops  were  moving 
all  this  time  from  the  eastern  provinces  of  Prussia  to  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  Rhine.  On  the  10th  of  the  month  the  King  of 
Prussia  issued  a  decree  declarin;,'  himself  dissatisfied  with  the 
resolution  of  the  Diet  with  respect  to  the  freedom  of  the  press, 
and  announced  that,  unless  the  Diet  granted  substantively  the 
freedonri  of  the  press  for  the  whole  Confederation,  he  would  take 
the  initiative  for  the  Prussian  kingdom  at  the  next  meeting.  We 
may  here  state  that  on  the  14th  he  issued  another  decree,  an- 
nouncing that,  in  conjunction  with  Austria  and  Saxony,  he  had 
accepted  the  invitation  of  the  Diet  to  send  deputies  to  Frankfort, 
for  the  purpose  of  deliberating  on  the  re-construction  of  the  Fed- 
eral Diet  on  a  more  extended  basis,  and  in  order  that,  fundament- 
ally united  by  strengthened  free  institutions,  Germany  might  once 
more  become  one  great  country,  and  re-assume  its  ancient  grand- 
eur and  proper  rank  in  Europe. 

While  King  Frederick  William  was  thus  engaged  in  Pnissia, 
his  ally  in  Saxony  was  nndergoinp  the  process  of  compulsory 
concession.  Dresden  and  Leipsic  pronounced  in  favor  of  the 
universal  progress,  and  compelled  the  King  to  grant  their 
request  King  Ernest  Augustus  of  Hanover,  after  much  tempo- 
rising and  great  delays,  which,  if  prolonged  another  day,  might 
have  cost  him  his  throne,  was  compelled  on  the  16f.h  to  grant  the 
demands  of  the  Hanoverians.  Long  held  to  be  the  moet  politi- 
cally careless  race  in  Germany,  their  city,  one  of  the  most  pleas- 
ant in  Europe  for  the  resort  of  foreigners,  renowned  for  its  varied 
attractions,  musical,  theatrical,  and  scientific,  but  regarded  as 
dead  to  all  else,  the  Viennese  nevertheless  preceded  Berlin  in 
the  attainment  of  the  Constitutional  Government. 

On  the  1 3th  March,  the  session  of  the  Diet  of  Lower  Austria 
was  opened.  An  immense  concourse  of  the  inhabitants  assem- 
bled in  the  neighborhood  of  the  church,  headed  by  the  students. 
They  drew  up  a  petition  in  favor  of  constitutional  Government, 
freedom  of  the  press,  national  armament,  trial  by  jury,  and  re- 


I 


t 


ll 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

,i,ious  freedom.     Having  P"-"-^, tral\in'«  ^e  sU,de^ 

Assembly,  ^^^^'^X^^^^A  Notwithstanding  this  as- 
that  their  demands  should  lie  gr^nt^'  •     '       .      j  ^omxA- 

suranee  of  the  A-h  «k.  n^^^^^^^^^^^  -  ^one  ,^  ^Jhdra^n^ithin 
gating  freedom  o  the  V^^^^^2\vere  then  refused.  Angry  and 
half  an  hour,  and  f '«'i'^  ^^^'^'f '  ^^ents  rushed  upon  the  arsenal, 
excited,  the  populace  and  ^"^'^f  "'^"^^^^^^  who  were  or- 

obtained  arms,  and  advanced  to  meet  the  sow^    ^  ^^^^_ 

dered  to  suppress  the  not  n  J^^l^^^^h^'night  of  the  13th, 
cades  were  built  an    cnfl^ee.^^^^^^^        „o^„p.ession  on 

and  <"°'^"'"g°V^W  Government,  finding  the  neighboring  coun- 
the  rioters  ;  and  the  '^overnmenw  b  insurrectionists, 

trymen  were  flock  ng  ^"^VllU  were  also  leivfng  the  ranks,  felt 
and  a^at  portion  of  Oie  soldiery  wer^^  resigned    the 

themselves  compelled  to  ^^uccu ino  ^yiUiam,  retired,  the 

unpopular  Archdukes,  Albert,  >'"'i   '^  '^'«*  ^^'^^j^      i„3talled, 

feller  :=^^^^  , 

3i;   l50willberoumUobenearjhetr.h^^  ^^^^.^^^    | 

One  of  the  results  o   ^^^^  cliange  was^  h^Mi^^^g^  y^^^        ^._     ^ 
,     a  national  government.        ^^  "ungar^^^  ^^^  ^^^^ 

I  ously  remonstrated  verv  s^ron  y  ^  ^  f  ^^  Austrian  author- 
Metternich,  and  had  'l«'"*f  ^f '7^^7,'/,  „  ^^  places. 
i,ies,  and  the  substitution  "f^^XmeeUng  was  held  in  Berlin, 
On  the  I3th  of  March,  a  "i«"^;^;";^3  j,,  other  countries, 
to  petition  the  K  ng  for  the  ^«^«7;  ^^^^^^^^^  "i^s  dispersed  by 
The  meeting,  which  was  raherj^mulu^^^^^^^       ^^^^P^^^      ^^ 

the  soldiery;  blood  was  ^^^'^'.^.i^^^Vee,  which  were  put 
the  14th  aiid  I5th,  simdar  --  -ff^tiCday  the  students  of 
down  in  the  same  way.     On  the  lol  o       g       y        .^  ^^^.^ 

Berlin,  united  with  those  "J  »;f  ^^^^^^^  peUtbns  were  granted, 
titions,  and  threatened  to  arm,  un  ess  their  p  ^t^Herlin, 

On  the  17th  the  R.«volu"0"  ".Vienna  becan^e  K       ^^^^  ^^^^^^ 

and,  on  the  morning  «f .  ^J«  f  ^^i^d  "^ge  union  of  the  whole 
markable  decree,  in  which  he  dema^^e^        confederation,  the 

German  Enripire,  the  i;*-"^?;^  ^"J.^"^^^        common  army,  and  a 

institution  of  a  •=«""^°"  ^  '1^2  nly  intimated  his  willing- 
common  customs  union,  and  very  plain  ^^  ^^  ^.j^ 

nes8  to  ascend  th>,  Imperial  throne  ^^l^"  ^^^^jf    %,  had  been 


■"Ml 


■'. . 


or.RMANy. 


703 


8  of  the  Hall  of 
uring  the  students 
hstanding  this  as- 
i  decree,  promul- 
ftfithdrawn  within 
ised.     Angry  and 
upon  the  arsenal, 
ers,  who  were  or- 
f  the  town  barri- 
nightof  the  13th, 
no  impression  on 
neighboring  coun- 
le  insurrectionists, 
ring  the  ranks,  felt 
ich    resigned,  the 
'illiam,  retired,  the 
■  ministry  installed, 
the  15th  of  March, 
as  burnt.     The  ac- 
two  days  vary  very 

Hungary  obtained 
hamber  had  pr  n- 
s  policy  pursued  by 
the  Austrian  author- 
leir  places. 

was  held  in  Berlin, 

in  other  countries. 
,  was  dispersed  by 
ivr"  .vere  lost.  On 
,ce,  which  were  put 

day  the  students  of 
le  people  in  their  pe- 
ilitions  were  granted, 
me  known  at  Berlin, 
r  issued  that  most  re- 
[e  union  of  the  whole 
ts  confederation,  the 
3ommon  army,  and  a 
intimated  his  willing- 
wledging,  as  he  did, 
ceeding,  he  had  been 
Vienna.     Tliough  the 
nds  of  his  people  he 

was  necessary  to  the 


attainment  of  his  object,  to  grant  some,  at  least,  of  the  required 
concessions.  lie  granted  liberty  of  tbe  press,  subject  to  the 
penal  laws  for  libel,  <tc.,  and  convoked  the  Diet  for  the  2d  of 
April.  Slight  as  were  these  concessions,  the  great  aspirations 
of  his  Majesty  were  very  popular  apparently  ;  and  in  the  after- 
noon of  the  ne  day  the  people  assembled  in  the  square  in 
front  of  the  pa  ,ce,  to  thank  the  King  and  cheer  him,  when,  by 
an  unaccountable  accident,  suddenly  two  shots  were  fired,  and 
the  people  were  immediately  charged  by  the  infantry  and 
cavalry,  with  whom  the  palace  and  its  courts  were  filled  ;  many 
lives  were  lost,  and  the  people  fled  in  all  directions.  Barricades 
were  erected,  the  gun-shops  sacked,  and  the  people  armed. 
All  that  afternoon  and  the  following  night  did  the  battle  rage 
with  the  utmost  vehemence. 

In  the  morning,  though  apparently  successful,  the  troops  were 
utterly  worn  out  with  fatigue  ;  and  their  General  being  in  the 
hands  of  the  people,  a  prisoner,  the  King  capitulated,  ordered  all 
the  troops  to  leave  the  town,  permitted  the  establishment  of  the 
burgher  guard,  granted  universal  suffrage,  dismissed  his  hated 
minist»-s,  (Bodelschwingh,  Thile,  and  Eichorn,)  and  nominated 
Count  Arnim  President  of  the  Council,  with  Count  Schwerin 
and  M.  Auerswald  (all  Liberals)  as  his  assistants.  On  the 
morning  of  the  19lh  a  royal  proclnmation  appeared,  declaring 
that  the  revolution  had  been  caused  by  evil-minded  foreigners, 
and  that  his  troops  did  not  use  their  weapons  until  forced  to  do 
so  to  defend  themselves.  On  Sunday  morning  his  Majesty  was 
forced  to  appear  in  the  balcony,  to  see  thirty-seven  dead  bodies, 
the  victims  either  of  a  blunder  or  an  unfortunate  treachery.  Of 
the  people,  nearly  two  hundred  and  forty  fell  during  the  fight ; 
the  number  of  soldiers  killed  is  not  known,  but  is  conjectured  to 
be  near  seven  or  eight  hundred.  Of  course,  very  many  died  of 
their  wounds  subsequently.  On  the  20th  a  political  amnesty 
was  declared,  and  M.  Camphausen  summoned  to  assist  in  the 
ministry.  During  the  conflict,  the  Prince  of  Prussia,  who  was 
very  obnoxious  to  the  people,  remained  hidden  in  the  palace. 
He  subsequently  left  Berlin  disguised,  and  fled  to  England.  On 
the  21st,  King  Frederick  William  annihilated  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia  in  a  proclamation,  and  declared  his  intention  of  once 
more  uniting  Germany,  and  taking  it  under  his  guidance  in  these 
moments  of  peril  and  anarchy.  Prussia  was  to  be  merged  into 
Germany ;  constitutional  government,  equal  political  and  civil 
rights,  popular  and  liberal  administrations,  were  the  order  of  the 
day.  This  proclamation  was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and  on 
the  following  day  the  King  rode  through  Berlin,  wearing  the 
German  national  colors,  escorted  by  h;ilf  the  population,  the 


i  I  \ 

i 
? 

i 
1 
1 


H^^ 


m 


704 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


blood  of  the  slain  subjects  hardly  dried  in  the  streets,  and  their 
bodies  lying  in  state  in  all  the  churches.  On  that  occasion,  his 
Majesty  swore  that  ho  did  not  intend  to  dethrone  any  one  Ger- 
man Prince — that  he  did  not  wish  for  the  Imperial  Crown,  and 
only  wanted  liberty,  union,  and  good  order  in  Germany.  To 
assist  in  the  ministerial  deliberations  on  the  new  constitution, 
Professor  Dohlmann,  the  well-known  historian  and  tried  friend 
of  liberty,  was  summoned  to  Berlin. 

While  matters  were  proceeding  thus  in  the  capital  of  Prussia, 
King  Ludwig  of  Havaria  suddenly  abdicated  the  throne  in  favor 
of  his  son  Maximilian.  On  the  22d,  the  new  King  opened  the 
Chambers  in  person  ;  and  in  a  gracious  speech  from  the  throne, 
announced  his  intention  of  perfecting  the  concessions  granted 
by  his  father. 

In  Austria,  matters  were  steadily  progressing  ;  the  Ministry, 
employed  in  securing  by  law  the  liberal  concessions,  were 
assisted  by  twelve  members  of  the  Diet  and  twelve  citizens. 
The  secret  police  was  abolished,  freedom  of  the  press  being 
considered  a  guarantee  against  treasonable  associations  ;  a  po- 
litical amnesty  was  pronounced,  and  nearly  200  political  pris- 
oners were  released. 

At  Presburg,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  great  dissatisfaction  was 
expressed  at  two  decrees,  which  placed  the  control  of  the  Gov- 
ernment somewhat  in  the  hands  of  Vienna ;  in  the  National 
Assembly  violent  speeches  were  made,  and  the  two  Imperial 
Commissioners  were  burnt  in  effigy  in  the  streets.  The  bohe- 
mians  being  also  at  this  time  much  agitated,  Uaron  Pillersdorf 
promised  them  that  all  their  demands  should  be  granted ;  that 
they  should  have  their  national  representatives,  a  national  guard, 
and  that  their  own  i.inguaae  sliould  be  used.  On  the  Gth  April, 
the  Ministry  at  Vienna  underwent  another  change;  Archduke 
Ludwig,  Kolowrath,  and  Knheck,  who  were  suspected  of  reac- 
tionary designs,  resigned  office,  and  were  succeeded  by  Arch- 
duke John,  M.  Fiquelmont,  and  Krauss,  with  Marshal  Zanini 
for  Mieiister  of  War.  Hungary  continued  much  agitated,  and 
Bohemia  was  in  open  reljoUion,  two  or  tinoe  of  the  Magnates  or 
Princes  setting  themselves  up  for  Kings. 

Vienna,  during  the  whole  of  April  k  J  May,  may  be  said  to 
ha:'e  been  uikIct  the  rule  of  the  mob,  guided  by  the  students. 
On  the  lOih  serious  disturbances  occurred,  Piquelmont  was 
forced  to  resign,  and  was  succeeded  by  Baron  Sehzellini.  On 
tie  18th  of  .May  the  Kmperor  left  Vienna,  and  by  a  party  of  his 
friends,  anxious  for  his  personal  safety,  was  conveyed  to  Inn- 
spruck  in  the  Tyrol,  .\fter  his  arrival  at  Innspruck,  he  issued 
a  proclamation,  in  which  he  promised  to  contirm  his  concessions 


.^*g?n»0?"*Wt''»*i'W«w  ^-^- 


•mt*, 


OEHMANY. 


705 


itreets,  and  their 
jat  occasion,  his 
ne  any  one  Ger- 
erial  Crown,  and 
Germany.  To 
new  constitution, 
1  and  tried  friend 

capital  of  Prussia, 
ho  throne  in  favor 
King  opened  the 
h  from  the  throne, 
ncessions  granted 

ing ;  the  Ministry, 
concessions,  were 
id  twelve  citizens. 
»f  the  press  being 
issociations ;  a  po- 
200  political  pris- 

;  dissatisfaction  was 
control  of  the  Gov- 
a;  in  the  National 
d  the  two  Imperial 
Itreets.     The  Uohe- 
1,  Uaron  Pillersdorf 
lid  be  granted  ;  that 
es,  a  national  guard, 
.     On  the  Gth  April, 
change ;  Archduke 
3  suspected  of  rfiac- 
succeeded  by  Arch- 
vilh  Marshal  Zanini 
much  agitated,  and 
e.  of  the  Magnates  or 

May,  may  be  said  to 
ded  by  the  students, 
ed,  Fiquelmont  was 
aron  Sehzellini.  On 
and  by  a  party  of  his 
t&a  conveyed  to  Inn- 
Innspruck,  he  issued 
inlirm  his  concessions 


in  March,  and  offered  lo  return  to  Vienna  when  order  and  tran- 
quillity should  be  restored.  On  the  27th  of  May  fresh  disturb- 
ances occurred  at  Vienna,  in  consequence  of  an  order  from  the 
Minister  for  the  Interior  to  the  students'  legion  to  disband.  Bar- 
ricades were  built,  and  afler  a  short  conflict  the  students  were 
victorious.  Baron  Pillersdorf  then  ratified  the  wishes  of  the 
citizens  and  students,  declared  them  independent  of  every  other 
authority,  and  answerable  for  the  public  safety.  Vienna  then 
became  tranquil,  and  the  elections  to  the  new  Assembly  pro- 
ceeded quietly. 

Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Dalmatia  openly  revolted,  and  pro- 
claimed their  intention  of  founding  a  Slavonic  Empire,  while 
Hungary,  having  been  fraternally  addressed  by  the  Emperor,  in 
proclamations  and  decrees,  and  its  demands  having  been 
granted,  remained  tolerably  quiet  and  loyal,  the  Emperor  prom- 
ising to  visit  Presburg  and  Pesth. 

In  Bohemia  events  were  rapidly  hurrying  to  a  crisis.  The 
hatred  of  the  Austrian  Government  was  as  deep  as  it  was  of  old 
standing.  The  weak  and  vacillating  conduct  of  the  Austrian 
Government,  the  infectious  triumphs  of  the  people  at  Vienna, 
fanned  the  love  of  insurrection,  and  on  the  29th  of  May  a  Pro- 
visional Government  was  proclaimed  at  Prague,  independent  of 
Vienna,  with  Count  Leo  Thun  at  his  head.  Immediately  after 
its  establishment,  the  Provisional  Government  opened  a  com- 
munication with  Vienna,  and  a  perfect  conflict  of  protocols 
ensued,  which  lasted  more  than  a  week.  Irritated  at  the 
triumphs  and  determination  of  the  Bohemians,  preparations 
were  made  on  the  12th  June,  by  the  Austrian  commander  in 
Prague,  Count  Windischgrfttz,  to  remove  some  of  the  cannon 
and  other  military  stores  to  the  neighboring  bills,  which  com- 
manded the  city,  when  the  inhabitants  opposed  this  proceeding 
by  force.  A  roost  fearful  and  bloody  contest  ensued,  which 
lasted  until  the  15th,  when,  finding  the  troops  unable  to  sustain 
the  fight  in  the  narrow  streets  of  the  city,  Count  Windischgr&tz 
drew  off  his  troops,  and  on  the  two  following  days  bombarded 
the  town  from  the  neighboring  heights.  On  uie  evening  of  the 
17th,  thirteen  of  the  insurrectionary  Ifad'-rs  6tirr-  nderod,  and  the 
town  once  more  was  in  the  hands  of  the  .m^triurts.  The  num- 
ber of  the  slain  has  not  been  accurately  ascertained,  but  was 
very  great. 

Berlin,  in  the  days  immediately  after  the  revolution,  quietly 
witnessed  the  change  of  ministry,  and  listening  to  the  promises 
that  were  made,  on  the  22d  the  inhabitants  commenced  assem- 
bling in  moderate  meetings,  to  discuss  the  social  question  of  tbo 
day,  viz.,  the  want  of  regular  well-paid  employment ;  they  ended 

45 


706 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


ii9i 


in  demanding  the  formation  of  a  ministry  for  the  administration  of 
labor.  On  the  24th,  the  King  promised  the  national  organization 
of  Posen  ;  and  immediately  appointed  a  committee,  half  Ger- 
mans and  half  Poles,  to  confer  with  his  commissioner,  Count 
Wilbain,  on  the  necessary  proceedings  to  be  adopted.  This 
proceeding  was  regarded  with  much  dissatisfaction  by  the  Ger- 
man inhabitants,  who,  inimical  towards  the  Poles,  composed  ihe 
larger  number  of  the  inhabitants.  On  the  28th  of  March  a  new 
ministry  entered  oilice  ;  Counts  Arnim  and  Schwerin  retired, 
and  tluir  places  were  tilled  by  MM.  Camphausen,  Hauscmann, 
Bornemann,  Auerswald,  men  of  the  most  radical  character. 
Their  first  step  in  office  was  to  procure  from  his  Majesty  a 
decree  placing  the  whole  public  business  in  their  hands,  and 
rendering  them  responsible  for  its  conduct.  On  the  3d  of  April 
the  Diet  was  opened,  and  for  the  Rrst  time  were  its  sittings  open 
to  the  press  and  the  public.  Ministers  were  well  received. 
Great  difficulty  was  experienced  by  the  authorities  in  employing 
the  people  out  of  work  ;  large  public  works  were  planned  and 
immediately  commenced,  and  the  poorer  classes  in  the  town 
were  sent  to  cleanse  the  dirty  streets.  The  Diet  occupied  itself 
in  discussing  a  project  for  a  new  law  of  elections  for  the  Assem- 
bly to  be  convoked  for  the  consideration  of  the  Prussian  Consti- 
tution. The  elections  were  to  be  indirect ;  every  500  inhabit- 
ants, of  the  age  of  twenty-four,  were  to  elect  one  elector,  and  80 
of  these  electors  were  to  elect  the  deputy.  Every  one  was 
qualified  to  vote  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  and  to  be  elected  at 
the  age  of  thirty.  About  350  members  were  to  be  thus  elected, 
and  so  their  Assembly  would  meet  as  one  Chamber.  Those 
laws  were  adopted  by  large  majorities. 

The  alarming  condition  of  the  province  of  Posen  at  this  time 
attracted  much  attention.  The  concessions  made  to  the  Poles 
by  the  King  had  very  much  alarmed  the  German  inhabitants, 
more  particularly  the  peasants.  Several  bloody  engagements 
took  place,  in  the  earlier  of  which  the  Poles,  under  Mieros- 
lawski,  obtained  the  most  decisive  advantages ;  but  on  the  6ih 
of  May  a  general  engagement  ensued  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Xionx,  in  which  Mieroslawski  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner. 
The  routed  Poles  were  pursued  and  dispersed  on  all  sides. 
The  insurrection  was  completely  quelled;  and  General  ('olonib 
having  been  withdrawn,  General  Pfuehl,  the  President  of  the 
province,  by  conciliatory,  but  determined  measures,  suixeoded 
in  quelling  the  turbulent  spirits. 

The  Assembly  at  Frankfort  has  sipce  rejected  a  proposition 
for  the  indepcndoncr  of  I'osen. 

The  sending  away  of  boine  arms  from  the  arsenal  on  the  SOtb 


,  administration  of 

;ioiinl  organization 

mittee,  half  der- 

imissioner,  Count 

e  adopted.     This 

iction  by  the  Ger- 

)le8,  composed  the 

ih  of  March  a  new 

Schwerin  retired, 

lusen,  Hauscmann, 

radical   character. 

om  his  Majesty  a 

a  their  hands,  and 

On  the  3d  of  April 

ere  its  sittings  open 

rere  well  received. 

Drities  in  employing 

s  were  planned  and     i 

ilasses  in  the  town    j 

Diet  occupied  itself     j 

tions  for  the  Assem- 

the  Prussian  Consti- 

;  every  500  inhabit- 

t  one  elector,  and  80 

y.     Every  one  was 

and  to  be  elected  at 

re  to  be  thus  elected, 

e  Chamber.     Those 

Df  Poaen  at  this  time 
s  made  to  the  Poles 
German  inhabitants, 
bloody  engagements 
Poles,  under  Mieros- 
iges ;  but  on  the  6ih 
the  neighborhood  of 
sd  and  made  prisoner, 
ipersed  on  all  sides, 
and  General  Colomb 
the  President  of  the 
measures,  succeeded 

rejected  a  proposition 

be  arsenal  on  the  30tb 


OERMANY. 


707 


of  May,  excited  the  students  and  the  people  ;  the  boats  were 
stoppt'd,  the  cases  opened,  and  the  contents  divided  among  the 
actors  in  this  scene.  The  turbulent  excitement  of  the  people 
increased  day  by  day  ;  they  demanded  that  the  working  classes 
should  be  armed.  This  was  partially  conceded,  and  they  wore 
pacified.  On  the  6th,  the  Prince  of  Prussia  anived  in  Berlin, 
and  took  his  seat  in  the  Assembly  on  the  8th.  His  reception 
was  any  thing  but  favorable. 

Angry  dissatisfaction  was  excited  out  of  doors  by  the  success 
of  a  motion  in  the  Assembly  that  the  revolution  should  not  be 
acknowledged.  The  ministerial  crisis  existed  until  M.  Camp- 
hauscn  resigned ;  his  succesfor  being  M.  Auerswald,  one  of 
his  colleagues.  The  present  ministry  is  regarded  as  rather 
democratic.  It  has  need  of  wisdom,  courage,  and  determina- 
tion ;  for  the  same  causes  which  effected  the  fearful  events  in 
Paris  are  at  work  in  lierlin  and  elsewhere.  Foresight  and  pru- 
dence may  prevent  an  outbreak  ;  but  men  are  beginning  to  dread 
its  occurrence. 

As  the  Germanic  Parliament  took  a  very  active  part  in  sup- 
porting the  war  in  SchleswigHolstein,  it  will  be  well  to  narrate 
the  proceedings  of  that  body  before  the  events  of  the  war.  The 
assembly  of  deputies  from  all  the  states  of  Germany,  who  were 
appointed  to  make  arrangements  for  the  convocation  of  a  German 
Parliament,  was  constituted  on  the  31st  of  March.  After  a 
preliminary  meeting,  the  plan  for  the  election  of  the  German 
Parliament  was  proposed,  based  upon  universal  suffrage,  with- 
out consideration  of  property,  class,  or  religious  creed.  The 
Assembly  resolved,  at  its  first  meeting,  to  recognize  Schleswig- 
Holstein, and  urged  upon  the  federal  states  of  the  empire,  par- 
ticularly Prussia,  the  necessity  of  assisting  the  duchies  in  their 
endeavors  to  maintain  their  independence.  They  also  decided 
upon  the  incorporation  of  the  province  of  Posen  in  the  Diet,  as 
well  as  East  and  West  Prussia.  During  the  sittings  of  this 
Assembly,  the  Republican  party  made  several  attempts  to  procure 
the  recognition  of  Republican  principles,  but  they  were  com- 
pletely defeated,  the  Assembly  declaring  that  the  constitution 
of  Germany  could  alone  be  remodelled  upon  the  broadest  con- 
stitutional monarchical  basis.  They  held  their  last  sitting  on 
the  7th  of  April,  and  then  dissolved,  leaving  a  committee  en  per- 
manence, to  keep  the  Diet  which  still  existt-d  up  to  the  proper 
mark,  and  to  discuss  the  question  of  the  new  German  constitu- 
tion. On  the  27th  this  committee  completed  tht^ir  labors,  and 
presented  the  Diet  their  project  for  a  Constitution,  which  was 
drawn  up  by  the  celebrated  Dahlmann.  It  proposed  that  all  the 
states  hitherto  belonging  to  the  Confederation  should  form  one 


^MM 


708 


CIIAI'TEfl    XIV. 


empire,  with  their  separate  inJopenilence  somowhut  limited. 
That  the  Government  of  the  F.mpiro  should  represent  Germany 
or  any  particular  state  in  foreign  aflairs,  and  manage  all  diplo- 
matic  matters,  determine  upon  peace  or  war,  controll  the  army 
and  navy,  the  customs,  canals,  railways,  and  telegraphs,  all 
legislation,  and  dispose  of  all  customs  and  postage  revenues. 
The  power  of  the  empire  to  ho  united  in  the  Eniptror,  the  Im- 
perial Upper  and  Imperial  Lower  House.  The  Upper  House 
to  consist  of  200  members :  viz.  all  the  reigning  princes ;  a 
deputy  from  each  of  the  four  free  towns  ;  Peers  to  be  chosen, 
half  by  the  Parliaments  and  lialf  by  the  reigning  princes,  for  a 
term  of  twelve  years,  one-third  withdrawing  at  the  end  of  every 
four  years ;  the  Lower  House  to  consist  of  representatives  of 
the  people,  one  for  every  100,000  souls.  The  Parliament  to 
meet  once  a  year  at  Frankfort,  and  the  Lower  House  to  have 
the  controll  of  the  budget,  similarly  to  the  English  House  of 
Commons.  A  supreme  court  of  justice  to  bo  instituted  at 
Nuremh  rg,  to  decide  all  disputes  between  reigning  princes,  or 
against  any  one  of  them,  and  all  charges  of  high  treason. 

On  the  18th  of  May  the  German  Parliament  mot  for  the  first 
time  at  Frankfort ;  397  members  were  present.  M.  Von  Gagern, 
the  monarchist  candidate  for  the  presidency,  was  elected  by  u 
majority  of  280  votes.  The  first  sittings  were  occupied  by 
questions  of  form,  and  in  settling  something  like  standing  orders; 
frequent  attempts,  however,  were  made  by  the  Republicans  to 
procure  a  Republic  in  Germany ;  and  though  some  diflfered  as 
to  the  form  of  government,  all  were  agreed  on  the  question  of 
its  union  into  one  great  Confederation.  They  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  consider  the  proposed  Constitution,  and  another  to 
consider  whether  a  provisional  central  power  should  be  created 
until  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  During  the  sittings  of 
these  committees  many  heated  discussions  took  place,  but 
nothing  of  importance  occurred,  excepting  the  appointment  of 
another  Committee,  to  consider  the  rights  of  the  people.  On 
the  26th  of  June,  the  latter,  and  the  Committee  on  the  provisional 
central  power,  made  their  reports  to  Parliament.  The  former 
issued  the  following  declaration  of  rights  :  Religious  liberty, 
gratuitous  education,  freedom  of  opinion,  inviolable  secrecy  of 
letters,  the  inhabitant  of  any  state  to  possess  the  same  political 
privileges  while  residing  in  another,  right  of  petitioning,  meet- 
ing, and  forming  clubs  ;  no  political  privileges  ;  equality  of  taxa- 
tion ;  independence  of  the  judges ;  trial  by  jury  ;  constitutional 
representation  of  the  people  in  every  state  ;  mul  the  Ministers 
to  be  responsible  ;  all  Parliaments  to  be  opun  to  the  public. 
The  other  committee  proposed  the  institution  of  a  Directory  of 


CKIIMANY. 


709 


lowhilt  limited. 

.sent  Germany 

luuigo  all  (liplo- 
■iitroll  the  army 

telegraphs,  all 
stafTo  revenues. 
miHfor,  the  Im- 
le  Upper  House 
ning  princes  ;  a 
rs  to  be  chosen, 
ng  princes,  for  a 
the  end  of  every 
epresonlalivcs  of 
ic  Parliament  to 
r  House  to  have 
Inglish  House  of 

bo  instituted   at 
gning  princes,  or 
;h  treason. 
It  met  for  the  first 

M.  Von  Gagern, 
was  elected  by  a 
vere  occupied  by 
Le  standing  orders ; 
he  Republicans  to 
I  some  differed  as 
on  the  question  of 
y  appointed  a  com- 
in,   and  another  to 

should  be  created 
ing  the  sittings  of 
8  took  place,  but 
;he  appointment  of 
f  the  people.  On 
e  on  the  provisional 
ment.     The  former 

Religious  liberty, 
violable  secrecy  of 
B  the  same  political 
f  petitioning,  meet- 
5s;  equality  of  taxa- 
jury  ;  constitutional 
;  nii'l  the  Ministers 
open  to  the  public, 
on  of  a  Directory  of 


Stote,  to  i)<)  approvful  and  appointed  by  tho  (ierman  Parliament, 
with  very  oxtendi'd  powers.  On  the  '.iTlli  this  proposition  was 
rejected  ;  and  on  the  '28th  the  I'ariiament  decided  upon  appoint- 
ing a  Lieuten!tnt-(iciieral  of  the  Empire,  to  bo  perfectly  irrc- 
sponsiliie.  This  also  enacted  that,  on  the  appointment  of  the 
Lieutenant-Cieneral  of  the  Empire,  the  existence  of  the  Diet 
was  at  an  end ;  and,  further,  that  on  the  completion  and  adop 
tion  of  the  Constitution  for  Germany,  the  Provisional  Central 
Power  should  cease. 

On  the  29th  the  Assembly  proceeded  to  the  election  of  the 
Lieutenant-General.  The  choice  fell  upon  the  Archduke  John 
of  Austria,  who  is  uncle  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  liberal  in 
politics,  and  a  thoroughly  practical  man. 

But  little  space  remains  for  a  brief  narrative  of  the  events  in 
Schleswig-Holstein.  A  long,  narrow,  sandy  peninsula  com- 
prises the  two  Duchies  and  Jutland.  For  more  than  a  century 
the  two  former  have  been  under  Danish  rule,  though  they  al- 
ways considered  themselves  as  governed  by  the  King  of  Den- 
mark in  his  capacity  as  a  Sovereign  Prince  of  Germany.  Ix>ng 
dissatisfied  with  the  Danish  rule,  and  more  particularly  with  a 
recent  refusal  of  the  King  to  concede  to  them  any  of  their  de- 
mands, they  declared  themselves  independent  of  Denmark,  and 
a  German  Duchy,  on  the  26th  of  March,  under  the  sway  of  the 
Duke  of  Augustenburg.  The  Provisional  Government  sent  to 
Hanover,  Berlin,  and  Hamburg  for  assistance,  which  was  granted 
from  the  two  former,  and  before  the  3rd  of  April  more  than 
13,000  Prussians  and  Hanoverians  had  entered  Holstein.  TSc 
inhabitants  had  already  possessed  themselves  of  Ren  »)>  irg,  aut* 
had  expelled  the  Danish  authorities.  The  Danes  wc  ?  not  b«' 
hind  hand  with  their  military  preparations,  and  very  soon  had 
an  imposing  force  in  the  field ;  while  the  extraordinary  popular- 
ity of  the  war  in  Germany  brought  shoals  of  volunteers  from  even 
the  southernmost  states  of  Germany  to  the  assistance  of  their 
enemies.  At  Flensburg  an  engagement  took  place  between  the 
Holsteiners  and  Danes,  in  which  the  latter  were  victorious. 
Nearly  20,000  Prussians  and  Hanoverians,  besides  volunteers 
and  Schleswig-Holsteiners,  were  now  under  arms  against  the 
Danes,  whose  forces  were  nearly  equal.  During  the  months 
of  April  and  May  a  great  many  skirmishes  occuned,  with  vari- 
able success  ;  one  or  two  general  engagements  at  Schleswig  and 
Apenraade,  and  one  which  lasted  two  days  at  Duppeln.  The 
Danes  were  driven  northward,  and  the  combined  troops  were 
at  one  time  in  possession  of  Jutland.  The  island  of  Alsen  was 
also  the  scene  of  an  engagement.  Though  beaten  and  driven 
back  on   land,  the  King   of  Denmark  made  several  reprisals  at 


Pk'' 


l.t, 


I  .    1. 

1'^  I 


710 


tHAPTER    XIV. 


SOU.  Iln  hlocknilcd  tht*  wlioh;  nortlifrn  coimt  of  (iiTtrtunv  ;  hia 
VDHscU  of  wiir  look  poM.sj'HHion  olilif  ri<h  iiH'rclmnt  sliipN  rftiirn- 
iiig  to  lluinbiirg  ami  Hreiiieii — uii  inculculuble  loan  tu  ihu  ilunse 
Towns*. 

Swetlfi!  .  omine li'.Btl  prepariiiiovis  (or  tlio  adsistanco  of  Den- 
mark ;  Ku.  • .  "S'<»  ro^M'rUul  to  li«  doing  the  same  ;  the  Diet  at 
Frankfort  ii;e  ed  all  ■  ii  rs  of  mediation  for  a  long  time,  and 
ihn  national  r<jt'lir!):  in  i  'or  of  the  Duchies  wus  beginning  to 
flag. 

Uy  these  united  eiforts,  an  armistice  for  three  months,  between 
I'russia  nnd  Denmark,  wa«  fllocted,  which  was  concluded  at 
Malmo,  between  Count  I'ortalis,  on  the  part  of  the  King  of  Prus- 
sia, and  the  Swedish  and  Danish  ministers.  The  conditions  of 
the  armistice  were  that  the  'Jerman  and  Danish  troops  should 
withdraw,  and  that  the  provisional  goeernment  should  act  until 
a  new  ndministration  could  be  formed  from  the  duchies,  two 
membe'a  of  which  should  be  nominatod  by  Denmark,  and  two 
by  Prusp'a.  npresidentto  bo  selected  by  the  four,  or  in  the  event 
oi'dJsagrectdvnt,  by  England. 

The  dunhiea  declined  yielding  to  this  arrangement,  and  Gen. 
Mangel,  who  claimed  to  be  a  cuiifedorate,  as  well  as  Prussian 
general,  was  unwillingto  comply  with  it  until  he  should  be  em- 
powered from  Frankfort. 

It  was  therefore  apprehended  that  hostilities  would  recom- 
mence, although  Ijord  Palmerston  was  anxious  that  the  truce 
should  be  maintained.  It  remains  yet  to  be  seen  whether  Den- 
mark is  to  bo  further  dismembered,  or  whether  the  Germans 
are  so  bent  on  obtaining  the  maritime  territory  of  Denmark  to 
strengthen  their  naval  power  as  to  risk  a  war. 


Revolutions  in  Italy  in  1848. 

At  the  death  of  Gregory  XVI.,  the  political  affairs  of  Italy 
had  reached  a  point  which  imperiously  demanded  reform : 
thousands  of  her  citizens  were  exiled  in  foreign  lands,  and  the 
prisons  were  crowded  with  political  offeno^rs.  There  was  no 
public  instruction,  and  justice  was  unattainable. 

On  the  16th  of  June,  1846,  the  conclave  of  Cardinals,  assem- 
bled for  the  purpose  of  choosing  his  successor,  declared  the 
Cardinal  Giambaiista  de  Majitia  Ferrelti,  also  Bishop  of  Imola, 
elected  under  the  name  of  Pius  IX.,  and  on  the  morning  of  the 
21st  of  June,  the  new  Pope  was  solemnly  crowned  at  St.  Peter's 
in  the  Vatican. 


f  OiTrniiMy  ;  his 
itiil  shipN  rt'tiirii- 
\}Ha  tu  till!  liuiiHe 

listanco  of  Den- 
iie  ;  the  Diet  at 
a  loiii;  time,  and 
tvua  beginning  to 

months,  between 
was  concluded  at 
he  King  of  I'rus- 
rhe  conditions  of 
ih  troops  should 
should  act  until 
the  duchies,  two 
)enmark,  and  two 
ur,  or  in  the  event 

rement,  and  Gen. 
well  as  Prussian 
he  should  be  em- 
ties  would  recom- 
tus  that  the  truce 
een  whether  Den- 
ther  the  Germans 
iry  of  Denmark  to 


). 


cal  affairs  of  Italy 
demanded  reform : 
cigii  lands,  and  the 
r3.  There  was  no 
le. 

f  Cardinals,  asseni- 
Bssor,  declared  the 
so  Bishop  of  Imola, 
the  morning  of  the 
owned  at  St.  Peter's 


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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

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•*1. 


ITALY. 


711 


Pius  at  once  commenced  those  reforms  throughout  his  domin- 
ions, whose  progress  attracted  the  attention  of  the  civilized  world. 
He  suppressed  the  military  warrants,  a  kind  of  secret  tribunal 
for  the  seizure  and  condemnation  of  political  offenders,  and  pub- 
lished a  decree  that  no  one  should  be  prosecuted  for  his  political 
opinions.  On  a  certain  day  of  each  week  he  gave  a  public 
audience  to  persons  of  every  rank  and  condition,  without  any 
distinction.  In  the  hall  of  the  Vatican  he  caused  a  private 
letter  box  for  himself  to  be  placed.  He  had  filled  the  office  of 
Pope  but  one  month,  when  an  amnesty  was  declared  for  all 
political  offenders.  This  event  was  followed  by  festivals  and 
illuminations,  continuing  many  days,  both  in  the  Roman  States 
and  other  parts  of  Italy.  To  relieve  those  who  had  been  ruined 
by  imprisonment,  the  Pope  joined  with  many  others  in  a  sub- 
scription for  their  benefit. 

The  joy  of  the  Bolognese  was  so  excessive  that  they  voted 
a  marble  statue  to  Pius  IX.  Political  parties,  throughout  Italy, 
resolved  themselves  into  one  great  party  of  the  Pope.  By  a 
circular  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  Pius  invited  from  all 
the  magistrates,  suggestions  for  the  instruction  of  the  poorer 
classes,  and  for  the  suppression  of  the  miseries  of  idleness  and 
ignorance  ;  and  a  committee  was  appointed  for  the  investigation 
of  the  subject,  anjl  for  the  establishment  of  the  desired  reforms. 
The  income  he  received  from  the  bishopric  of  Imola,  was 
appropriated  to  public  charities.  He  solicited  from  private  com- 
panies of  citizens,  projects  for  railroads  in  the  Roman  States, 
for  the  promotion  of  industry  and  commerce. 

Resolving  to  publish  a  new  code  of  laws,  in  place  of  that 
existing,  as  old  as  popery  itself,  he  appointed  three  eminent  men 
to  assist  in  its  compilation ;  and  judicial  and  penal  systems,  which 
abolished  capital  punishment,  and  established  trial  by  jury,  were 
adopted  by  them. 

By  order  of  the  Pope,  every  town  sent  a  delegate  to  Rome  to 
report  concerning  the  wants  of  the  people,  and  a  private  con- 
gress was  established  to  grant  all  necessary  improvements.  On 
the  18th  of  November  he  preached  to  a  vast  crowd  assembled 
in  San  Giovanni,  in  the  Lateran,  and  afforded  the  first  example 
of  a  pontifl^s  preaching  publicly.  He  was  followed  to  the 
Quirinal  palace  by  the  multitude,  with  shouts  of  joy.  On  the 
20th  of  the  month  he  proclaimed  a  universal  jubilee. 

He  gave  orders  to  found  asylums  of  infancy,  and  houses  of 
education  ;  and  for  laboring  people  in  Rome,  who  could  not  attend 
oy  day,  he  established  free  night  schools,  at  his  own  expense. 
He  prohibited  beggary,  and  at  his  own  cost  endowed  public 
alms-bouses  for  the  destitute. 


712 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


In  a  letter  to  the  leaders  of  all  the  religious  orders,  he  com- 
manded them  to  be  examples  of  morality  and  religion,  and  the 
funds  of  many  religious  societies  ho  applied  to  public  charities 
and  instruction.  The  freedom  of  the  press  was  declared,  amid 
the  rejoicings  of  the  whole  people,  and  the  friends  of  liberty, 
throughout  Italy,  encouraged  the  Pope  in  his  system  of  reform. 

The  Emperor  of  Austria,  alarmed  by  these  movements,  used 
every  measure  to  change  the  course  of  the  Pope,  and  at  length 
threatened  an  invasion  of  the  Roman  States.  Accordingly,  on 
the  19th  of  July,  1847,  the  Austrian  army  entered  Ferrara,  with 
lighted  matches,  as  if  moving  against  an  enemy.  The  news 
of  the  occupation  of  the  city  excited  such  a  spirit  of  revenge, 
that  in  many  states  the  people  were  clamorous  for  arms. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  although  there  was  no  outbreak, 
no  open  display  of  force,  the  whole  aspect  of  Italy  was  so 
changed,  that  the  Papal  Nuncio  at  Vienna  was  enabled  in  the 
name,  not  merely  of  the  Papal  States,  but  of  all  Italy,  to  demand 
the  withdrawal  of  the  troops.  On  the  23d  of  December,  the 
Austrian  troops  were  marched  from  Ferrara ;  and  the  right  of 
all  the  States  of  Italy,  not  under  Austria,  to  choose  their  own 
forms  of  government,  was  established. 

Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia  and  Piedmont,  was  the  first 
Italian  Prince  who  favored  the  new  Pope  and  his  policy,  and 
offered  him  military  aid  against  his  enemies. 

The  Pope  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  and  Lucca,  formed 
an  alliance  with  Charles  Albert.  The  publication  of  the  con- 
vention of  these  princes  set  forth  "  that  these  states,  animated  by 
the  desire  to  contribute  by  union  to  the  increase  of  the  dignity 
and  prosperity  of  Italy,  and  being  persuaded  that  the  true  and 
essential  basis  of  the  union  of  Italy  consists  in  the  fusion  of  the 
material  interests  of  the  population  of  their  respective  domin- 
ions, have  agreed  to  form  an  association  on  the  principal  of  the 
German  Commercial  League,  the  tariff  to  be  drawn  up  with  the 
utmost  amount  of  commercial  freedom,  compatible  with  the 
respective  interests  of  the  contracting  powers."  The  news  of 
this  convention  was  received  throughout  Italy  with  enthusiasm. 
It  was  a  revolution,  a  return  to  the  ancient  free  trade  policy  of 
Italy,  and  brought  with  it  hopes  of  the  restoration  of  commerce, 
and  the  revival  of  trade  and  industry. 

Throughout  Austrian  Italy  the  impulse  was  felt ;  it  made  the 
trade-repression  rule  of  the  foreign  power  more  irksome. 

At  the  close  of  last  year  the  Austrian  Cabinet  resolved  to 
reinforce  the  army  in  Italy,  so  as  to  have  40,000  men  at  com- 
mand without  lessening  the  strength  of  the  several  garrisons. 
The  measure  was  notified  to  ihe^^reat  powers  as  being  intended 


-\ 


.,a0imM&^^ 


irders,  he  com- 
iligion,  and  the 
public  charities 

declared,  amid 
ends  of  liberty, 
Item  of  reform, 
lovements,  used 
3,  and  at  length 
Accordingly,  on 
id  Ferrara,  with 
ly.  The  news 
lirit  of  revenge, 
>r  arms. 

iras  no  outbreak, 
if  Italy  was  so 

enabled  in  the 
[taly,  to  demand 

December,  the 
,nd  the  right  of 
loose  their  own 

lit,  was  the  first 
his  policy,  and 

d  Lucca,  formed 
tion  of  the  con- 
tes,  animated  by 
re  of  the  dignity 
lat  the  true  and 
the  fusion  of  the 
spective  domin- 
principal  of  the 
awn  up  with  the 
latible  with  the 
'  The  news  of 
vith  enthusiasm, 
e  trade  policy  of 
on  of  commerce, 

felt ;  it  made  the 
irksome, 
linet  resolved  to 
)00  men  at  com- 
everal  garrisons. 
IS  being  intended 


ITALY. 


713 


solely  for  the  better  security  of  the   Austrian  possessions   in 
Italy. 

On  the  19th  of  December,  M.  Nazari,  deputy  of  the  city  of 
Bergamo,  in  the  central  congregation  of  the  kingdom,  moved  a 
resolution  that  a  committee  be  appointed  to  lay  before  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria  a  project  of  reform  for  the  Lombardo-Venetian 
kingdom.  The  motion  was  founded  on  the  universal  discontent 
of  the  country.  It  was  opposed  by  the  Governor  of  Milan, 
President  of  the  congregation,  who  declared  that  the  Viceroy 
himself  was  engaged  in  preparing  a  project  of  reform ;  never- 
theless, the  resolution  was  passed  unanimously  by  the  Assembly  ; 
the  committee  was  appointed,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Milan 
crowded  to  the  residence  of  Nazari  to  inscribe  their  names  as 
an  expression  of  approbation  and  respect. 

The  committee  consisted  of  deputies  from  Como,  Milan, 
Cremona,  Lodi,  Brescia,  Bergamo,  Mantua.  But  neither  in 
answer  to  the  committee,  nor  as  the  invention  of  the  viceroy, 
was  any  reform  promulgated  or  even  promised;  instead,  troops 
continued  to  arrive,  and  the  directors  of  the  imperial  iron  foundry 
at  Mariazelle,  in  Austria,  announced  publicly  that  for  six  months 
they  could  not  execute  any  private  orders,  as  night  and  day  the 
entire  works  would  be  employed  in  casting  cannons  and  millions 
of  projectiles. 

At  Pavia  the  university  was  provisionally  closed  ;  a  fight  took 
place  between  the  students  and  Austrians  ;  six  or  seven  persons 
were  killed,  and  thirty  wounded. 

At  Turin,  on  the  14th,  a  grand  funeral  service  was  celebrated 
in  the  church  of  La  Gran  Madre  de  Dio,  in  commemoration  of 
the  patriots  murdered  at  Milan  and  Pavia.  The  most  respecta- 
ble inhabitants,  dressed  in  deep  mourning,  assisted  at  the  cere- 
mony. A  similar  funeral  ceremony  was  celebrated  in  the  church 
of  the  Lombards  at  Rome,  the  Pope  permitting  the  demonstra- 
tion which  the  Austrian  Ambassador  had  vainly  endeavored  to 
prevent.  The  young  men  belonging  to  the  Lombardo-Venetian 
Guard,  instituted  in  1838,  at  the  coronation  of  the  Emperor  at 
Milan,  all  tendered  their  resignations ;  the  theatres  were  de- 
serted, and  the  expression  of  hatred  to  Austria,  and  condemna- 
tion of  the  conduct  of  the  police,  military,  and  Government,  were 
universal. 

At  Venice,  notwithstanding  the  prohibition  of  the  police,  ladies 
made  a  collection  for  the  wounded  of  Milan,  and  8000  francs 
were  forwarded,  with  a  letter  of  sympathy,  from  the  Venetians. 
The  Mayor  of  Vincenzia  forwarded  2000  francs  from  the  inhab- 
itants. At  Verona,  1600  francs  were  subscribed  in  eight  hours, 
when  the  subscription  was  stopped  by  the  police.     On  receipt 


immmsmmm-i'wmc: 


714 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


of  the  nPW8  from  Milan,  orders  were  dispatched  from  Vienna, 
and  followod  by  the  arrest  of  several  distinsu.shod  ""l.v.doals. 
;„  aSo^to  tLse.  as  the  lower  orders  were  th-  Ume  d.scon- 
tented  upwards  of  400  of  them  were  apprehended;  180  of  he 
voungest^rnd  most  robust  were  sent  to  Trieste  to  serve  m  he 
shiDS  of  the  Imperial  navy,  and  the  remainder,  without  even  the 

^^^7^f'''ToSr^ 

SriSa'ranVth^^'JegirK?^^^^^ 

in  ihfi  massacre  of  Gallicia,  was  quartered  at  favia. 

The  Emje  or  wrote  to  the  Archduke  Uai^ner,  Viceroy  of  he 
Lombardo  Venetian  kingdom:-"!  have  duly  exammed  the 
events  which  occurred  at  Milan  on  the  2d  and  3d  ins  ant.  U 
L  evident  to  me  that  a  faction,  desirous  to  destroy  pu bhc  orde 
and  tfanqu  llity,  exists  in  the  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom  All 
S  you  deen^ed  necessary  to  satisfy  the  waiits  and  wishes  of 

e  different  provinces,  I  have  already  done  for  the  Lombardo- 
vletian  kingdom.  /  am  not  disposed  to  grant  further  conces- 
l«r  Your  Highness  will  make'^known  my  sentiments  to  he 
pubUc  The  a  tlude  of  the  majority  of  the  population  of  the 
Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom,  however,  induces  a  YJ^^.' 
simTar  distressing  scenes  shall  not  again  occur.  At  all  events, 
I  rely  on  the  loyalty  and  courage  "/-^JJ^Vekdinano  I.) 

This  letter  was  interpreted  by  General  Radetzsky  in  an  order 
of  the  day  issued  to  the  troors  under  his  command,  in  terms  the 

"mtS  of  to  Ce"r  and  his  general  had  some  efTe.t. 
On  the  2  st'of  June,  three  hundred  of  the  most  respectable 
h^habiLts  of  Milan  Applied  to  the  police  for  their  passports  ; 
every  body  dreaded  a  second  Gallicia.  and  was  eager  to  leave 
r^countVbefore  the  fury  of  Austria  might  break  forth  m 

P^&gthrcr;:  of  these  events  in  Venetian  Lombardy.  th« 
subjec    of  Ferdiiiand  of  Sicily  also  demanded  ex  ensive  refor^ 

A  oromise  that  public  offices  in  Sicily  should  be  filled  by 
Sic'^Urs   ha'd  been'  openly  broken,  and  that  the  people  migh 
have  no  opportunity  of  remonstratmg,  the  liberty  of  the  press 
SS  been  Ihshed^  and  all  foreign  newspapers,  even  those  of 
absolute  Governments,  had  been  prohibited. 

The  people  petitioned  for  reforms,  and  were  PUt  off  wUh 
nromises  At  the  commencement  of  the  present  year,  Ferdi- 
S3  of  Naples  became  active,  presided  daily  at  councils  at 
wMch  the  sL  of  the  country,  the  deficit  m  the  finances,  and  the 


i^ 


iSMHU 


HTTttJ-'l  '■  •■-"-"-'  -"-''*■'«"' 


ITALY. 


715 


ed  from  Vienna, 
hed  individuals, 
his  time  discon- 
ded;  180  of  the 
5  to  serve  in  the 
without  even  the 
Moravia,  to  work 
in  Milan,  10,000 
;rac.eful  notoriety 
avia. 

r,  Viceroy  of  the 
Y  examined  the 
1  3d  instant.  It 
itroy  public  order 
in  kingdom.  All 
ts  and  wishes  of 
)r  the  Lombardo- 
nt  further  conces- 
sentiments  to  the 
population  of  the 
ces  a  hope  that 
ir.  At  all  events, 
» 

Ferdinand  I.) 
etzsky  in  an  order 
nand,  in  terms  the 

[  had  some  effect, 
most  respectable 
r  their  passports ; 
ras  eager  to  leave 
ht  break  forth  in 

ian  Lombardy,  the 
extensive  reforms, 
lould  be  filled  by 
,  the  people  might 
berty  of  the  press 
)er8,  even  those  of 

were  put  off  with 
esent  year,  Ferdi- 
lily  at  councils,  at 
le  finances,  and  the 


need  for  immediate  abandonment  of  the  old,  worn-out  and  hateful 
political  forms,  were  eagerly  discusstul. 

It  was  arjfiied,  also,  that  the  army  should  be  diminished. 
Ferdinand  felt  it  no  easy  matter  to  lot  go  absolute  power,  to 
abandon  the  notion  that  the  people  of  Sicily  were  born  to  obey 
him  and  pay  him  taxes. 

Their  demands  were,  therefore,  from  day  to  day,  adjourned, 
until  their  patience  could  endure  no  longer,  and  the  popular  dis- 
satisfaction broke  out  into  open  rebellion.  There  was  some 
hope  in  Sicily  and  Naples  that,  on  the  King's  birthday,  the  new 
and  repeatedly  promised  constitution  would  be  declared.  The 
result  of  the  final  extinction  of  these  expectations  was  the  out- 
burst of  rebellion  in  Palermo. 

Nobles,  students,  women,  priests,  the  whole  populace,  deter- 
mined to  be  trifled  with  no  longer,  turned  out  and  fought.  The 
garrison  took  refuge  in  the  Palace  and  small  forts  about  the  city. 
These  forts  were  attacked,  and  the  whole  of  Palermo,  and,  it 
might  be  said,  all  Sicily,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  insurgents. 
The  news  threw  Ferdinand  into  a  fever  of  rage  and  fury  ;  a  re- 
inforcement of  4500  men  were  ordered  to  embark  immediately  ; 
and,  under  the  command  of  the  Count  d'Aquila,  the  King's 
brother,  landed  at  Palermo  on  the  I5th  ;  but  the  Count  did  not 
dare  to  risk  a  battle  with  the  people.  The  troops  remained  in 
the  forts,  and,  during  forty-eight  hours,  continued  to  fire  upon 
and  bombard  the  city.  The  people,  however,  were  not  to  be 
conquered.  They  attacked,  and,  by  fierce  fightings,  took  the 
fort  of  Castellamare.  The  whole  populace  were  on  the  point  of 
rising.  The  King's  brother  returned  to  Naples ;  his  report  con- 
vinced even  the  King  that  immediate  concessions  must  bo  made. 
The  Palermitans  demanded  and  obtained  the  proclamation  of  the 
constitution  of  1812,  which  of  right  had  belonged  to  them  ever 
since  that  date.  On  the  29th  the  constitution  was  announced 
at  Messina ;  on  the  30th,  at  Palermo ;  and,  on  the  same  day, 
steamers  were  sent  to  bring  back  the  troops. 

At  Naples,  meanwhile,  popular  feeling,  excited  by  the  events 
in  Sicily,  had  reached  such  a  height,  that  there  was  no  safety 
except  in  granting  a  constitution  there  also,  which  was  accord- 
ingly published  on  the  28th,  and  on  the  8th  of  February  a  con- 
stitution was  proclaimed  in  Sardinia. 

Throughout  Italy,  the  progress  of  these  events  was  watched 
eagerly,  and  the  accounts  welcomed  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm. 
At  Genoa  there  was  a  popular  rejoicing,  and  the  shout  of  the 
people,  heard  in  all  directions,  was  "  A  Constitution  fur  Pied- 
mont !"  At  Rome  the  people  crowded  out  for  miles  to  meet  the 
couriers  on  the  Via  Appia,  and  extraordinary  supplements  were 


i 


; 


716 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


i8»ue,l  hourly  by  the  newspapers  A  /^'«  «'!'«)f«>'»l° ''^I't,?!* 
the  triumph  of  the  Liberals.  There  was  a  mmht  file  at  Flor- 
ence, and  at  nearly  all  the  other  groat  towns  of  Italy. 

In  Lomhardy,  the  people,  beset  by  100,000  soldiers,  scarcely 
dared  to  rejoice.  Austria  was  marching  more  troops  upon  them. 
The  little  ".rmy  of  the  Duke  of  Medona  had  been  incorporated 
with  the  (iraiul  Duchy,  and  placed  under  the  command  of  General 
Radetzsky.  On  the 'iOth,  30th  and  3lstof  January,  the  railroad 
from  Treviglio  to  Milan  was  closed  to  the  public,  being  exc  u- 
sively  occupied  with  the  conveyance  of  troops  from  Lombardy. 
The  army  was  to  keep  back  the  tide  of  opinion  rising  through- 
out  Italy  ;  there  was  no  chance  of  peace  but  in  submission  ;  no 
hope  of  reform  under  Metlernich  and  terdinand.  But  this 
ga  hering  army  and  the  gloomy  adherence  to  relentless  tyranny 
increased  the  hatred  of  Austrian  rule,  and  enlisted  universal 

sympathy  for  its  victims.  ,       .•        r  .u    M<.a 

At  the  Bologna /e/c,  to  celebrate  the  proclamation  of  the  Nea- 
politan  constitution,  the  popular  cry  was  "  ^ive  the  Constitu. 
iion !"  "  Death  to  the  Austnans  !"  "  Let  us  march  to  Lombardy 
to  assist  our  brethren  !"  u   i  u    „ 

But  the  case  of  Lombardy  seemed  hopeless  ;  the  army  had  been 
increased  to  1 10,000,  with  700  cannon.  Arrests  were  incessant ; 
the  orison  of  Milan  was  crowded ;  numbers  were  sent  to  the 
House  of  Correction  at  Porta  Nuova.  The  Austnans  were 
everywhere  insulted  ;  it  was  evident  that  the  storm  ol  popular 
indignation  must  burst  forth  soon  ;  that  the  struggle  would  be  a 
fierce  one,  though  it  was  scarcely  possible  to  believe  the  Italians 
could  be  successful.  The  outbreak  was  hastened,  and  help 
came  to  them  from  a  quarter  altogether  unexpected. 

Austria  was  the  first  to  feel  the  revolutionary  impulse  given 
by  France:  the  whole  policy  of  Metternich  fell  before  it  and 
he  himself  had  to  escape  in  disguise  from  amongst  a  people  to 
whom  he  had  so  long  been  a  source  of  terror  With  his  fa  1 
absolutism  perished,  and  the  will  of  the  people  was  acknowl- 
edged  A  constitutional  Government  was  declared  at  Vienna, 
but  it  was  too  late  to  save  the  dominions  in  Lombardy  by  any 
Austrian  form  of  Government. 

On  the  17th  of  March  the  Austrian  Viceroy  left  Milan,  and 
met  on  the  road  the  courier  with  the  intelligence  of  the  popular 
triumph  at  Vienna.  On  the  18th,  the  Milanese  seized  on  the 
military  post  at  the  palace  of  the  governor,  and  began  the  con- 
struction of  barricades;  carriages  were  seized  upon  and  over- 
turned— the  pavement  was  torn  up ;  not  a  soldier  was  to  be  seen, 
and  the  barricades  were  finished  during  the  night. 

On  the  morning  of  the  18th  the  fitting  commenced.     Ihe 


^aaffiitniiniriwii 


as  held  to  celebrate 
imilar  file  at  Flor- 
of  Italy. 

)  soldiers,  scarcely 
)  troops  upon  them, 
been  incorporated 
command  of  General 
anuary,  the  railroad 
public,  being  exclu- 
jps  from  Lombardy. 
nion  rising  through- 
t  in  submission  ;  no 
jrdinand.  But  this 
9  relentless  tyranny 
1  enlisted  universal 

iamation  of  the  Nea- 
"  Live  the  Cdnstitu- 
I  march  to  Lombardy 

s  ;  the  army  had  been 
ests  were  incessant ; 
)rs  were  sent  to  the 
The  Austrians  were 
he  storm  of  popular 
struggle  would  be  a 
to  believe  the  Italians 

hastened,  and  help 
expected. 

tionary  impulse  given 
ich  fell  before  it,  and 
1  amongst  a  people  to 
error.  With  his  fall 
people  was  acknowl- 
)  declared  at  Vienna, 

in  Lombardy  by  any 


iceroy  left  Milan,  and 
ligence  of  the  popular 
ilanese  seized  on  the 
r,  and  began  the  con- 
seized  upon  and  over- 
soldier  was  to  be  seen, 
be  night. 
,ng  commenced.     The 


ITALY. 


717 


fire  of  cannon  and  musketry  was  kept  up  all  day.  The  artillery 
planted  in  front  of  the  cathedral  and  puluce  were  seized  by  the 
people.  A  Provisional  Government  was  formed,  and  the  fighting 
continued  on  the  '20th  with  doubtful  success  to  the  people,  who, 
nothwithstanding  the  support  of  a  body  of  fSwiss,  wore  forced 
from  the  centre  of  their  movement. 

On  the  morning  of  the  Slst  they  regained  their  position,  took 
possession  of  the  powder  magazine,  and  planted  a  cuimon  in  the 
tower  of  San  Celso.  General  Uailetzsiiy  otl'ered  to  treat  with 
the  Provisional  Government,  but  was  refused,  unless  on  terms 
of  unconditional  surrender. 

A  deputation  was  despatched  to  Turin,  demanding  assistance, 
which  was  at  once  granted,  and  the  Piedmontese  force,  under 
the  command  of  the  Duko  of  Genoa,  crossed  the  frontiers,  and 
advanced  upon  Milan  on  the22d.  The  Au^^trians  retired  before 
it,  and  left  the  city  garrisoned  by  its  own  citizens  and  the 
auxiliary  forces  of  Piedmont. 

On  the  18th,  the  people  of  Parma  rose  suddenly  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  chief  posts  in  the  city.  On  the  20th,  after  some 
lighting,  the  Duke  issued  a  proclamation,  declaring  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  council,  with  supreme  authority  to  give  such  instruc- 
tions and  adopt  such  measures  as  the  circumstances  might 
require,  whilst  he  and  his  royal  family  quitted  the  states.  On 
the  same  day  the  Duke  of  Modena  was  deposed  and  imprisoned, 
and  the  Austrians  were  driven  out  of  Pavia. 

On  the  i9th,  Venice,  Trieste,  and  Padua  were  in  open  insur- 
rection ;  rebellion  also  spread  through  Vincnnza,  Treviao,  and 
the  whole  of  the  Venetian  territory,  as  far  as  Verona.  On  the 
22d,  General  Count  Zicler  capitulated  with  the  Provisional  Gov- 
ernment of  Venice,  and  set  it  free  from  the  domination  of  Aus- 
tria. The  King  of  Sardinia,  Charles  Albert,  issued  a  proclama- 
tion, taking  Lombardy  under  his  protection,  marched  an  army  to 
join  his  forces  at  Milan,  took  the  field  boldly  to  drive  Austria 
beyond  the  Alps,  &n^  r^ually  proclaimed  himself  the  liberator 
of  Italy.  The  Austi^^r;  were  driven  beyond  the  Mincio  at 
Goito,  and  compelled  to  lurrender  Peschiera. 

On  the  1st  of  March,  an  insurrectionary  movement  took  place 
at  Rome,  in  consequence  of  its  being  understood  that  the  Pope, 
influenced  by  an  intrigue  amongst  the  Cardinals,  hod  refused  to 
declare  war  against  Austria.  The  people  had  allowed  him  the 
previous  day  to  form  his  resolution  ;  and  at  five  o'clock  in  the 
morning  the  whole  city  was  on  foot,  in  eager  impatience.  The 
answer  was  that  war  would  be  formally  declared  ;  and  (as  the 
people  had  also  demanded  a  complete  separation  of  temporal  and 
spiritual  aflairs,)  that  no  priest  should  be  appointed  to  fill  any 


'i 


\ 


'I 


718 


OHAPTKR   XIV, 


public  cmploymont;  that  Pii.s  the  Ninth  was  'j^  ^«'"' "f '^« 
Snrn,ni,,lf  that  a  daily  ofllcial  bulletin  woul.l  be  pub  .«hed 
of  tlif  cv.-nts  of  th.^  great  war,  and  encouragement  given  to  the 
Uoman  yo,.tl.  to  am.  and  drive  the  barbarians  j'"-"  "^'  '  ^^ 
8ali8ti.MUhe  people;  tho  ferment  was  calmed,  and  all  classes 

'' oVIhefaih  of  April,  the  Sicilian  Parliament  passed  by  accla- 
niation  a  .lecreo,  "That  Ferdinand  Bourbon  and  h.s  dynasty 
were  forever  fallen  from  the  Throne  of  Sie.ly.  S.c.ly  should 
govern  herself  constitutionally,  and  call  to  the  throne  an  Italian 
Prince  as  soon  as  she  shall  have  reformed  her  «^«"«t'J""°\.  „ 
The  list  of  candidates  for  tho  throne  were  a  son  of  the  Ring 
of  Sanlinia,  .he  son  of  the  Duke  of  Tuscany,  Louis  Napoleon 
1  onaparte.  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte,)  and  the  Prince  de  Beau- 
har  ais.  Enraged  by  this  boldness,  the  King  o  Naples  declared 
w„;  against  Sicily.  From  first  to  last,  the  conduct  of  !•  erdinand 
was  nUse  and  treacherous:  no  promise  was  kept  a"d  «v«ry 
opportunity  was  grasped  at  to  weaken  or  retract  the  hboral 
measures  he  was  forced  to  yield.  ,     ,  • 

■IZ  Commons  had  been  reiurned  ;  but  no  Peers  had  been 
eleried  bv  the  people.  On  the  15th  the  houses  were  to  meet. 
No  PeersC  U  named  up  to  the  13th,  but,  on  the  U.h,  a 
proclamation  appeared,  emanating  from  the  Ivin^,  nominating 
f,r"y  members  for  the  House  of  Peers.  Immediately  on  the 
publication  of  this  document  the  Commons  met  privately,  and 
Sgreed  to  address  the  National  Guard  on  this  encroachment  of 

'TlSSay,  the  13lh  of  May,  the  deputies  were  assembled 
in  preparatory  session,  to  modify  the  form  of  oath  to  be  taken 
at  theTpening  of  the  Parliament.     The  oath  was,  'I  swear 
Slelitym  the  King  and  the  Constitution  of  the  29th  of  January." 
The  deputies  refused  this  form,  as  not  being  ui  accordance  with 
the  concessions  of  the  3d  of  April ;  the  National  Guard,  num- 
berinK  15,000,  objected,  and  Saturday  and  Sunday  were  passed 
in  Telotiation's.   ^  At  eleven  o'clock  on  Sunday  night  it  was 
announced  that  the  King  would  not  modify  the  form.     Eghl 
deputies  met,  declared  the  sitting  permanent,  and  sent  a  deputa- 
tion  to  treat  with  the  King,    but   without  success.     Another 
deputation  was  sent  at  twelve  ,  the  King  asked  time  t"  consider, 
and  at  length  pretended  to  accept  a  modihcation  of  the  oath, 
reserv  ng  the  rights  of  the  3d  of  April.     Meanwhile,  the  troops 
had  been  ordered  out.     Soon  after  midnight  the  National  Guar^ 
began  raising  barricades ;  at  half  past  one  the  ^e»«r«fe  was 
beaten  and  a,  two,  the  troops,  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery, 
o^cupTed  the  space;  round  the  palace,  'castle,  and  market-place. 


,s  the  head  of  the 
ould  be  published 
eineiit  given  to  the 
from  Italy.  This 
)d,  and  all  classes 

nt  passed  by  accla- 
n  and  his  dynasty 
ily.  Sicily  should 
le  throne  an  Italian 
cr  constitution. 
I  a  son  of  the  King 
ly,  Louis  Napoleon 
he  Prince  de  Beau-  i 
r  of  Naples  declared 
induct  of  Ferdinand 
IS  kept,  and  every 
retract  the  liberal 

no  Peers  had  been 
ouses  were  to  meet, 
but,  on  the  Uth,  a 
c  Kin^,  nominating 
Immediately  on  the 
!  met  privately,  and 
his  encroachment  of 

ities  were  assembled 
of  oath  to  be  taken 
oath  was,  "I  swear 
the  29lh  of  January." 
5  in  accordance  with 
iational  Guard,  num- 
Sunday  were  passed 
Sunday  night  it  was 
ify  the  form.     Eight 
nt,  and  sent  a  deputa- 
it  success.     Another 
sked  time  to  consider, 
dification  of  the  oath, 
Meanwhile,  the  troops 
It  the  National  Guards 
)ne  the  generate  was 
nfaiitry,  and  artillery, 
jtle,  and  market-place. 


ITALY. 


719 


On  hcinjr  informed  that  barricades  had  bori\  thrown  up,  the 
Kinjf  orilcrcd  the  withdrawal  of  \\w  tro()|m,  inid  promised  that 
thrt  Parliament  should  bo  oix-ncd  without  any  oath.  Hut  he 
was  not  to  bo  believed;  and  the  National  (hmnlN  refused  to 
lower  the  barricades  unless  the  Chamber  of  I'eers  were  abol- 
isht^d,  the  fortresses  surrendered,  and  the  troops  removed  from 
the  metropolis.  The  soldiers  were  called  out  again,  and  at  nine 
o'clock  the  Swiss  Guards  were  drawn  up  round  the  castle.  A 
musket  was  discharged  by  accident  ;  the  National  (Juard  com- 
menced firing,  the  Swiss  and  artillery  opened  a  murderous  fire 
upon  the  people,  and  the  batth)  raged  in  all  directions. 

At  San  Fernando  and  San  liridgida,  the  National  Guard 
maintained  their  ground  for  three  hours  under  an  incessant  fire 
of  musketry  and  artillery.  The  town  was  given  up  to  pillage 
and  massacre.  At  a  preconcerted  signal  the  troops  burst  into 
house  after  house,  and,  without  regard  to  se.x,  massacred  the 
inhabitants. 

At  the  last  accounts,  Great  Britain  had  offered  to  mediate 
between  Austria  and  the  Italian  States,  and  hopes  are  enter- 
tained that  a  settlement  of  the  difficulties  in  Italy  will  soon  be 
realized. 


■  I'^^ii^^fli 


i ' 

I 


h 


ft 

7" 


u 


NOTES 


CHAPTER  1,— IrrmoDucTioii. 

"ill.  of  Ewtod.  «  b.  ■""  "f  JT',£  FntK  .  "''.'  of  .b. 

,  From  11.0  y..r  1733 10  lb.  .nd  .1  '""".'jS'  7„,h„d  of  con.. 

nailonal  toi.venl.oii  of  ho  51h  ol  "' '""■  •''°''"?,  ,„,„  „  „ldiii,hl 

S:5irottr.»5!""a\ 
SXr,;:Si"TS:?irs.txr:'.^;iao«.  »■•■ »' 

a    r'Siti  i  bT.™. !.;  3o'    Tbi.  ."o,  w..  oomolod  .. 
JJ, "Simfition  of  Ih.  dend...  b,  Gi.Bon-  XIII. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  I1.—P«wob1 
Oylh,,..  of  PloUmy,  -k" 'fe' .■"*™  SSSl  p"ob.bl,  o.,  »d  .b. 

I-:ts:»°3R;;ffi'rl."A-:..  b.  'o.i,foi,i.d.d  .i*  *. 
&-i;t:i'^<K.r";.m.^»..o..d;b.B,M.i«.*. 


L 


' 


NOTBk. 


721 


omtuif,  whioh  meun 
I  the  policy  of  foreign 
oniuli,  See, 

univenity,  wm  the 
is  programme  or  pro. 
iWkUL,  a  profeiior  at 
le  name. 

ntion  to  the  reforma* 
n  the  lubject  to  Henry 
Dra,  vol  vi.  p.  119. 
ch,  by  a  decree  of  the 
Dil  a  method  of  com* 
It  began  at  midnight 
f  September.  It  wa» 
rullowed  by  five  or  lix 
,  ceased  on  the  31st  of 

!o  its  origin.  It  is  not 
tniards  ;  und  is  merely 
inte  Auguito,  T. 
luch  as  nineteen  exact 
hours,  36',  15" ;  while 
years,  only  give  6939 
cquently  exceeded  the 
irror  was  corrected  at 
II. 

uodI 

erwarda  to  all  the  Oer- 
ticular  tribe,  which  we 
I  distinguish  them  from 

t»  of  Tacitus,  and  the 
ice  in  the  northern  part 
ist  probably  one  and  the 
le  confounded  with  the 

among  the  bishops  who 
Ulfilas,  a  Gothic  bishop 
•lated  the  Bible  into  the 


langiiBoe  of  his  nation,  making  use  of  the  Orerk  and  Roman  charuc- 
ter».  His  foMr  Ooipelt,  pri'sorvod  in  the  Cudfx  Argi-nieus,  In  the 
libriiry  ut  Upsnl,  is  the  moul  oncicnt  s|iecimen  wi-  linvn  of  the  German 
lnii«iingi;,  of  wliicli  thu  Gothic  is  one  of  the  principal  dialects.  Vide 
Friinmriit*  of  UIJila»,  pulilishiul  liv  M.  Zohn.     18().'j. 

4  Th.  identity  of  thr  Franks  with  tfifso  German  tribi-s,  may  be  shown 
Iroiii  a  pnssagii  of  St.  Jerome,  as  wi'll  as  by  the  TubU  Ptutingirienn*. 
oil  Thtndoiieniif,  so  colli mI,  because  it  is  supposed  to  hove  been  drown 
up  urulcr  the  Emperor  Theodosins,  obont  the  beuinning  of  the  fifth 
cfntiiry  ;  though  M.  .Mnnncri,  in  his  Treatise  Dt  Tab.  Peuting,  alalt, 
hos  proved  that  it  is  as  old  as  the  third  century ;  and  that  the  copy 
preserved  in  the  librory  nt  Vienna,  ond  published  by  M.  de  Scheyl,  is 
but  an  incorrect  ropy,  which  he  attributes  to  a  monk  of  the  thirteenth 
ccniury.  From  this  Table,  it  appears  that,  in  the  third  century,  the 
name  Franeia  was  given  to  that  pan  of  Germany  which  is  situate  in 
the  Lower  Rhino  in  Westphalia ;  and  that  the  Dructeri,  the  Chauci, 
Chomovi,  Cherusci,  Ampsivarii,  &,c.  were  the  some  as  the  Franks. 
The  names  of  Saliani  and  Ripuariana,  evidently  taken  from  the  situa. 
lion  of  some  of  these  tribes  on  the  Rhine,  the  Yssel,  or  Saal,  appear  to 
have  been  given  them  by  the  Romans,  and  were  afterwards  retained 
by  thf    . 

5  Ammianus  Morccllinus,  Lib.  31  c,  9.  Jomattdet  De  Eebiu  Oetieit, 
cap.  35.  This  latter  historian  gives  the  following  portrait  of  Attila, 
King  of  the  Huns.  "His  stature  was  short,  his  chest  broad,  his  head 
rather  large,  his  eyes  small,  his  beard  thin,  his  hair  grey,  his  nose  flat, 
his  complexion  dark  and  hideous,  bearing  evidence  of  his  origin.  He 
wos  a  mon  of  much  cunning,  who  fought  by  stratagem  before  he  en. 
gaged  in  battles." 

6  We  iTtay  judge  of  the  extent  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Rurgundians  by 
the  signatures  of  twcnty.five  bishops,  who  were  present  at  the  Council 
of  Epoo,  held  by  Sigismond,  King  of  Burgundy,  in  617.  These  bish- 
ops were  the  following ;  Besancon,  Langres,  Autun,  Chfilona,  Lyon, 
Volence,  Orange,  Vaison,  Carpentras,  Covaillon,  Sisteron,  Apt.  Gap, 
Die,  St.  PauLtrois-Chetaux,  Viviers,  Vienne,  Embrun,  Grenoble,  Oe. 
nevB,  Tarantaise,  Avenche,  Windische,  Martigny  in  the  Bas.Valais, 
Taurentum  in  Provence.  Vide  Labfcei,  Acta  OtneU.  vol.  iv.  p.  15731 
1581. 

7  Many  kings  and  chiefs  of  diflTerent  nations  marched  ander  fait  command 
JoHmiides  (cop.  38.)  observes^"  As  for  the  rest,  a  rabble  of  kings,  it 
they  may  be  so  called,  and  leaders  of  divers  nations  ;  they  waited  like 
satellites  the  orders  of  Attila ;  and  if  he  gave  but  a  wink  or  a  nod, 
every  one  attended  with  fear  and  trembling,  and  executed  hia  com;, 
mands  without  a  murmur.  Attila  alone,  like  a  king  vf  kings,  had  tbe 
supreme  charge  and  authority  over  them  all." 

8  The  Salian  Fmika  are  distinct  from  the  Ripnarian,  who  formed  a  saps, 
rate  kingdom,  the  capital  of  which  was  Cologne,  lliere  were  also, 
about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  particular  kings  of  the  Franks  art 
Terouane,  Mama,  and  Cambray,  oD  of  whom  were  aabdued  bv  CIoTia^ 
shortly  before  his  Leath  in  511. 

9  Clovis  took  from  thfi  Alemanns  a  part  of  their  territories,  of  which  he 
formed  a  distinct  province,  known  afterwards  by  the  name  of  Aoner 
en  the  Rhint.  They  retained,  however,  under  their  hereditary  chiefs, 
Alsace,  with  the  districts  situated  beyond  the  Rhine,  and  bounded  o» 
the  north  by  the  Oos,  the  Entz,  the  Necker,  the  Muhr,  the  Weraitx 
and  the  Jagat.    Vide  Schoapflin,  Almtia  lUvt.  vol.  i.  p.  630 

46 


0    ^^    _n.>4i«W»«^l~* 


■r. 


111 


722 


NOTBS. 


,0  The  Visigoths  then      ta^ed^ 

rrih'e  Me'irriran.  ^^I^I^Zo^.o^o^^^,  a,  the  reward  fo..er. 
^ces  which  the  latter  had  rendered  them  in  their  wars  with  the  Franks. 

11  Scheidingen  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Unstrut,  about  three  leagues  from 
Naumbufg  on  the  Saal.  is  supposed  to  have  been  'he  residence  of  the 
uicient  kings  of  Thuringia.  Venantius  Fortunatus,  the  friend  of  queen 
RadegoS  a  princess  of  Thuringia.  gives  a  poetical  description  of  it 
in  his  eleey  De  Excidis  Thuringioe.  ^q 

19  BeHsarius'was  recalled  from  Italy  by  the  Emperor  Jue™^^^^^^ 
He  afterwards  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  court  of  Constantinople  , 
Sr,  J  a.  mod"em  writers  have  'asserted  that  h« -- "'"•^U^i^^^J'^/j 
to  beg  his  bread,  is  destitute  of  foundation.    Mascow,  GtthicMt  aer 

IS  Aeathilriib  1.  p.  17,  asserts,  that  the  Goths  abandoned  the  nation  of 
tlifAlemann;  Mhe  Franks,  ik  order  to  interest  the  latter  m  their  cau  e 
.or«h^8t  the  Greeks.    The  same  was  the  case  with  that  part  of  Gaul, 
Ee  between  th^  Alps,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Mediterranean,  which 
penned  .rthe  Ostrogoths,  and  which  they  ceded  to  the  Franks,  on 
oondition  that  they  would  never  furnish  supplies  to  the  Ureeks. 
14  The    ame  of  the  Bavarians  does  not  occur  in  history  before  the  middle 
of  the  sTxth  centu^.  when  Jomandes,  De  Eeb.  Getid,,  and  Venantius 
Fortuna  r  m  his  piems,  speak  of  them  for  the  first  time.    Mannert, 
OaMchte  BaioarieM,  p.  108,  reckons  the  Bavarians  an  association  of 
S^etrGcS  tribes';  the  Heruls.  Rugions.  Turc'l.ng.a^s,  «id  Scy 
rians  all  oriff'nally  emigrat  ng  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.     1  tie  new 
rettlements  which  they  formid  in  Upper  Germany,  comprehended  that 
JartoTJncient  Rheti^  Vindelicia,  and  Noricum,  which  lies  betw^^^n 
the  Danube,  the  Lech,  and  the  Noce  m  Pannoma,  and  the  TyroL 
They  were  govemid  bj?  kings  or  chiefs,  who,  from  the  year  595.  were 
dependants  on  the  Frankish  crown.  „r,heir 

IS  Clovis  left  the  Alemanns,  after  their  defeat,  a  considerable  part  of  their 
Terri  or  es  under  hereditary  chiefs,  who  acknowledged  the  ?"Pe"oriq^ 
of  the  Frankish  kings.  Such  of  the  Alemanns  as  Theodoric  King  ol 
lu ly  then  re  eWeJTfSio  a  part  of  Rhe.ia  and  Noricum,  continued  de- 
JenSants  on  the  kingdom  of  the  O.trogoths.  till  the  decay  of  that  mo. 
narchy,  near  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  when  they  became  subject 
to  the  dominion  of  the  Franks.  ,  , 

Tacitus  De  Moribus  German.,  cap.  2.  It  was  the  Prerogative  o  free 
men  to  have  the  honor  of  bearing  arras.  Even  bishops  and  ecclesias. 
tic"  when  admitted  into  the  national  assemblies,  and  to  the  rights  ana 
privileges  of  freemen,  never  failfed  to  claim  this  military  dignity  ;  ana 
occupied,  like  others,  their  ranks  m  the  army. 

17  We  find  kmong  the  German  nations,  from  the  remotest  times  he  dis- 
tinction  into  nobles,  freemen,  and  serfs:  a  distinction  which  they  still 
nreserved.  in  their  new  settlements  in  the  Roman  empire. 

18  &al  eToJdeals.  Besides  the  trial  by  -"^^-°'"*«VXr:  C  S 
bv  hot  iron,  boiling  or  cold  water,  the  cross,  ^■c.  V  de  Ducango  Oloss. 
SirOoth"  Vandfls,  Suevi.  and  Alan.s.  were  already  Chr.— ,  when 
Ihey  settled  mthin  the  bounds  of  the  Western  Empire.  They  follow- 
edihe  doctrines  of  Arius,  which  they  had  imbibed  in  the  «"«;  and, 
which  the  Suevi  of  Galicia  abandoned  for  the  orthodox  creed  under 
Their  Kg  Cnriaric.  about  551 ;  and  the  Visigoths  of  Spain  under  heir 
King  Recarede,  in  589.  The  Lombards  ot  Italy  were,  at  firs^Armns. 
but  became  Catholics,  under  their  Kmg  Agifulphus,  in  602.    The  Van. 


NOTES. 


723 


in  Gaul  than  Septi. 
le  Rhone,  the  Alp«i 
the  reward  for  sor- 
rs  with  the  Franks, 
three  leagues  from 
e  residence  of  the 
the  friend  of  queen 
al  description  of  it 

r  Justinian,  in  549. 
t  of  Constantinople ; 
1  blind,  and  reduced 
icow,  Gethichte  der 

idoned  the  nation  of 
latter  in  their  cause 
;h  that  part  of  Gaul, 
editerranean,  which 
■d  to  the  Franks,  on 
>  the  Greeks, 
ry  before  the  middle 
ting,  and  Venantius 
rst  time.  Mannert, 
ns  an  association  of 
rcilingians,  and  Soy- 
he  Baltic.  The  new 
,  comprehended  that 
which  lies  betw  sn 
inia,  and  the  TyroL 
n  the  year  595,  were 

liderable  part  of  their 
dged  the  superiority 
a  Theodoric  King  ol 
ricum,  continued  do- 
lie  decay  of  that  mo- 
1  they  became  subject 

3  prerogative  of  free, 
[shops  and  ecclesias. 
and  to  the  rights  and 
military  dignity  ;  and 

notest  times,  the  dis- 
iction  which  they  still 
1  empire. 

'tat,  there  were  others 
Vide  Ducange  Gloss. 
eady  Chrintiuns,  when 
Inipire.  They  follow, 
bed  in  the  east ;  and, 
orthodox  creed  under 
8  of  Spain,  under  their 
were,  at  first,  Arians, 
lus,  in602.    The  Van. 


dale  and  Ostrogoths,  on  the  contrary,  havmg  persisted  in  A.i"""m ; 
this  perseverance  may  be  numbered  among  the  causes  that  hastened 
the  destruction  of  their  monarchy,  both  in  Italy  and  Africa.  As  to  the 
Buruundians  they  did  noi  embrace  Christianity  till  after  their  establish, 
mcnt  in  Gnul.  Thoir  example  was  soon  followed  by  the  Franks,  who 
likewise  protected  the  dissemination  of  the  orthodox  faith  among  the 
German  nations,  settled  in  their  dominions  beyond  the  Rhine,  the 
Christian  religion  was  introduced,  about  the  end  of  the  sixth  century, 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  Britain,  by  some  Benedictine  monks 
whoin  Pope  Gregory  I.  had  sent  there.  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  was 
tho  first  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  that  embraced  Christianity,  by  the 
persuasion,  it  is  said,  of  his  queen.  Bertha,  daughter  of  Chanbert  I. 

90  The^posscVs'ions  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Gaul,  lying  between  the  Rhme, 
the  Alps,  and  the  Mediterranean,  were  ceded  to  the  Franks  about  8». 

91  Eginhard,  Vita  Cnral.  Mag.,  cap.  11.  It  seems  then  an  error  m  history, 
to  designate  these  princes  as  a  race  of  kings,  who  had  all  degenerated 
into  a  state  of  imbecility  or  idiocy.  (Of  this  opinion  was  the  Abbe 
Vcrtot,  who  endeavors  to  rescue  these  monarchs  from  this  generally 
received  imputation.    Vide  Men.oir  de  I'Academie,  vol.  iv.  I .)  ^ 

93  This  same  St.  Boniface,  in  744,  induced  the  archbishops  of  France  to 
receive,  after  his  example,  the  pallium  from  Pope  Zachanas,  acknow. 
Icdgine  the  jurisdiction  and  supremacy  ol  the  Roman  See.  Ihis  ac. 
knowledgment  of  the  Romish  supremacy,  had  already  taken  place  in 
England,  in  601  and  G27,  when  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and 
York,  received  the  pomificial  pallium.    Vide  Bede.  I  ist.  Eccles. 

93  It  is  alleccd  that  state  politics  had  no  small  share  m  favoring  this  leal. 
Not  only  did  the  emperors  reckon,  by  abolishing  images,  to  weaken 
the  excessive  power  of  the  monks  who  dommeered  over  the  Byzantine 
court;  but  they  regarded  also  the  destruction  of  this  heretical  worship, 
as  the  only  means  of  arresting  the  persecutions  which  the  Mahometafti 
then  exercised  against  the  Christians  in  the  east,  whom  they  treated  aa 
idolaters,  on  account  of  their  veneration  for  images. 

84  The  name  Exarehatt  was  then  given  to  the  provmce  of  Ravenna,  be. 
cause  it,  as  well  as  the  Pentapolis,  was  immediately  subject  to  the  ex- 
arch  as  governor-general ;  while  the  other  parts  of  Grecian  Italy  were 
governed  by  delegatos,  who  ruled  in  the  name  and  authority  of  the 

95  "wM  during  his  sojourn  at  Chiersi  that  Pope  Stephen  II.  g»y«  J«  J" 
cisions  that  we  find  in  Sirmondi,  Concil,  Gall.  yo\.  II.  16.  Anastas  us 
(in  Muratori,  vol.  III.  p.  168,  186)  memions Chiersi  as  «>>«  Pl«««  <»* »» 
donation,  which  he  also  says  was  signed  by  Pepin  and  h's  wo jions- 
This  prospective  grant  is  even  attested  by  the  letter  wh  ch  S  ephenll. 
addressed  to  Pepin  and  his  sons,  immediately  on  his  return  to  Rome, 
exhorting  them  to  fulfil  their  engagements  w-ithout  delay. 

96  Tho  Pope,  m  his  letters  to  Pepin,  calls  this  donation  an  augmentation 
of  the  Romish  dominion;  an  extension  of  th«/»'""'Vp",l!^'^i„^^ 
Cenni.  vol.  I.  p.  85,  124.  Besides  the  city  and  duchy  of  Rome,  Anas, 
tosius  mentions  various  former  grants  of  territories  to  ;!'«  K"™*" 
Church.  The  same  author  informs  us,  that  the  »"g'"."' »f  ^^P'"  »  °°- 
nation  existed  in  his  time  in  the  archives  of  the  Romish  See,  and  he 
has  recorded  the  I      es  gifted  to  the  church. 

97  Different  interpre.iU.ons  have  been  given  to  the  word  Saracens  which 
the  Greeks,  and  after  them  the  Lat'"B.h«ve  applied  to  the  Arabs.  Some 
explain  it  by  rtAberi  or  hrigandt,  and  others  by  Ori«t.f«/»,  or  natives 


mssfmv 


mn.*<K^».«i|i.n^rti«. 


ft" 


¥  ' 


724 


NOTES. 


„<•  the  east  Casiri.  Bibl.  Arab.  Hist.  vol.  II.  p.  19.  Some  pre»end  to 
Seme  h"  appeZion  from  the  Arabic  word  Sarrag,  or  .ts  plural  Sar 
^  »t«  which  means,  men  on  horseback,  or  c.ivuliers. 
Sir  ^may  judgTorthe  ferocity  of  the  Arabs  at  this  t.jne,  from  a  passa|. 
of  rTsTs.  an  Arabic  author,  hi  Casiri.  (Bibl.  Arub.  Hist.  vol.  ■>•  P- 322.) 
M,.«  n  a  fitof  iealousy,  had  caused  Tarec  to  be  bastmadoed  atTole. 
?o  Jid  Jet  contnuedw  employ  him  as  a  general.  The  cahph,  to  avenge 
tC.  caused  Muza  to  be  bastinadoed  in  h.s  turn,  when  he  came^ 

«  TreiiidttottSr^^^^^  rrl%°/ 

»«  ?;:»;rpeSateTots^roS^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  \ 

FrrnkB     iLldorus  Pajfn»i«.  a  Spanish  author  of  that  t.me,  pubhshed      ! 

nart  of  Sicily  from  the  Greeks  ;  but  they  were  deprived  of  it.  m  940, 
S;Ve  FSiteTwho  were  succeeded  in  the  following  century  by  the 
Zerides  in  Africa.    (Vide  Period  IV.  under  Spa'"-)  gj, 

«  The  celebrated  Gerbert.  bom  in  Auvergne,  and  afterwards  rope  oil- 
^  Tester  IL,wI^  among  th^  first  that  repaired  to  Spam.  about  the  m.dd  e 
of  the  tenth  century,  to  study  mathematics  under  the  Arabs.   Numbers 

^  Sr^YstSS  in  th"£r;  of  the  Escurial  in  Spain,  1851  Arabic 
^  S  whfch  escaped  the%onflaUon  of  ion  have  been 

amply  described  by  Casiri  in  his  Bibl.  Arab.  Hwp. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  III.— PraioD  IL 

I  The  immense  intrcnchments  or  fortifications  of  the  Avars  called^Aw. 
-Jl Vf  thrFrnX  were  destroyed  by  Charlemagne,  to  the  number  of 
S^B  '  A  pfrt  of  Konia  and  the  territory  of  the  Avar,  he  left  in  pos- 
Toionorthe  native  chiefs,  and  the  Slavian  P"--' -'j"/^^: 
ledged  themselves  his  vassals  and  tributaries.  J^e  Slavi,  the  Mora^ 
Ml.,  and  Bulgarians,  seem  to  have  then  seized  on  «  ParJ  of  «he  terrU^ 

""'  '•^  t!r;L'c«r'rc£ie^m"::s5:Tsli^^^^^^^^  «:««" 

MarT(Au«l  agairVh^M^^^^^^  he  -ceivedalso  .he  pro. 

jjct  of  joining  ,L  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  by  a  canal  drawn  from  the 

S«  t^f th:  oat  In -the  Teutonic  language,  Louis  i"  the  Romance 
iMOTWe  :  the  forms  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  the  Abbe  Nith- 
„d!T?ou.in  of  these  princes.  We  may  observe  *«»  Ais  «  the  mo.t 
mcient  monument  of  the  Romance  Iwiguage ;  out  of  which  ha.  n)rung 
the  modem  French. 


NOTES 


725 


Some  pretend  to 
g,  or  its  plural  Sar- 
■s. 

time,  from  a  passage 
I^iat.  vol.  ii.  p.333.) 
astinudoed  at  Tole- 
he  caliph,  to  avenge 
when  he  came  to 
)ain.  His  son,  whom 
of  the  caliph.  Such 

s  paternal  uncle  of 
Ommiades  were  de 
he  prophet, 
as  the  founder  of  thii. 
ic  Fharamond  of  the 
that  time,  published 
g  of  him.  He  extols, 
111  the  Visigoths,  ac. 
iiad  chosen  as  their 
hronicle  of  Alphonso 
ited  in  favor  of  Don 
le  tenth  century,  and 
nder  of  the  kingdom 
m. 

iquest  of  the  greater 
eprived  of  it,  in  940, 
owing  century  by  the 

'0 

I  afterwards  Pope  Sil- 
pain,  about  the  middle 
the  Arabs.   Numbers 

in  Spain,  1851  Arabic 
and  which  have  been 


lOD  II. 

le  Avars,  called  Skin- 
pie,  to  the  number  of 
B  Avars  he  left  in  pos. 
{irinces,  who  acknow. 
rhe  Slavi,  the  Moravi. 
I  a  part  of  the  territo- 
I  the  Theyss.  It  was 
tablished  the  Eastern 
lonceived  also  the  pro* 
canal  drawn  from  the 

Louis  in  the  Romance 
ved  by  the  Abbe  Nith- 
e,  that  this  is  the  most 
At  of  which  has  spranK 


3  This  treaty,  which  has  been  preserved  by  the  adthor  of  the  Annals  of 
St.  Rertin,  mentions  all  the  countries  and  principal  places  assigned  tu 
each  of  the  brothers.  It  forms  a  valuable  document  in  the  geogrtphy 
of  the  middle  ages. 

4  As  an  example  of  this,  it  is  said  that  a  nobleman  of  Suabia,  named  Eu- 
ehon,  brother  to  the  Empress  Judith,  quarrullud  with  his  own  son,  and 
refused  to  see  him,  because,  in  his  estimation,  he  had  debased  himeeir 
by  receiving  as  fiefs,  from  Louis  the  Gentle,  a  certain  number  of  his 
own  lands,  iiituatud  in  Upper  Bavaria. 

5  The  Dunes  and  the  Swedes  dispute  with  each  otiier  the  honor  of  these 
pretended  heroes,  who  signalized  themselves  in  the  Norman  piracies. 
It  is  without  doubt,  thiit  all  the  tribes  of  ancient  Scandinavia,  in  their 
turn,  took  pnrt  in  tliene  expeditions.  According  to  the  Monk  of  St. 
Gall,  it  was  not  till  about  the  end  of  the  war  of  Charlemagne  with  the 
Avars,  i.  e.  796,  that  the  Normans  began  to  infest  the  coasts  of  the 
Prankish  umpire.  In  order  to  stop  their  incursions,  Charles  construct 
ed  a  fleet,  and  stationed  in  the  harbors  and  mouths  of  rivers,  troops  and 
guard-ships;  precautions  which  were  neglected  by  his  successors. 

6  The  beautiful  palaces  which  Charles  had  constructed  at  Nimeguen  and 
Aix-la-Chapelie,  were  burnt  to  the  ground  by  the  Normans  in  881-2. 
At  the  same  time,  they  plundered  Liege,  Maestricht,  Tongres,  Cologne, 
Bonn,  Zulpich,  Nuys,  and  Treves. 

7  Nester,  a  monk  of  Kiovia,  and  the  first  annalist  of  Russia,  about  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century,  says  the  Russians,  whom  he  calls  also 
Wareguet,  came  from  Scandinavia,  or  the  country  of  the  Normans. 
He  assures  us,  tluit  it  was  from  tiiem  that  the  state  of  Novogorod  took 
the  name  of  Russia.  The  uuthur  of  the  annals  of  St.  Bertin,  the  first 
that  mentions  the  Bissians  (Uhoa)  a.  d.  839,  assigns  Sweden  as  their 
original  country.  Luitprand  also,  bishop  of  Cremona,  in  the  court  of 
Constantinople  by  Otho  the  Great,  attests,  in  his  history,  that  the 
Greeks  gave  the  name  o'  Ruaaiani  to  the  people,  who  in  the  west  are 
called  Normans.  The  Fiims,  Laplanders,  und  Estonians,  at  this  day, 
call  the  Swedes,  Root*,  Routti,  or  RooUlane.  It  is  likely  that  from 
them,  being  nearest  neighbors  of  the  Swedes,  this  name  passed  to  the 
Slavonian  tribes.  Hence  it  would  seem,  tnat  it  is  in  Sweden  that  we 
must  look  for  Russia,  prior  to  the  times  of  Ruric  ;  in  the  same  way, 
as  ancient  France  is  to  be  found  in  Westphalia  and  Hesse,  before  the 
days  of  Clodion,  and  the  founding  of  the  new  monarchy  of  the  Franka 
in  Gaul. 

8  The  Orkney  Isles,  the  Hebrides,  the  Shetlands,  and  the  Isles  of  Man, 
passed,  in  course  of  time,  from  the  dominion  of  the  Norwegians  to 
that  of  the  Scottish  kings,  while  the  Faroe  Isles  remained  constantly 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Norway. 

9  Olaus  II.,  King  of  Norway,  had  rendered  the  Icelanders  tributaries,  but 
they  soon  renewed  their  independence  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  time  of 
Habo  V.  and  Magnus  VII.,  in  1361  and  1264,  that  they  submitted  to  the 
dominion  of  Norway,  when  the  republican  government  of  the  island 
was  suppressed.  Iceland,  when  a  republic,  furnished  the  annalists  of 
the  north.  The  most  distinguished  of  these  is  Snoerb  Sttolssom, 
who  wrote  a  history  of  the  kings  of  Norway  about  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century.    This  celebrated  man  died  in  1241. 

10  The  Chazars,  a  Turkish  tribe,  ruled,  at  thn  time  we  now  speak,  over 
the  northern  part  of  the  Crimea  ;  as  also  the  vast  regions  lying  to  the 
north  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  seas.  The  Onogurs  or  Ugurs,  sup. 
posed  to  be  the  same  as  Hungarians,  were  subject  to  them.    These 


726 


MOTBS. 


'■   l 


Chaiars  having  embraced  ChriBtianity  in  the  ninth  century,  auopted* 
ion  of  syncrefisni,  which  admitted  all  sorts  md.fferently.  Hence  the 
nam.  of  CAowM  or  Ketzen  has  been  given,  by  the  Germar  d.vme^  to 
every  species  of  heretics.    Their  power  vanished  about  the  begimuii<f 

I  TV^P«SS)<rror7a«ff««n..  also  a  Turkish  and  wandermg  trib-. 

'  I'jin^Srhublte'dthe  bor^ders  of  the  Juik  and  the  Volga,  between  ««.. 
two  rivers.  Expelled  from  these  countries  by  the  Uzes  or  Cumans. 
'Z  Sned^ith  the  Chazars  against  them  they  attacked  the  Hm,^^ 
rians,  whom  they  slript  of  their  possessions,  lymg  between  the  Tanais. 
the  Dnieper,  and  the  Dniester,  (a.  d.  884.)       .,       ,  .         j  r>u«. 

la  The  Moravians  were  the  lirst  of  the  Slavian  tr.bes  that  embraced  Chrw.      , 
tianity.    The  Greek  Emperor  Michael,  at  their  own  request,  sent  them, 
S.  863  Cyril  and  Methodius,  two  learned  Greeks  of  Thessalon.ca,  who      | 
Evented  the  Slavonian  alphabet,  and  translated  mlo  their  language  the 
sacred  books,  which  the  Russians  still  use. 

13  The  Patzinac  tes  possessed  all  the  countries  situated  between  the  Alma, 
the  Deeper,  and  the  Done*,  which  near  its  source,  separated  them 
from  the  Chizars.  They  gradually  disappeared  from  history  about  he 
end  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  they  were  dispossessed  or  subdued 

14  ffistriansTve  commonly  ascribed  to  this  prince  the  division  of  Eng- 
hmd  into  counties,  hundreds,  and  tithes,  as  also  the  institution  of  junet. 

15  F«m  1  orcupition  of  Greenland  and  Finland  by  the  Normajis  we 
may  infer  that  North  America  was  known  to  them  several  centuries 
before  it  was  discovered  by  the  English. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  IV.— Pbeiod  III. 

1  The  Hunearians  having  made  a  new  invasion  npon  Otho  the  Great, 
advanced'as  far  as  Augsburg,  to  which  V^ey  laid  siege  ;  but  Otho  in  a 
battle  which  he  fought  with  them  m  the  v.cmity  °«  '^atj  J,  (955.) 
routed  them  with  such  slaughter  that  they  never  dared  to  return. 

3  On  this  oath,  which  was  taken  in  903.  the  emperors  of  Germany  founded 
the  title  by  which  they  claimed  the  right  to  confirm,  or  to  nommale 
Sid  depose  the  popes.  Lawyers  generally  allege  the  famous  decree 
of  Leo  VIII.,  published  964,  as  establishing  the  rights  of  the  emperors 
over  Rome  .md  the  popes.  But  the  authenticity  of  this  decree  has 
blen  attacked  by  the  ablest  critics,  and  defended  by  others  It  would 
^Jear  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  this  to  justify  these  nshte.  Otho, 
Xr  having  conquered  Italy  and  received  the  submission  of  the  Roman, 
and  the  Pope,  could  easily  claim  for  himself  and  his  successors  th« 
^e  rights  of  superiority  which  the  Greek  and  Frank  emperors  had 

3  Z  wl  A^ dukiTof  Lower  Lorrain.  and  had  obtained  that  dukedom 
from  ofho  II.  in  977.  He  transmitted  it  to  his  son  Otho,  who  w«i  tl.e 
Unt  nrince  of  the  Carlovingian  line,  and  died  in  100b. 

4  The  principalities  of  Benevento.  Salerno,  and  Capua,  >*««  govenj^f 
bv  Lombard  princes,  who  held  of  the  German  emperors.  The  duke. 
S^i^of  Ks.  Gaeta,  Amalfi.  and  part  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  were 
dependent  on  the  cistern  emperors  ;  while  "■"Arabs,  masters  of  the 
areater  part  of  Sicily  possessed  also  Ban  and  Tarenom  Apulia. 

5  From  tWs  treaty  is  derived  the  right  o^  vassalage,  whjch  the  popes  have 
exercised  till  the  present  time,  over  the  km^dom  °|  Naples. 

6  The  first  invasion  of  the  Normans  in  Sicily  wm  m  1000.    Palemu*.  «h« 


■.li^f»<i^^*lfc 


NOTB8. 


727 


century,  aaopted  a 
reatly.    Henc«  the 

Germar  divinaa,  lo 
about  the  begiiuiiny 

nd  wandering  trib*- 
^olga,  between  thesa 
he  Uzes  or  Cumana, 
attacked  the  Hunga. 
between  the  Tanaia. 

that  embraced  Chris, 
n  request,  sent  them, 
if  Thessalonica,  who 
o  their  language  the 

!d  between  the  Aluta, 
iree,  separated  them 
'om  history  about  the 
ossessed  or  subdued 

the  division  of  E2ng. 
e  institution  of  juries, 
by  the  Normans,  we 
em  several  centuries 


>D  III. 

pon  Otho  the  Great, 
siege  ;  but  Otho,  in  a 
ty  of  that  city,  (955,) 
dared  to  return. 
8  of  Germany  founded 
ntirm,  or  to  nominate 
e  the  famous  decree 
rights  of  the  emperors 
ty  of  this  decree  haa 

by  others.  It  would 
y  these  rights.  Otho, 
mission  of  the  Romans 
nd  his  successors  the 

Frank  emperors  had 

l>tained  that  dukedom 

an  Otho,  who  was  the 

1006. 

^apua,  were  governed 

mperors.    The  duke- 

ilia  and  Calabria,  were 

Arabs,  masters  of  the 

arento  in  Apulia. 

,  which  the  popes  have 

I  of  Naples. 

n  lOGO.    Palermo,  the 


capital,  fell  under  their  power  in  1073,  and  in  1090  they  conquered  the 
whole  island. 
1  The  first  seeds  of  Christianity  were  planted  in  Denmark  and  Sweden, 
by  St.  Ansgar,  whom  Louis  the  Gentle  created,  in  834,  first  archbishop 
of  Hamburg,  und  metropolitan  of  the  North.  But  the  progress  ot 
Christianity  was  extremely  slow  in  those  semi.barbarous  countries- 
The  first  annalist  of  the  North  was  an  Icelander  named  Are  Frode. 
who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century.  The  moft 
eminent  historian  of  Denmark,  was  a  monk  named  Swend  Aageson. 
who  digested,  about  1187,  an  abridgement  of  the  history  of  that  king- 
dom. He  was  followed  by  Saxo  the  grammarian,  whose  history  of 
Denmark,  written  in  beautiful  Latin,  is  full  of  fables  in  the  times  preced- 
ing the  13th  century.  Norway  had  for  its  first  annalist  a  monk  named 
Theodoric,  who  wrote  about  1160.  As  to  Sweden,  it  has  no  national 
historian  anterior  to  the  Chronicles  in  Verse,  the  first  anonymous  editor 
of  which  lived  in  the  time  of  King  Magnus  Smeck,  about  the  middle 
of  the  14th  century. 

8  Olaus  sent,  in  996  and  1000,  missionaries  into  Iceland,  who  succeeded 
in  making  the  whole  country  adopt  Christianity.  An  Icelandic  fugitive, 
named  Eric  le  Roux,  discovered  Greenland,  and  formed  the  first  settle, 
ments  there,  about  the  year,  983.  His  son,  Lief,  embraced  Christianity 
during  his  sojourn  in  Norway.  With  the  aid  of  some  ecclesiastics 
whom  King  Olaus  gave  him,  he  returned  in  1000  to  Greenland,  and 
there  converted  his  father  and  his  fellow-countrymen.  The  knowledge 
of  the  first  Norwegian  colonies  of  Greenland,  was  lost  about  the  begin, 
ning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  southern  and  western  districts  of 
it  were  again  discovered  about  1576 ;  but  it  was  not  till  1731  that  the 
Danes  formed  new  settlements  there. 

9  The  Polabes  inhabited  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg,  the  principality  of  Rat. 
zenburg,  and  the  province  of  Schwerin.  The  Wagrians  were  settled 
beyond  the  Bille  in  the  Wagria,  in  the  principality  of  Eutin,  and  a  part 
of  Holstcin. 

.  0  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  Conrad,  Duke  of  Zahringen,  and  Albert, 
Margrave  of  the  North,  headed  an  army  of  these  crusaders  against  the 
Slavi  in  1147. 

11  The  right  of  hereditary  succession  in  the  eldest  son  of  every  ducal 
family,  was  not  introduced  into  Bohemia  till  1055.  This  was  the  ancient 
usage  in  Sweden,  Denmark,  Poland,  Russia,  and  Hungary. 

IS  No  writer  of  this  nation  is  known  anterior  to  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  most  ancient  is  Vincent  Kadlubeck.  bishop  of  Cracow,  who  died 
1233.    He  wrote  Historia  Polonia,  first  published  in  1613. 

13  This  eroien,  singularly  revered  in  Hungary,  contains  Greek  ornaments 
and  inscriptions,  which  give  us  to  understand  that  it  was  manufactured 
at  Constantinople.  There  is  a  probability  that  it  was  furnished  by  the 
Empress  Theophania,  mother  of  Otho  III.,  to  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  whom 
she  had  lately  raised  to  the  pontificate. 

14  The  Greeks  upbraided  the  Latins  with  fastine  on  Saturdays — permission 
to  eat  cheese,  butter,  and  milk,  during  the  first  week  of  lent — the  cell, 
bacy  of  their  priests — the  repetition  of  the  unction,  of  baptism  in  confir- 
mation — the  corrupting  of  the  confession  of  faith — the  use  of  unleavened 
bread  in  the  eucharist — permission  to  eat  the  blood  of  animals  strangled 
— and  the  prohibition  against  the  priests  wearing  their  beards. 

15  The  difference  of  rank  and  pre-eminence  of  these  two  patriarchs,  be. 
came  one  of  the  principal  subjects  of  dispute  between  the  two  churches. 
There  was  a  warm  debate  as  to  the  title  of  Eeumtnical  Patriarch,  or 


728 


NOTSS. 


Sh  the  patriarch,  of  Constantinople ;  and  Gregory  I..  ^'»h.ng  «o  give 
these  patnarchs  an  example  of  Christian  humility,  m  opposition  to  th  • 
lofty  tftle  of  Universal  Bi.hop,  adopted  that  of  Servant  of  the  eervanU 

16  ^hfeilgarian.,  newly  converted  to  Christianity  by  Greek  and  Latin 
4iiion.ries.  had  priests  and  bishops  of  both  ?hurches;  and  each  pon. 
tiff  claimed  he  sole  jurisdiction  over  that  province.  This  affair  hav  ng 
been  referred  by  the  Bulgarians  themselves  to  the  judgment  of  the 
Sreek  E  "perorf  he  decidid  in  favor  of  the  See  of  Constantinople.  In 
cJ^eouenre  of  this  decision,  the  Latin  bishops  wid  priests  were  expelled 
from  Bulaaria,  and  replaced  by  the  Greeks  in  870. 

17  Th".  terSblo  fire,  reckoned  among  their  state  secrets,  was  exploded      | 
from  tubT.  of  copper,  or  thrown  with  cross.bows  and  machines  tor  the 
pZ««      Fire-ships  were  likewise  filled  with  them,  which  they  des- 
;S  among  the^nemies-  ships  to  bum  them.    These  could  not  be 
extinguished  by  water,  or  any  other  way  than  by  the  help  of  vinegar  or 

18  Thentme  of  TWtor.  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  «»"""«'">?»!;*'*'';»]'. 
pear,  to  be  of  a  Chinese  origin.  The  Ch  nese  pronounce  "  TA«.«Aa. 
knd  designate,  by  this  name,  all  the  nations  that  dwell  north  of  the 

19  ¥'he*fiTsUhat  employed  this  military  g"ard  was  the  Caliph  Montassem. 
who  succeeded  to  the  caliphate  in  833  or  218  of  the  Hegira. 

30  Sultan  or  Soltkan,  is  a  common  name  m  the  Chaldean  and  Arabic  Ian. 
euages,  to  designate  a  sovereign,  ruler,  king,  or  master. 

31  Syria  was  conquered  by  the  Seljukidcs,  between  1074  and  1085.  They 
were  masters  of  Palestine  since  1075,  which  they  had  conquered  from 
the  Fatimite  caliphs  of  Egypt.  .      ,       ,  ..  _  ^,.      .  a„u^„ 

98  The  most  powerful  of  these  Emirs  dared  not  assume  the  title  of  Su  tan. 
but  vTre  content  with  that  of  Atabek,  which  signifies  in  the  Turkish 
language,  Father  of  the  prince. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  V.— Period  IV. 

1  He  was  the  first  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  that  assumed  the  title  of  Pofe, 
(Papa,)  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  bishops  and  prelates  who  had  tor- 
merly  made  use  of  that  denomination. 

3  Pope  Urban  II..  one  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Gregory  VII..  went 
w  far  a.  to  recommend  to  all  secular  princes,  that  they  should  make 
slaves  of  such  of  the  priest's  wives  as  lived  with  their  husbands  atter 
they  h»i  received  holy  orders.  In  Denmark  and  Sweden,  he  eeU. 
bacy  of  the  clergy  was  not  introduced  Ull  near  the  middle  of  the  IStli 

3  Pope  "Nicholas  I.  and  Adrian  H..  in  the  9th  century,  and  Jo»»r.  IV.  and 
Greaory  V.,  about  the  end  of  the  10th,  appealed  to  the  False  Decretal, 
in  their  disputes  with  the  kings  of  France,  on  the  subject  of  supremacy 
and  legislative  power  over  the  whole  church. 

4  This  house  which  succeeded  the  Sahc  dynasty,  occupied  t.ie  throne  of 
the  empire  trom  1138  to  1254.  .     •  -,  .  d„ 

5  Grecory  VII.  in  1080,  conhrmcd  the  election  of  the  AnM-Emperor  Ko. 
dolph.    Iraiocent  III.,  claimed  the  right  to'  arbitrate  m  the  dispute. 


NOTES. 


729 


nople  had  aiRumed 
he  Roman  pontiffs, 
that  title  us  proud 
rdict  all  communion 
'  I.,  wishing  to  give 
in  opposition  to  this 
eant  of  ike  tenant* 

by  Greek  and  Latin 
ihes ;  and  each  pon. 
This  affair  having 
le  judgment  of  the 
Constantinople.  In 
riests  were  expelled 

crets,  was  exploded 
ind  machines  ibr  the 
Bm,  which  they  des- 
These  could  not  be 
le  help  of  vinegar  or 

commonly  taken,  ap 
onounce  it  Tha-thai 
t  dwell  north  of  the 

.e  Caliph  Montassem, 

;he  Hegira. 

dean  and  Arabic  Ian. 

naster. 

1074  and  1085.   The/ 

r  had  conquered  from 

me  the  title  of  Sultan, 
tiftes  in  the  Turkish 


>d1V. 

med  the  title  of  Pope, 
prelates  who  had  ior> 

of  Gregory  VII.,  went 
lat  they  should  make 
1  their  husbands  after 
uid  Sweden,  the  cell- 
he  middle  of  the  13th 

lury,  and  Johti  IV.  and 
to  the  False  Decretals 
3  subject  of  supremacy 

occupied  the  throne  of 

the  Anti.EmperoT  Ro. 
litrafe  in  the  disputes 


between  Philip  of  Swabla  and  Otho  of  Bnmsw.ck  (119S,)  on  the  subject 
of Tei" election.  The  cont-sted  iiecti<.n  of  Rifhnr.l  .!.■  CornwuU  and 
Xlpholso  of  Castille  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  was  submUted  to  the  judg- 

6  ^he'popJs'derivcd  their  clainus  to  thcBC  estates,  fron,  n  lona.ion  of 
them;  which  the  Countess  hnd  n.a.ie  in  1077,  to  Pr>pe  Gregory  VII.. 
nnd  which  she  renewed  in  1102  to  Pascal  11.  jni,  . 

7  The  Order  of  St.  Anthony  was  founded  about  095  ;  and  that  o  .har- 
ueux  was  founded  in  1080-86.  by  Bruno  of  Cologne  •  and  that  of 
Grandmont,  by  Stephen  do  Thiers,  a  native  of  Auvergne. 

8  The  Arabs  took  possession  of  Palestine  under  the  Cahph  Omar,  a.  d. 
657      It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Fntimito  Caliphs  of  Egypt,  a.  d.  968 

9.10  There  is  an  amusing  description  of  the  crusaders  in  the  Chronicle 
^1?  Conradus  Urspergensis,  and  the  sensation  which  their  first  appear. 

U  On"  r?hele''firdli;isions  was  conducted  by  Peter  the  Hermit  in 
person  A  contemporary  author  gives  the  foliowmg  description  of 
AatBhostly  general.  "  His  appearance  was  rude  m  the  extreme,  of 
aLrtstirbut  of  a  most  fervid  zeal.  His  face  was  meagre,  h^ 
feet  bare  a^d  his  dress  of  the  meanest  and  the  most  squalid  sort.  On 
hTsjoumeTa^d  wherever  he  went,  he  used  neither  horse  mare, 
Hor  muTe7  but  only  a  vehicle  drawn  by  asse^    Peter  mtrusted         « 

*•'  "7  "dTc^  Em ''\'iro"us"Todt  S'maSd'^'bTf  GermiS 
rr":l7o1lowSiim."-NeUThe  whole  of'them  perished  to  the  amount 

13  T?eT°birof  Venice  having  refused,  in  spite  of  the  thundenng 

'*  Julls  Sched  against  them,  to  -"e"f  /  »P  ^^g^'^J  tL"  compelled 
Clemonl  IV.  published  a  crusade  agamst  them  1J09,  and  thus  compeuea 

13  tZXZ  X'er^'no  armorial  bearings  before  the  12th  century.   We 
"donotletX[th^hef'/««r..rf..//«onthecrownortherobeoftheFrench 

kings,  until  the  time  of  Louis  VII.,  a.  "•^^'Y-      ^„  .    „„.„„.  „  ..„ 

U  The  crusades  were  the  means  of  spreading  leprosy  in  B"'^°P«;  »'"•«* 

the  oCue  which  in  1347  and  the  following  years  made  dreadful  havoc. 

From  luly  Ttspread  over  all  Europe,  and  occasioned  a  violent  pars*. 

15  ForAeXBee'th*  accoiants  of  Spain,  Italy,  Portugal. 

16  This  is  the  common  opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  HanseaUc  League 

th«  Kincr  of  France,  in  favor  of  the  Germanic  merchants. 

17  The  ^afliamlm  of  1342  is  generally  cited  as  the  first  in  which  we  find 

18  SLttrnlmes'o?  S^W-  '^^  ^"'-^'^' ''  ^  »'"«''"  ^'*"' 
S  tho  r^idst  of  the  darkness  that  covered  Europe  prior  to  the  12th 


^_..m|ii;iii!HH.Jj.,^_,.!f;«,»IJ'*; 


mt^  tinnrwn  ri'hwi' 


730 


NOTES. 


91  Hutfolinu.,  a  famous  lawyer,  under  Frederic  1.  i.  generally  regarded 
M  Hr't'  Vat  digested  the  Two  Book,  of  F.ete.  at  the  end  of  ti.e 

82  £vora/"[£r  universities  were  founded  in  the  following  century  :-. 
^uth  us  that  of  Prague,  in  1347  ;  Vienna,  in  1365  ;  lie.delburg.  m  1386 ; 

ciues  of  Mayence.  Cologne,  Worms,  S,nre,  Strasburg,  and  Berhn,  ioi 
the  protection  of  their  commerce  on  the  Klimw. 

84  TlJse  grand  officers  were  seven  in  number,  although  formerly  other 
princes  were  admitted  to  these  elections.  r.«„^^u  tk« 

85  There  appears  some  reason  to  doubt  this  statement  of  Dandolo,  the 

36  S^^r^ttlVi^'lfiarof  the  Roman  empire  in    he  5th  century  Corsica 
^^  ias  con.,u  "re.l  in  turn  by  the  Vandals,  Ore.  ks,  Frank,    and  Arab. 

The  latter  settled  tliere  i..  the  9th  century,  and  were  expelled  m  the 
11th  Sardinia  experienced  nearly  the  same  revolution  «"  Corsica  It 
fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  Greeks,  Arabs,  Geno. 
ese  and  pians  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  vested  the  King  ol  Arragon  m 
Sardinia  in  1297,  as  his  vassal  and  tributary,  who  expelled  the  Pisans 

37  Th?fa^?s  Cttstilian  hero  Don  Rodrigo  Diaz  de  Vivnr  f^mamed  the 
^'  cS  had  already  seized  the  king.lom  of  Valencia  "b*^"'   h«  «"d  of  the 

11th  century ;  but  the  Arabs  took  possession  of  it  after  his  death  1099. 

38  DeGutgnes^  fixes  the  entire  destruction  of  the  Almohade.  m  the  year 

29  After  the  defeat  of  the  Mahometans,  Alfonso  having  assembled  the 
bi  hop  declared  on  his  oath  that  Jesus  Christ  appeared  to  h.m  on  the 
evenh  K  before  the  battle,  promised  him  certain  victory,  and  ordered 
Zto  be  proclaimed  king  of  the  field  of  battle,  and  to  take  for  h.. 
arms  the  five  wounds  inflicted  on  his  body,  and  the  thirty  pieces  ot  silver 
for  which  he  was  sold  to  the  Jews. 

30  The  first  six  of  these  were  the  ancient !"/ Pe«"  f,  J«  "°-^\,  J**,^; 
were  established  in  the  reigns  of  Louis  VII.  and  IX.,  a.  well  a.  nx 

31  SlTeS  Gemany.  in  order  to  preserve  the  feudal  system,  passed 
a  law,  which  forbade  the  princes  to  leave  the  grand  fief.  o.  the  empire 

38  bX  SSeVeac'e  concluded  at  Paris,  in  1359.  between  Louis  IX.. 
KenrylL.  Normandy.  Lorraine.  Mame  Anjou.  and  Poitou.  were 
«ded  to  F  anie.  who  then  surrendered  to  England  Limousin  Pen. 
aord  Quercy.  &c..  on  condition  of  doing  fealty  and  hom.ige  to  the 
kS  of  France,  aiid  to  be  held  under  the  title  of  the  Duke  of  Aqui- 

33  TtiTfim  o'rigln1f?h?inqui.uion  may  be  dated  from  a  commission  of 
Suisitor^^^Tsia.  which  Innocent  III.  established  at  Toulouce  against 
the  A  Censes;  Gregory  IX.  intrusted  the  inquisition  to  the  Domm.. 
ea^swhl  erected  it  into'an  ordinary  tribunal  before  which  they  cited 
n^only  those  suspected  of  heresy,  but  all  who  were  accused  of  .or- 
rprv  maaic.  witchcraft,  Judaism,  &c.  .    ^     .  .  ■  .,       -.u 

U  Domi^co  8ub.prior  of  the  church  ofOsma  in  Spam,  co.gomtly  with 
D°eTod'Azebez^he  bishop  of  that  church,  undertook,  in  1206,  the  mission 
?gafns.  the  heretic,  in  Jnguodoc.  Innocon,  VIII.  in  1208,  established 
a  perpetual  commission  of  preachers  for  that  ^""n'^y' "p"^  Kino-Tl^ 
was  declared  chief.    Hence  the  oriain  of  the  6rder  of  Preaching  Fnar» 


^ 


-^' 


NOTBS. 


731 


jenerally  regarded 
at  the  end  of  the 

lowing  century  :— 
cidelburg,  in  13H6; 

:ludod  between  the 
iirg,  and  Berlin,  foi 

ugh  formerly  other 

ont  of  Dandolo,  the 

ith  century,  Corsica 
j'ranke,  and  Arabs, 
ire  expelled  in  the 
ition  as  Corsica.  It 
•eeks,  Arabs,  Geno- 
King  of  Arragon  in 
expelled  the  Pisans 

^ivar,  surnamed  the 
about  the  end  of  the 
after  his  death  1099. 
nohades  in  the  year 

ving  assembled  the 
leared  to  him  on  the 
victory,  and  ordered 
and  to  take  for  his 
Ihirty  pieces  of  silver 

)f  the  crown.  They 
1 IX.,  as  well  as  six 

eudal  system,  passed 
id  fiefs  of  the  empire 

I,  between  Louis  IX., 
»u,  and  Poitou,  were 
land  Limousin,  Peri. 

and  homiige  to  the 
af  the  Duhe  of  Aqui- 

rom  a  commission  of 
d  at  Toulouce  ai;ain8t 
sition  to  the  Domini- 
fore  which  they  cited 
were  accused  of  sor- 

»pain,  conjointly  with 
)k,  in  1206,  the  mission 

II.  in  1208,  established 
ry,  of  which  Dominico 
r  of  Preaching  Frinrw 


;«  The  Irish  were  coOTerted  to  Christianity  in  the  5th  century.  St.  Patrick 
was  their  first  aposth, ;  he  founded  the  archbmhopno  o  Armagh  n  479. 
The  supremacy  of  the  Pope  was  not  acknowledged  m  that  island  1 11  the 
comicTof  Urogheda,  11.^2.  when  the  Pope's  polhuin,  and  the  cehbacv 
of  the  priests,  were  introduced.  •        ,       i        -,  ..,.» 

36  In  Denmark,  the  throne  wuh  elective  m  the  ro.gnmg  innuly.  »t  was 
equally  so  ill  Norway,  where,  by  a  strange  cuntom,  -aturd  sons  were 
admitted  to  the  crown,  and  allowed  the  privilege  of  attestmg  their 
descent  from  the  royal  line  by  the  ordeal  of  hre. 

37  The  power  of  the  clergy  in  the  North  was  considerably  increased  by 
the  i-uroducln  of  MeUopolitans.  The  archbishopric  ol  Lundcn  was 
erected  in  1152,  uiid  that  of  Upsal  m  1163. 

38  The  introduction  of  tithes  met  with  great  W»»'"°"/"  »''''!« ^^"^^^^^^^ 
nor  were  they  aenerally  received  till  near  the  end  ol  the  13th  century, 
cluto  IV  was^t  to  death  in  Denmark,  principally  for  havmg  attempt- 

39  Eltc^prSurd  iil  K^HK  o(  Norway,  who  undertook  a  crusade  to  the 
Holy  LanrKot  lUe  head  of  an  army  of  10,000  men,  and  a  fleet 

40  TaSuT'and  the  writers  of  the  middle  ngcs,  before  the  10th  century, 
geem  to  have  included  the  Prussians,  and  the  people  inhabiting  he 
coal  of  the  Baltic  eastward  of  the  Vistula,  under  the  name  of  L^-stho. 

41  ItTalleaed  this  city  took  its  name  from  Ottokar  II.,  King  of  Bohe. 
Jlia,  who  headed  an  army  of  crusaders,  and  encouraged  the  buildmg 

42  In  'the  Mogul  language,  Zin  or  Tgin,  signifies  Great,  and  Kit,  very  : 
so  that  the  word  means  MoH  Great  Khan  or  Emperor.  Accorduig  to 
oOiers  who  quote  the  constnm  tradition  of  the  Moguls,  this  new  name 
was  token  from  the  cry  of  an  extraordinary  and  divine  bird,  which  snt 
on  the  tree  during  the  assembly  in  question,  and  ""ered  he  word 
Ttehingki:  This  name  was  adopted  as  a  special  and  favorable  augury 
from  heaven,  and  applied  to  the  new  conqueror.  „  „i.  ,„ 

43  The  Igours  were  dependent  on  this  latter  empire,  a  Turkish  people  to 
the  north-west  of  China.  It  is  alleged  that  they  cul«vated  the  arts  and 
sciences  ;   and  communicated  letters  and  the  alphabet  to  the  other 

44  Jietmefoflr;  SS  took  place  in  1279,  and  the  latter  in  1243 
The  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  were  annihilated  by  the  Moguls,  under  the  reign 

45  ;t^fr?a?h:^t"•Emfe■ror  Frederic  II..  when  summoned  by  the 
*"  G rea  K  to  submit,  and  offered  an  »«<=«  °»' h^^^"*  "  "»  ^ 

replied  to  his  singular  message  by  way  of  pleawntry,  that  he  knew 
enough  of  fowling  to  qualify  him  for  grand  fnljoner. 

46  The  dvnastv  of  the  Moguls  n  Persia  ended  m  1410 ;  that  of  the  Zagatai 
fell  into  th?hands  of  the  usurpers  in  the  14th  century.  Thts  dynasty 
produced  the  famous  Timour.  , .    .„■  „• 

47  Batou  Khan  was  in  the  habit  of  ascending  the  W<.lga.  with  his  whole 
tribe,  from  January  till  August,  when  he  began  to  descend  that  river 

48  •iirferK&esf^  Tartar  l«.gu.ge,  mean,  a  tent  or  dwellm,. 

49  These  tribes  dwelt  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  between  the  Jaik, 
the  Wolga,  and  the  Tanais.  ...i.„,  i,„ 

»)  Th.  MoSuU  of  Kip«ac,  who  ruled  over  Russia,  are  known  rather  by 


-ii 


...^._.i.._j — 


i) 


782 


NUTEa. 


the  name  of  TartnM  thnn  Mogul.,  a-  they  adopted  by  degree.,  the  \m. 
guage  nnd  m«.merH  of  tho  Tnrmr.  nmong  whom  »hey  livud. 
M  An  author  who  wrote  in  the  tw.llth  ^^'^'V- '^■'"'';''*\.''''V„^' ""^ 
J«,,..n.Ht.llliv.dintt...W,in  ...n.mer  nnd  ...tumn  ;  he  «^''° '•"■'» 
5,ut  kinudon.  vvcro  b.nit  of  wood  or  ot  .tone  ;  that  the  g"'"Je«"' *'?•» 
S"y  went  to  ro,.rl,  brought  their  -eaW  or  .  lui.r.  with  them  i  »nu  thrt 
IheeaTne  thing  wa;  practi.ed  by  tho.e  who  went  to  v...t  their  neigh. 

53  The  inv«H?on'of  Dulmutia  became  a  .ourco  of  ''«"'>'«' ''."^„7''^*' 
twoen  tho  king,  of  Hungary  and  the  republic  of  Vienna  ;  and  it  wa. 
not  tiV the  fifteenth  century  that  the  Venetian,  .ucceeded  in  getting 
po8.es.ion  of  the  maritime  town,  of  Dalmatia. 

53  The  Cuman.  establi.hed  one  of  their  colonic,  in  a  part  o'  ancient 
Dacia,  now  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  which  took  from  them  the  name 

54  BaSwrw'a.  .ucc-ede.l  by  hi.  brother  H.nry  ;  and  »>«  ^y^.  brother- 
in-law.  Pierre  de  Courtenny,  grandaon  of  Loui.  VI.  oJ  trance.  lh«t 
prince  le(t  two  .on.,  Robert  and  Baldwin,  who  both  reigned  at  Con. 
•tantii.ople,  and  were  the  la.t  of  the  Latin  empuror.. 

55  Trey  took  the  name  of  BakariU,,  which  in  Arabic  iigiufiet  manttm,, 
or  dwellers  near  the  lea. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  VI.— Pbbiod  V. 

1  Thi.  jubilee,  which,  according  to  the  bull  of  Boniface  VIII.,  wm  io 
be  celebrated  only  once  in  a  hundred  year.,  wa.  reduced  to  filty  by 
Clement  VI.,  to  thirty  by  Urban  VI.,  and  twenty.live  by  Paul  II.,  and 

2  mitm  vl'  Nicholn.  V.,  and  Calixtu.  II.,  gave  to  the  Portugue.e  all  the 
"erritoriea  which  they  might  di.cover,  from  »he  J^anarie.  to  the  ndie.. 
Adrian  IV.,  who  adjudged  Ireland  to  "«"'yil- '"  "J^,  had  claimed 
that  all  island,  in  which  Chri.tianity  wa.  introduced,  .hould  belong  to 

1  The^klnga  of  France  maintained  the  excroi.e  of  that  right  in  .pite  of 
the  effort,  which  the  court  of  Rome  made  i»,;^f,P"*?,"'em  of  it. 

4  The  King  even  .em  to  Italy  the  Chevalier  William  Nogart  with  a  body 
of  troop.,  who  .urpriaed  the  Pope  at  Anagni,  made  him  priaoner,  and 
Dillaeed  hi.  trea.ure.,  a.  well  a.  tho.e  of  the  cardinal,  m  hi.  .uit. 

5  If  we  can  believe  an  Arabic  author  from  Mecca,  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury.  paper,  of  cotton  mo.t  probably,  wa.  invented  "Mecca  by  one 
Joaeph  Amru,  about  the  year  70G.  According  to  other.,  the  Arab, 
found  an  excellent  paper  manufactory  at  Samarcand.  when  they  con. 
quered  that  country  in  704.   The  invention  of  paper  among  the  Chmeae 

6  M.'de^MecheT  mention,  three  P'^-^e'jJ'he  gallery  of  Vieima,oo. 
of  the  year  1297,  and  the  other  two  of  1357.  as  havmg  been  pamted  in 

7  Thefiwt'cMdywere  painted  and  designed,  which  rendered  them  very 
dear  Great  variety  of  card,  are  found  among  diflTerent  nations.  PtqMt 
became  the  national  game  of  the  French  ««roc  of  the  Itahans;  the 
Spaniard,  invented  ombre  and  quadrille,  and  the  Germans  lon^'^'*- 

B  One  of  the  oldest  of  these  folio,  is  that  found  m  the  library  of  Buxheiin, 
nearMeningen.  It  repre.enU  the  image  of  St.  Chn.topher  illumed, 
with  a  legend,  dated  1423.  Printmg,  by  blocks  of  wood,  was  pracOMd 
in  China  since  the  vea'  950- 


MUTKS. 


7S8 


y  (Ugraet,  (h«  luk 
y  livuil. 

irkH,  that  the  Hun. 
tliu  few  houtfti  in 
the  grandeoii,  when 
ih  them ;  unu  that 
viiit  their  neigh. 

ubivi  and  wan  be. 
i^ienna  ;  and  it  waa 
cceedod  in  getting 

I  a  part  of  ancient 
om  them  the  name 

i  he  by  hia  brother- 
I.  of  France.    That 
oth  reigned  at  Con- 
ra. 
lignifiea  maritimtt 


bV. 

niface  VIII.,  waa  to 

reduced  to  fifty  by 

vo  by  Paul  II.,  and 

le  Portuguese  all  the 
itnari«8  to  the  Indies, 
in  1155,  hud  claimed 
ed,  should  belong  to 

that  right  in  spite  of 
ive  them  of  it. 
1  Nogart  with  a  body 
ie  him  prisoner,  oncf 
dinuls  in  his  suit, 
of  the  thirteenth  can- 
ed at  Mecca  by  one 
to  others,  the  Araba 
and,  when  they  con. 
Br  among  the  Chinese 

allery  of  Vienna,  ona 
aving  been  painted  in 

I  rendered  them  very 
ierent  nations.  Piqiut 
of  the  Italiana ;  the 
iermana  laiuijuentt. 
e  library  of  Buxheim, 
Christopher  illumed, 
f  wood,  waa  practiacd 


9  Gutenberg,  who  atill  kepi  ins  art  a  secret,  on  the  death  of  Driahen. 
sent  diH'erent  ptTsons  into  his  house,  and  charKed  thum  to  unscrew  th« 
press,  and  take  it  to  pieces,  that  no  one  might  diacovor  how  or  in  what 
he  was  eniployvd. 

10  Schii-'flin  dates  the  inventiun  of  ihii  font  about  the  year  1459.  The 
honor  of  it  ia  commonly  ascribed  to  Peicr  Scho'ller,  (he  companion  of 
Faust. 

11  In  n  deed  made  by  Uutcnburg  and  his  brntlirr  in  1459,  he  took  a  for. 
mal  engagement  to  give  to  the  library  of  the  convent  of  Hi.  Claire,  at 
Mayence,  the  books  which  he  had  already  printed,  or  might  print  i 
which  proves  that  Giitonlnirg  had  printed  IiooWh  lung  before  1459.  anu 
that  he  still  intended  to  print. 

10  According  to  Cusiri,  there  can  bn  no  doubt  as  to  the  oxiNtcncu  of  can 
non  among  the  Moors  in  the  years  1343 — 44.  The  firHt  undoubted 
proof  of  the  employment  of  cannon  in  France,  is  of  the  year  1345. 
The  Genoese,  it  is  alleged,  employed  minus  fur  the  firsi  time  at  the 
siege  of  Heraiiessa,  against  the  Florentines,  in  1487  ;  and  the  Spaniard! 
atrainst  the  French  at  the  siege  of  the  castle  of  Ocuf,  in  15U3. 

li  The  first  cannons  were  coiintructed  of  wood,  iron,  or  lead.  Oustavul 
Adolphus  used  cannons  made  of  leather.  They  could  not  support  near 
the  i|uantity  of  powder  o(  those  in  modem  times. 

H  tiuiot  de  Provins,  who  wrote  a  satirical  poem  called  the  Bible,  about 
the  end  of  the  liith  century,  speaks  most  distinctly  of  the  mariner'a 
compass,  which  was  used  in  his  time  in  navigation. 

15  The  herring  tishuries  on  the  coast  of  Bcaniu,  in  the  14th  and  15th  con* 
turies,  proved  a  mine  of  wealth  for  the  Ilanseafic  trade  ;  so  much  the 
more  gainful,  ns  all  Kurope  then  observed  lent. 

16  William  Tell  is  commonly  regarded  as  the  first  founder  of  the  Swiss 
liberty. 

17  The  Grand  Duke  Michael  Joroslawitz  was  executed  by  the  Horde  in 
1318.  Demetrius  Michaelovitz  met  with  the  same  fate  in  1336.— 
The  Russian  princes,  on  going  to  an  audience  with  the  Khan,  wore 
obliged  to  walk  between  two  fires  to  purify  themselves  and  the  presents 
which  they  brought.  They  were  even  compelled  to  do  reverence  to 
an  image  which  was  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  Khan's  tent. 

18  The  first  mention  which  the  annals  uf  Nestor  make  of  the  Livoniana, 
and  their  wars  with  the  Russians,  ia  about  the  year  1040. 

19  Various  contracts  were  made  before  that  snip  wos  accomplished.  The 
first  was  in  1341,  and  the  price  was  13,000  marks  of  silver.  In  1846, 
the  Margrave  Louis  sold  hia  rights  over  Bathonia  to  the  Teutonic  Order 
for  6000  marka. 

90  Livonia  did  not  belong  exclusively  to  the  Teutonic  Order  at  this  time. 
The  archbishop  of  Riga  was  independent,  and  master  of  the  city  where 
he  resided. 

91  Before  Uladislaus,  there  were  only  some  of  the  sovereigns  of  Poland 
invested  with  the  royal  dignity ;  and  the  tradition  which  carries  back 
the  uninterrupted  succession  of  the  Polish  kings  to  Bolialaua,  in  the 
year  1000,  is  contrary  to  the  evidence  of  hiatory. 

99  The  converaion  of  the  Lithuaniana  to  Christianity  waa  resolved  on  in  a 
general  assembly  of  the  nation  held  In  1387.  It  consisted  simply  of 
the  ceremony  of  baptism.  The  Polish  priests  who  were  employed  on 
this  mission,  being  ignorant  of  the  Lithuanian  language,  King  Jagellon 
became  himself  a  preacher.  One  custom  which  he  practised,  succeeded 
better  than  all  the  force  of  reasoning  or  argument.  The  Lithuanians, 
till  thnn.  had  used  onW  clothes  of  shins  or  linm     The  Kinc  canred 


* 


....dsnswi 


784 


NOTKR. 


1S« 
if 

I 


woolirn  ilrrwuoK,  n(  which  hr  Imd  ordirril  » InfRP  qiiftlltity  to  be  Importad 
Croni  I'ohiticl,  to  lif  (hHtrilMitcd  to  ull  thocit  who  wtre  biiptizod,  Thou 
•ondff  ol  thit  Lithimniiirm  ihi-n  rtoiiked  lo  the  ndminintrntioii  ol  that  ritft 
The  Siinicpuitiiirid  cinhniiTd  Chrintinnity  about  tho  13th  cuiitury. 
•a  The  WullnrhiiiMR,  nii  their  hingnngn  proveH.  urn  n  mixture  of  the  dcucend. 
anti  of  Ihn  Roinnn  coloninn  of  iincient  Unciii,  with  the  Hlnviana  ana 
(•otha.     They  iidhnriid  to  Ihn  tJrfok  church  in  thn  ninth  century. 

94  Philip  CnlliiniicHu,  lli"  himorian  of  Uladialnui,  waa  doacondcd  of  an 
illuHtriouH  fiimily  in  Tuncnny,  und  one  of  thono  (Inu  genmaes  which 
Itiiiy  prodiiri-.l  in  ihu  tirtrtnth  ceniury.  Hoing  poraocutcd  ot  Rome,  he 
retired  to  Poland  to  Caaimir  IV.,  who  intruntod  him  with  the  education 
of  hi*  children,  iind  nmdo  him  hi"  iocretnry. 

95  The  conquest  of  Indonlan  by  Tiniour  ia  fixed  to  the  ycara  139^  UW. 
Ilia  doareat  trophies  wore  huge  towera,  formed  of  the  heada  which  he 
had  cui  from  his  encmiea.     He  railed  190  of  theae  after  the  taking  of 

Bagdad  in  1401.  .„,...,        a  .u 

W  In  the  short  apace  of  aix  or  feven  houri,  the  Turka  had  cleared  the 
city  entirely  of  all  itx  inhabitanta. 

NOTE.'^  TO  CIIAPTBR  VII.— Period  VI. 

1  Lna  Cnaaa  ia  gencrnlly  rrpronmnd  for  having  ndviaed  the  employing  ol 
Africiin  Klnvea  in  the  Antillua,  iiiatend  of  the  nativea,  while  ho  was 
«eiiloii»lv  BiipportinK  the  liberty  of  tlio  Americana ;  and  that  it  waa  by 
hia  advice  that  CImrIrs  V.,  in  1517,  authoriae<l  the  Beliflan  inerchanta 
to  import  14,000  African!'  into  these  islands,  which  gave  rise  to  the  treaty 
on  the  slave  trade.  •    •         c 

2  The  kings  of  Portugal  had  already  obtained  similar  commiasiona  for 
their  discoveries  in  the  east,  from  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  Calixtua  111.,  and 
Sextus  IV.  .  J 

a  The  Philippine  isles,  discovered  by  Magellan  in  1591,  were  occupieC 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1564.  After  several  fruitless  attempts  to  find  a 
north-east  or  north-west  passage,  the  Englinh  doubled  the  Cape  of  Oood 
Hope  before  the  end  of  the  ItUli  century.  ,.    .      , 

4  Magellan,  in  his  voyage,  discovered  a  new  route  to  India  by  the  strait*, 
to  which  ho  gave  his  namo.  The  Moluccas  and  the  Philippines  were 
Chen  visited  by  him.  Ho  waa  killed  in  tlie  Isle  ol  Mutmi,  one  of  the 
FhiliF-.iines,  April  97,  1591.  ,    l-i-    u    u     f 

£  Henry  IV.  conceived  the  project,  and  concerted  with  Elizabeth  of 
England,  for  securing  the  equilibrium  und  the  pouce  ol  the  continent, 

by  humbling  Auatia.  .....       . ,      ,        ,       i.. 

6  The  Bssassin  was  called  Balthatar  Gerardi.  lie  is  said  to  Imve  bought 
the  pistols,  with  which  he  committed  the  deed,  with  the  money  which 
the  prince  had  given  him  a  few  days  before. 

7  The  first  alliance  of  the  Swisa  with  trance  was  m  1453.  It  WM 
renewed  in  1474  and  1480.  In  virtue  of  this  latter  tr.aty,  the  8wi88 
engaged  to  furnish  for  that  prince  a  body  of  0000  ai.x.l.at.cs,  the  first 
regular  Swiss  troops  that  had  been  received  into  the  service  o)  I-ranca, 
with  consent  of  the  confederation.  ,     ,      ,     e  e\-    k_.i. 

9  That  war  waa  terminated  in  IGOS,  a  little  before  the  death  of  Eluabeth. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  VIII.— Period  VII 

I  The  first  of  theae  medals  represented  the  United  Provinces  imder  the 
figure  of  «  woman  trampling  Discord,  with  an  Inicription  a  little  haughtjr, 


iiMitity  to  bp  importsd 
•  re  biipti/tMl,     Thou 
niatrntioii  of  that  ritft 
13th  cuiitury. 
xturo  of  the  (Icucend. 
ith  the  Hlnvians  ana 
1  ninth  century. 
raa  (leicondcd  of  an 
tinu  geniuiieB  which 
riociitcd  ot  Rome,  he 
m  with  the  cdiicntian 

the  yean  lXi»,  1399. 
f  the  headi  which  he 
le  after  the  taking  of 

irka  had  cleared  the 


3»VI. 

i«ed  the  pmploying  of 
ittiven,  while  ho  wb» 
I ;  anil  thiit  it  wa«  by 
«  Beli^un  niL-rchanta 
gave  rixo  to  tiic  treaty 

lilar  commiaeiona  for 
v.,  Calixtua  HI.,  and 

1531,  wcro  occupied 
4R  iittpnipta  to  find  a 
bled  th(!  Cnpe  of  Good 

:o  India  by  the  straiU, 
the  IMiilippinci!  were 
uf  Mutnii,  one  of  the 

I'd  with  I'Jiznbeth  of 
Duce  of  tlie  continent, 

is  ftiiiil  to  hnve  bought 
with  ihf  money  which 

A-as  ill  MS3.  It  waa 
ittcr  iri'iity,  the  8wiaa 
i)  niixiliatlcs,  the  first 
I  ilie  cervicn  of  Franca, 

tliti  dvnih  of  Elizabeth. 


HOD 


Vll 


i  Provinces  under  the 
sription  a  little  haughty. 


f 


NOTES. 


735 


but  by  no  fftpflns  nutrngroun  for  Friimr.  The  othrr  medal  wnn  more 
pjcjimnt ;  it  oH'crt'd  tile  rrowri  of  Ffiiiire  t.i  M.  Viin  lliiuninxt'n,  the 
amtriitisHflor  of  llollund,  under  the  tijjurt'  of  JuNhiia,  uliu  louiiimndcd 
thi'  Kun  tu  fttmul  still. 

9  This  bull,  the  sourtf  "*  many  tht'ologiral  iticputi'H,  was  issiinl  in  1713, 
in  which  Clement  XI.  coiidnurKMl  n  humlrcil  aiiil  one  proposition*, 
exiriu'tcd  from  the  Nnw  Tcstanii  lit,  as  false,  and  infected  with  the 
errorx  ol  Jiinsenisni. 

S  In  1713.  In  tliii*  .ssmi;  year  was  concluded  fho  famoiiH  treaty  of  MpIIij 
yen,  by  which  Portugal  ('iiga>,'i'd  to  roceivo  Kinjliuli  «iiollcii  rliitlm,  on 
conilition  that  England  woiiUi  admit  tho  wineu  uf  Portugal  at  one. third 
K'HM  duty  than  those  of  Franco. 

4  The  national  liberty  gained  under  Charles  II.  by  the  fiimoux  Uab*(U 
Corput  Act,  passed  in  1679. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  IX.— Period  VIII. 

I  Among  the  means  which  the  rctrcnt  employed  for  i-learing  ofT  tho 
debts  of  the  state,  which  anuiunled  to  tlirro  millions,  one  was  tho 
famous  scheme  of  Law,  a  Scotchman,  and  the  establishment  of  u 
bank,  which  completely  failed  after  having  great  success,  and  ruined  n 
number  of  families. 

3  Alberoni,  a  nion  of  vast  and  enterprising  genius,  was  at  first  o/ilv  » 
simple  priest  in  a  village  near  Purma.  lie  insinuated  himself  into  the 
ittvor  of  tho  Duke  of  Vendome,  when  he  commanded  the  French  uriny 
m  Italy.  The  Duke  took  him  to  Spain,  ond  recommended  him  to  tho 
Princess  des  Ursius  who  was  then  all  powerful  at  the  court  of  Philip  V. 
There  he  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  cardinal  and  prime  minister. 

3  This  famous  adventurer  was  descended  of  a  noble  family  in  the  pro. 
vince  of  Groningcn.  In  1715,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  for  Hoi. 
land  at  the  court  of  Madrid.  There  he  insinuated  himself  into  favor 
with  Philip  v.,  who  sent  hin.,  in  1724,  to  the  court  of  Vienna,  to  treat 
with  the  Emperor  Chorles  V.  On  his  return,  ho  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  duke  and  prime  minister  of  Spain.  Being  disgraced  for  his 
imprudences,  he  wos  imprisoned  in  the  Custle  of  Segovia,  whence  he 
made  his  escape  in  1728,  ond  after  wondering  over  several  countries, 
he  passed  to  Morocco,  where  it  is  alleged  he  become  a  Mahometan,  oa 
he  turned  Catholic  at  Madrid.  Being  obliged  to  quit  that  new  retreat 
he  repaired  to  Totuan,  where  he  died. 

4  The  trade  which  the  EJnglish  carried  on  in  Spanish  Arerico,  in  virtue 
of  tho  Atsiento,  having  given  opppotunities  for  contraband,  it  was  ogreed 
by  a  subsequent  convention,  signed  ot  Madrid  in  17.50,  between  those 
two  courts,  that  England  should  entirely  renounce  that  controct  in  con. 
sideration  of  a  sum  of  £100,000  sterling,  which  Spain  promised  to  pay 
the  English  company  engaged  in  that  trade. 

5  On  the  death  of  Joseph  I.  in  1777,  ond  the  accession  of  his  daughter 
Mory,  the  grandees  of  Portugal  avenged  themselves  for  the  indignitiet, 
which  the  Marquis  de  Pombal  hod  subjected  them  to. 

6  The  principal  actions  which  took  place  between  the  French  and  the 
Hanoverians,  with  their  allies,  were  those  of  HastenbecL  in  1757 
Crevelt,  1758  ;  Bergen  ond  Minden,  T759 ;  Clostercamp,  1760 ;  Villing- 
Imusen,  1761 ;  Grebenstein,  1762. 

7  The  battles  fought  by  the  King  of  Prussio  in  that  war  were  the  follow, 
ing :  that  of  Lowoaitz  in  1756 ;  Prague,  Kolin,  Jagerndoff,  Rosbach, 
Bieslaiiand  l<iaaa,  1757  ;  Zorndorff  and /focA&t'riAen,  1758;  ZuUiekmh 


.,'  I 


<^ 


736 


MOTES. 


u. 


■^^ 


10 


n 


and  Kunnermlorff,  or  Frankfort  on  O-e  Oder.  1759  ;  ^iepiiU  «.d  Tor 
gnu,  1760;  Fryburg,  1768.    The  King  gained  them  all  except  iho.e 

8  New'ierence""h.ving  arisen  between  Spain  and  Po«YMtS 
which  occasioned  hostilities,  a  treaty  of  ?/?«•  <=°"=l»*>^i'*""5Ji 
1778  put  an  end  to  these  differences,  and  finally  regulated  the  limits 

,  SHrii  ;:°isrS;he1i:ge'^of  Senngapatam.  his  capital,  which 

J^p^p^S'Ctt  o^S^  which  the  Empress  of  Russia  made  to  the 
King  of  Poland  in  1771,  1775.  that  she  was  averse  to  the  partmon  of 
Po"and,  which,  in  effect,  appeared  to  be  in  opposition  to  the  true  inte- 

Th^AusSafdivi^ion  -.as  estimated  at  about  1300  (Jerman  square 
miles,  with  700,000  inhabitants.  _  ..„  „,^ 

19  Thes;  countries  were  estimated  at  4157  square  miles,  with  3.050,000 

13  Se'^onlo;  of  the  King  of  Prussia  comprised  "61  square  tnUe..  with 
1,150,000  inhabitants.     It  contained  2G2  cities.  »"<!  8274  villager 

H  I  waL  in  this  revolution  that  Counts  Struensee  and  B'«"d;j«"  •"; 
cuted-the  former  bei«?  prime  minister  of  S«^eden  \^' '^''^^^^l 
these  two  persons,  see  t  nverts  from  Infidelity.  Vol.  II.,  by  the  trwii- 
later  of  this  work. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

I  The  first  act  of  the  Confederation  !■  dated  Oct.  4. 1776.  It  then  e<mi- 
Sended  only  eleven  rtate..  South  Carolina  and  Marrlwd  were  «K 
included  till  1781. 


^ 


Liegnitz  and  Tor- 
n  all  except  thoae 

Portugal  in  Braxil, 
ncludcd  March  34, 
egulated  the  limita 

I,  his  capital,  which 

Russia  made  to  the 

to  the  partition  of 

on  to  the  true  inte- 

300  (jerman  square 

niles,  with  3,050,000 

31  square  milei,  with 
J  8374  villages, 
id  Brandt  were  eie- 
n.    For  the  live*  of 
ITol.  II.,  by  the  trmi- 


,.  1776.    It  then  com. 
id  Maryland  wera  not 


( 


i'^SiSsS*.  - 


